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RadiocarbonDating Nowadaysscientistscananswermanyquestionsaboutthepastthroughatechniquecalledradiocarbon放射性碳orcarbon-14dating.Onekeytounderstandinghowandbysomethinghappenedistodiscoverwhenithappened. Radiocarbondatingwasdevelopedinthelate1940sbyphysicistWillardF.LibbyatheUniversityofChicago.Anatomofordinarycarboncalledcarbon-12hassixprotons质子andsixneutrons中子initsnucleus原子核.Carbon-14orC-14isaradioactiveunstableformofcarbonthathastwoextraneutrons.Itreturnstoamorestableformofcarbonthroughaprocesscalleddecay衰减.Thisprocessinvolvesthelossofheextraneutronsandenergyfromthenucleus. InLibby’sradiocarbondatingtechniquetheweakradioactiveemissions放射fromthisdecayprocessarecountedbyinstrumentssuchasaradiationdetectorandcounter.ThedecayrateisusedtodeterminetheproportionofC-14atomsinthesamplebeingdated. Carbon-14isproducedintheEarth’satmospherewhennitrogen氮-14orN-14interactswithcosmicrays宇宙射线.ScientistsbelievesincetheEarthwasformedthemountofnitrogenintheatmospherehasremainedconstant.ConsequentlyC-14formationisthoughttooccurataconstantrate.NowtheratioofC-14toothercarbontomsintheatmosphereisknown.Mostscientistsagreethatthisratioisusefulfordatingitemsbacktoatleast50000years. AlllifeonEarthismadeoforganicmolecules分子thatcontaincarbonatomscomingfromtheatmosphere.SoalllivingthingshaveaboutthesameratioofC-14atomstoothercarbonatomsintheirtissues组织.Onceanorganism有机体diesitstopstakingincarboninanyformandtheC-14alreadypresentbeginstodecay.OvertimetheamountofC-14inthematerialdecreasesandtheratioofC-14toothercarbonatomsgoesdown.IntermsofradiocarbondatingthefewerC-14atomsinasampletheolderthatsampleis. Anatomofordinarycarbonhassixprotonsandeightneutrons
Manyeconomistshavegivenintothefatal{{U}}lure{{/U}}ofmathematics.
Chimpanzees 1Chimpanzees黑猩猩willsoonbeextinct灭绝.Ifthepresentrateofhuntingandhabitat栖息地destructioncontinuesthenwithin20yearstherewillbenochimpanzeeslivinginthewild.Butthisismorethananenvironmentalormoraltragedy悲剧.Chimpanzeeextinctionmayalsohaveprofoundimplications含意forthesurvivaloftheirdistantrelatives-humanbeings. 2In1975thebiologistMarie-ClaireKingandAllanWilsondiscoveredthatthehumanandchimpanzeegenomes基因组matchbyover98%.Comparethistothemouseusedasmodelforhumandiseaseinlabtestswhichsharesonly60%ofitsDNAwithus.Infactchimpanzeesarefarmoresimilartohumansthantheyaretoanyotherspeciesofmonkey.Aswellasresemblingusgeneticallychimpsarehighlyintelligentandabletousetools.Thesefactsaloneshouldbeenoughtomakeprotectionofchimpsanurgentpriority优先.Butthereisanothermoreselfishreasontopreservethechimp. 3Thechimpanzees’trumpcard王牌comesinthefieldofmedicalresearch.Chimpanzeesaresosimilartohumansthatveterinarians兽医oftenrefertohumanmedicaltextbookswhentreatingthem.Yetchimpanzeesdoshowdifferencesinseveralkeyareas.Inparticularchimpsaremuchmoreresistanttoanumberofmajordiseases.Itisthisabilitythatissointeresting. 4ForexamplechimpsseemtoshowamuchhigherresistancethanhumanstoHIVthevirusthatcausesAIDS.IndeedtheiruseasexperimentalanimalsinAIDSresearchhasdeclinedbecausetheyaresoresistant. 5Bysequencingthechimpgenomeandpinpointing找到theplacewherethechimpanzeeDNAsequencediffersfromthatofhumansscientistshopetobeabletodiscoverwhichpartofthegeneticcodegiveschimpstheirincreasedresistancetosomediseases.Thistheyhopewillallowthemtodevelopnewandmoreeffectivetreatmentsforthehumanformsofthesediseases.Suchtreatmentscouldincludetheproductionofnewdrugsoreventhealteration改变ofthehumangeneticsequence.Therecentlycompletedhumangenomesequencingprojecthasshownthatsuchaneffortisnowwellwithinourreach. 23Paragraph_____1. 24Paragraph_____2. 25Paragraph_____3. 26Paragraph_____4. AReasonsforHIVresistance BImplicationsofchimpanzeeextinctionforhumans CEffectiveAIDStreatment DGeneticsimilaritiesbetweenchimpsandhumans EChimps’resistancetoHIV FGeneticdifferencesbetweenchimpsandhumans 27Chimpanzeeextinctionmayaffect 28Thereisadifferenceoflessthan2%betweenthechimpand 29Scientistssuspectthatgenes.PlaYasignificantroleinprotectingchimpsfromgetting 30Thediscoveryofthegeneticcodeofchimpswillbehelpfulto Asomehumandiseasetreatments Bsomediseases Chumansurvival Dhumangenomes Ekeyareas Fhealthierlifestyle
Attitudestomentalillnesshave{{U}}shifted{{/U}}inrecentyears.
Chimpanzees 1Chimpanzees黑猩猩willsoonbeextinct灭绝.Ifthepresentrateofhuntingandhabitat栖息地destructioncontinuesthenwithin20yearstherewillbenochimpanzeeslivinginthewild.Butthisismorethananenvironmentalormoraltragedy悲剧.Chimpanzeeextinctionmayalsohaveprofoundimplications含意forthesurvivaloftheirdistantrelatives-humanbeings. 2In1975thebiologistMarie-ClaireKingandAllanWilsondiscoveredthatthehumanandchimpanzeegenomes基因组matchbyover98%.Comparethistothemouseusedasmodelforhumandiseaseinlabtestswhichsharesonly60%ofitsDNAwithus.Infactchimpanzeesarefarmoresimilartohumansthantheyaretoanyotherspeciesofmonkey.Aswellasresemblingusgeneticallychimpsarehighlyintelligentandabletousetools.Thesefactsaloneshouldbeenoughtomakeprotectionofchimpsanurgentpriority优先.Butthereisanothermoreselfishreasontopreservethechimp. 3Thechimpanzees’trumpcard王牌comesinthefieldofmedicalresearch.Chimpanzeesaresosimilartohumansthatveterinarians兽医oftenrefertohumanmedicaltextbookswhentreatingthem.Yetchimpanzeesdoshowdifferencesinseveralkeyareas.Inparticularchimpsaremuchmoreresistanttoanumberofmajordiseases.Itisthisabilitythatissointeresting. 4ForexamplechimpsseemtoshowamuchhigherresistancethanhumanstoHIVthevirusthatcausesAIDS.IndeedtheiruseasexperimentalanimalsinAIDSresearchhasdeclinedbecausetheyaresoresistant. 5Bysequencingthechimpgenomeandpinpointing找到theplacewherethechimpanzeeDNAsequencediffersfromthatofhumansscientistshopetobeabletodiscoverwhichpartofthegeneticcodegiveschimpstheirincreasedresistancetosomediseases.Thistheyhopewillallowthemtodevelopnewandmoreeffectivetreatmentsforthehumanformsofthesediseases.Suchtreatmentscouldincludetheproductionofnewdrugsoreventhealteration改变ofthehumangeneticsequence.Therecentlycompletedhumangenomesequencingprojecthasshownthatsuchaneffortisnowwellwithinourreach. 23Paragraph_____1. 24Paragraph_____2. 25Paragraph_____3. 26Paragraph_____4. AReasonsforHIVresistance BImplicationsofchimpanzeeextinctionforhumans CEffectiveAIDStreatment DGeneticsimilaritiesbetweenchimpsandhumans EChimps’resistancetoHIV FGeneticdifferencesbetweenchimpsandhumans 27Chimpanzeeextinctionmayaffect 28Thereisadifferenceoflessthan2%betweenthechimpand 29Scientistssuspectthatgenes.PlaYasignificantroleinprotectingchimpsfromgetting 30Thediscoveryofthegeneticcodeofchimpswillbehelpfulto Asomehumandiseasetreatments Bsomediseases Chumansurvival Dhumangenomes Ekeyareas Fhealthierlifestyle
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第三篇 YouthEmancipationinSpain TheSpanishGovernmentissoworriedaboutthenumberofyoungadultsstilllivingwiththeirparentsthatithasdecidedtohelpthemleavethenest. Around55percentofpeopleaged18-34inSpainstillsleepintheirparents’homessaysthelatestreportfromthecountry’sstate-runInstituteofYouth. Tocoax劝诱youngpeoplefromtheirhomestheInstitutestartedaYouthEmancipation解放programthismonth.Theprogramoffersguidanceinfindingroomsandjobs. Economistsblameyoungpeople’sfamilydependenceontheprecarious不稳定的labormarketandincreasinghousingprices.Housingpriceshaverisen17percentayearsince2000. Culturalreasonsalsocontributetotheproblemsaysociologists社会学家.FamilytiesinsouthEurope-ItalyPortugalandGreece-arestrongerthanthoseinmiddleandnorthEuropesaidSpanishsociologistAlmudenaMorenoMinguezinherreportTheLateEmancipationofSpanishYouth:KeyforUnderstanding. IngeneralyoungpeopleinSpainfirmlybelieveinthefamilyasthemainbodyaroundwhichtheirprivatelifeisorganizedsaidMinguez. InSpain-especiallyinthecountrysideitisnotuncommontofindentiregroupsofauntsunclescousinsniecesandnephews外侄/侄子alllivingonthesamestreet.TheyregularlygettogetherforSundaydinner. Parents’toleranceisanotherfactor.Spanishparentsacceptlate-nightpartyingandarewaryofsettingbedtimerules. Achildcanarrivehomeatwhatevertimehewants.Ifparentscomplainhe’llputupafightandcallthefatherafascistsaidJoseAntonioG6mezYanezasociologistatCarlosIIIUniversityinMadrid. Mothers’willingnesstodochildren’shouseholdchores家务worsenstheproblem.DionisioMassoa60-year-oldinMadridhasthreechildrenintheir20s.Theeldest28hasagirlfriendandajob.Butlifewithmumisgood. Hismumdoesthewashandcooksforhim;intheendheliveswellMassosaid. WhichofthefollowingstatementsisNOTtrueofDionisioMasso?
第二篇 Mind-readingMachine AteamofresearchersinCaliforniahasdevelopedawaytopredictwhatkindsofobjectspeoplearelookingatbyscanning扫描what’shappeningintheirbrains. Whenyoulookatsomethingyoureyessendasignalaboutthatobjecttoyourbrain.Differentregionsofthebrainprocesstheinformationyoureyessend.Cellsinyourbraincalledneurons神经元areresponsibleforthisprocessing. ThefMRIfunctionalMagneticResonanceImaging功能性磁振造影brainscanscouldgenerallymatchelectricalactivityinthebraintothebasicshapeofapicturethatsomeonewaslookingat. Likecellsanywhereelseinyourbodyactiveneuronsuseoxygen.Bloodbringsoxygentotheneuronsandthemoreactiveaneuronisthemoreoxygenitwillconsume.Themoreactivearegionofthebrainthemoreactiveitsneuronsandinturnthemorebloodwilltraveltothatregion.AndbyusingfMRIscientistscanvisualize使显现whichpartsofthebrainreceivemoreoxygen-richblood-andthereforewhichpartsareworkingtoprocessinformation. AnfMRImachineisadevicethatscansthebrainandmeasureschangesinbloodflowtothebrain.Thetechnologyshowsresearchershowbrainactivitychangeswhenapersonthinkslooksatsomethingorcarriesoutanactivitylikespeakingorreading.ByhighlightingtheareasofthebrainatworkwhenapersonlooksatdifferentimagesfMRImayhelpscientistsdeterminespecificpatternsofbrainactivityassociatedwithdifferentkindsofimages. TheCaliforniaresearcherstestedbrainactivitybyhavingtwovolunteersviewhundredsofpicturesofeverydayobjectslikepeopleanimalsandfruits.ThescientistsusedanfMRImachinetorecordthevolunteers’brainactivitywitheachphotographtheylookedat.Differentobjectscauseddifferentregionsofthevolunteers’brainstolightuponthescanindicatingactivity.Thescientistsusedthisinformationtobuildamodeltopredicthowthebrainmightrespondtoanyimagetheeyessee. Inasecondtestthescientistsaskedthevolunteerstolookat120newpictures.Likebeforetheirbrainswerescannedeverytimetheylookedatanewimage.ThistimethescientistsusedtheirmodeltomatchthefMRIscanstotheimage.Forexampleifascaninthesecondtestshowedthesamepatternofbrainactivitythatwasstronglyrelatedtopicturesofapplesinthefirsttesttheirmodelwouldhavepredictedthevolunteerswerelookingatapples. Theexpressionhighlightingtheareasofthebrainatwork’inparagraph5means
RadiocarbonDating Nowadaysscientistscananswermanyquestionsaboutthepastthroughatechniquecalledradiocarbon放射性碳orcarbon-14dating.Onekeytounderstandinghowandbysomethinghappenedistodiscoverwhenithappened. Radiocarbondatingwasdevelopedinthelate1940sbyphysicistWillardF.LibbyatheUniversityofChicago.Anatomofordinarycarboncalledcarbon-12hassixprotons质子andsixneutrons中子initsnucleus原子核.Carbon-14orC-14isaradioactiveunstableformofcarbonthathastwoextraneutrons.Itreturnstoamorestableformofcarbonthroughaprocesscalleddecay衰减.Thisprocessinvolvesthelossofheextraneutronsandenergyfromthenucleus. InLibby’sradiocarbondatingtechniquetheweakradioactiveemissions放射fromthisdecayprocessarecountedbyinstrumentssuchasaradiationdetectorandcounter.ThedecayrateisusedtodeterminetheproportionofC-14atomsinthesamplebeingdated. Carbon-14isproducedintheEarth’satmospherewhennitrogen氮-14orN-14interactswithcosmicrays宇宙射线.ScientistsbelievesincetheEarthwasformedthemountofnitrogenintheatmospherehasremainedconstant.ConsequentlyC-14formationisthoughttooccurataconstantrate.NowtheratioofC-14toothercarbontomsintheatmosphereisknown.Mostscientistsagreethatthisratioisusefulfordatingitemsbacktoatleast50000years. AlllifeonEarthismadeoforganicmolecules分子thatcontaincarbonatomscomingfromtheatmosphere.SoalllivingthingshaveaboutthesameratioofC-14atomstoothercarbonatomsintheirtissues组织.Onceanorganism有机体diesitstopstakingincarboninanyformandtheC-14alreadypresentbeginstodecay.OvertimetheamountofC-14inthematerialdecreasesandtheratioofC-14toothercarbonatomsgoesdown.IntermsofradiocarbondatingthefewerC-14atomsinasampletheolderthatsampleis. Thehalf-lifeofC-14isabout25000years.
第三篇 YouthEmancipationinSpain TheSpanishGovernmentissoworriedaboutthenumberofyoungadultsstilllivingwiththeirparentsthatithasdecidedtohelpthemleavethenest. Around55percentofpeopleaged18-34inSpainstillsleepintheirparents’homessaysthelatestreportfromthecountry’sstate-runInstituteofYouth. Tocoax劝诱youngpeoplefromtheirhomestheInstitutestartedaYouthEmancipation解放programthismonth.Theprogramoffersguidanceinfindingroomsandjobs. Economistsblameyoungpeople’sfamilydependenceontheprecarious不稳定的labormarketandincreasinghousingprices.Housingpriceshaverisen17percentayearsince2000. Culturalreasonsalsocontributetotheproblemsaysociologists社会学家.FamilytiesinsouthEurope-ItalyPortugalandGreece-arestrongerthanthoseinmiddleandnorthEuropesaidSpanishsociologistAlmudenaMorenoMinguezinherreportTheLateEmancipationofSpanishYouth:KeyforUnderstanding. IngeneralyoungpeopleinSpainfirmlybelieveinthefamilyasthemainbodyaroundwhichtheirprivatelifeisorganizedsaidMinguez. InSpain-especiallyinthecountrysideitisnotuncommontofindentiregroupsofauntsunclescousinsniecesandnephews外侄/侄子alllivingonthesamestreet.TheyregularlygettogetherforSundaydinner. Parents’toleranceisanotherfactor.Spanishparentsacceptlate-nightpartyingandarewaryofsettingbedtimerules. Achildcanarrivehomeatwhatevertimehewants.Ifparentscomplainhe’llputupafightandcallthefatherafascistsaidJoseAntonioG6mezYanezasociologistatCarlosIIIUniversityinMadrid. Mothers’willingnesstodochildren’shouseholdchores家务worsenstheproblem.DionisioMassoa60-year-oldinMadridhasthreechildrenintheir20s.Theeldest28hasagirlfriendandajob.Butlifewithmumisgood. Hismumdoesthewashandcooksforhim;intheendheliveswellMassosaid. Itcanbeinferredfromparagraph5thatfamilytiesarestrongerinPortugalthanin
第二篇 Mind-readingMachine AteamofresearchersinCaliforniahasdevelopedawaytopredictwhatkindsofobjectspeoplearelookingatbyscanning扫描what’shappeningintheirbrains. Whenyoulookatsomethingyoureyessendasignalaboutthatobjecttoyourbrain.Differentregionsofthebrainprocesstheinformationyoureyessend.Cellsinyourbraincalledneurons神经元areresponsibleforthisprocessing. ThefMRIfunctionalMagneticResonanceImaging功能性磁振造影brainscanscouldgenerallymatchelectricalactivityinthebraintothebasicshapeofapicturethatsomeonewaslookingat. Likecellsanywhereelseinyourbodyactiveneuronsuseoxygen.Bloodbringsoxygentotheneuronsandthemoreactiveaneuronisthemoreoxygenitwillconsume.Themoreactivearegionofthebrainthemoreactiveitsneuronsandinturnthemorebloodwilltraveltothatregion.AndbyusingfMRIscientistscanvisualize使显现whichpartsofthebrainreceivemoreoxygen-richblood-andthereforewhichpartsareworkingtoprocessinformation. AnfMRImachineisadevicethatscansthebrainandmeasureschangesinbloodflowtothebrain.Thetechnologyshowsresearchershowbrainactivitychangeswhenapersonthinkslooksatsomethingorcarriesoutanactivitylikespeakingorreading.ByhighlightingtheareasofthebrainatworkwhenapersonlooksatdifferentimagesfMRImayhelpscientistsdeterminespecificpatternsofbrainactivityassociatedwithdifferentkindsofimages. TheCaliforniaresearcherstestedbrainactivitybyhavingtwovolunteersviewhundredsofpicturesofeverydayobjectslikepeopleanimalsandfruits.ThescientistsusedanfMRImachinetorecordthevolunteers’brainactivitywitheachphotographtheylookedat.Differentobjectscauseddifferentregionsofthevolunteers’brainstolightuponthescanindicatingactivity.Thescientistsusedthisinformationtobuildamodeltopredicthowthebrainmightrespondtoanyimagetheeyessee. Inasecondtestthescientistsaskedthevolunteerstolookat120newpictures.Likebeforetheirbrainswerescannedeverytimetheylookedatanewimage.ThistimethescientistsusedtheirmodeltomatchthefMRIscanstotheimage.Forexampleifascaninthesecondtestshowedthesamepatternofbrainactivitythatwasstronglyrelatedtopicturesofapplesinthefirsttesttheirmodelwouldhavepredictedthevolunteerswerelookingatapples. Whichofthefollowingcanbestreplacethetitleofthepassage?
第一篇 Water Thesecondmostimportantconstituent构成成份ofthebiosphere生物圈isliquidwater.Thiscanonlyexistinaverynarrowrangeoftemperaturessincewaterfreezesat0℃andboilsat100℃.Lifeasweknowitwouldonlybepossibleonthesurfaceofaplanetwhichhadtemperaturessomewherewithinthisnarrowrange. Theearth’ssupplyofwaterprobablyremainsfairlyconstantinquantity.Thetotalquantityofwaterisnotknownveryaccuratelybutitisaboutenoughtocoverthesurfaceoftheglobetoadepthofabouttwoandthree-quarterkilometers.Mostofitisintheformofthesaltwateroftheoceansabout97percent.TherestisfreshbutthreequartersofthisisintheformoficeatthePolesandonmountainsandcannotbeusedbylivingsystemsuntilmelted.Oftheremainingfractionalwhichissomewhatlessthanonepercentofthewholethereis10—20timesasmuchstoredundergroundwaterasthereisactuallyonthesurface.Thereisalsoatinybutextremelyimportantfractionofthewatersupplywhichispresentaswatervaporintheatmosphere. Watervaporintheatmosphereisthechannelthroughwhichthewholewatercirculation循环ofthebiospherehastopass.Waterevaporated蒸发fromthesurfaceoftheoceansfromlakesandriversandfrommoist潮湿的earthisaddedtoit.Fromitthewatercomesoutagainasrainorsnowfallingoneithertheseaortheland.Thereisasmightbeexpectedamoreintensiveevaporationperunitareaovertheseaandoceansthanoverthelandbutthereismorerainfalloverthelandthanovertheoceansandthebalanceisrestoredbytherunofffromthelandintheformofrivers. ThetotalquantityofwateronEarth
Chimpanzees 1Chimpanzees黑猩猩willsoonbeextinct灭绝.Ifthepresentrateofhuntingandhabitat栖息地destructioncontinuesthenwithin20yearstherewillbenochimpanzeeslivinginthewild.Butthisismorethananenvironmentalormoraltragedy悲剧.Chimpanzeeextinctionmayalsohaveprofoundimplications含意forthesurvivaloftheirdistantrelatives-humanbeings. 2In1975thebiologistMarie-ClaireKingandAllanWilsondiscoveredthatthehumanandchimpanzeegenomes基因组matchbyover98%.Comparethistothemouseusedasmodelforhumandiseaseinlabtestswhichsharesonly60%ofitsDNAwithus.Infactchimpanzeesarefarmoresimilartohumansthantheyaretoanyotherspeciesofmonkey.Aswellasresemblingusgeneticallychimpsarehighlyintelligentandabletousetools.Thesefactsaloneshouldbeenoughtomakeprotectionofchimpsanurgentpriority优先.Butthereisanothermoreselfishreasontopreservethechimp. 3Thechimpanzees’trumpcard王牌comesinthefieldofmedicalresearch.Chimpanzeesaresosimilartohumansthatveterinarians兽医oftenrefertohumanmedicaltextbookswhentreatingthem.Yetchimpanzeesdoshowdifferencesinseveralkeyareas.Inparticularchimpsaremuchmoreresistanttoanumberofmajordiseases.Itisthisabilitythatissointeresting. 4ForexamplechimpsseemtoshowamuchhigherresistancethanhumanstoHIVthevirusthatcausesAIDS.IndeedtheiruseasexperimentalanimalsinAIDSresearchhasdeclinedbecausetheyaresoresistant. 5Bysequencingthechimpgenomeandpinpointing找到theplacewherethechimpanzeeDNAsequencediffersfromthatofhumansscientistshopetobeabletodiscoverwhichpartofthegeneticcodegiveschimpstheirincreasedresistancetosomediseases.Thistheyhopewillallowthemtodevelopnewandmoreeffectivetreatmentsforthehumanformsofthesediseases.Suchtreatmentscouldincludetheproductionofnewdrugsoreventhealteration改变ofthehumangeneticsequence.Therecentlycompletedhumangenomesequencingprojecthasshownthatsuchaneffortisnowwellwithinourreach. 23Paragraph_____1. 24Paragraph_____2. 25Paragraph_____3. 26Paragraph_____4. AReasonsforHIVresistance BImplicationsofchimpanzeeextinctionforhumans CEffectiveAIDStreatment DGeneticsimilaritiesbetweenchimpsandhumans EChimps’resistancetoHIV FGeneticdifferencesbetweenchimpsandhumans 27Chimpanzeeextinctionmayaffect 28Thereisadifferenceoflessthan2%betweenthechimpand 29Scientistssuspectthatgenes.PlaYasignificantroleinprotectingchimpsfromgetting 30Thediscoveryofthegeneticcodeofchimpswillbehelpfulto Asomehumandiseasetreatments Bsomediseases Chumansurvival Dhumangenomes Ekeyareas Fhealthierlifestyle
Reliefworkerswere{{U}}shocked{{/U}}bywhattheysaw.
RadiocarbonDating Nowadaysscientistscananswermanyquestionsaboutthepastthroughatechniquecalledradiocarbon放射性碳orcarbon-14dating.Onekeytounderstandinghowandbysomethinghappenedistodiscoverwhenithappened. Radiocarbondatingwasdevelopedinthelate1940sbyphysicistWillardF.LibbyatheUniversityofChicago.Anatomofordinarycarboncalledcarbon-12hassixprotons质子andsixneutrons中子initsnucleus原子核.Carbon-14orC-14isaradioactiveunstableformofcarbonthathastwoextraneutrons.Itreturnstoamorestableformofcarbonthroughaprocesscalleddecay衰减.Thisprocessinvolvesthelossofheextraneutronsandenergyfromthenucleus. InLibby’sradiocarbondatingtechniquetheweakradioactiveemissions放射fromthisdecayprocessarecountedbyinstrumentssuchasaradiationdetectorandcounter.ThedecayrateisusedtodeterminetheproportionofC-14atomsinthesamplebeingdated. Carbon-14isproducedintheEarth’satmospherewhennitrogen氮-14orN-14interactswithcosmicrays宇宙射线.ScientistsbelievesincetheEarthwasformedthemountofnitrogenintheatmospherehasremainedconstant.ConsequentlyC-14formationisthoughttooccurataconstantrate.NowtheratioofC-14toothercarbontomsintheatmosphereisknown.Mostscientistsagreethatthisratioisusefulfordatingitemsbacktoatleast50000years. AlllifeonEarthismadeoforganicmolecules分子thatcontaincarbonatomscomingfromtheatmosphere.SoalllivingthingshaveaboutthesameratioofC-14atomstoothercarbonatomsintheirtissues组织.Onceanorganism有机体diesitstopstakingincarboninanyformandtheC-14alreadypresentbeginstodecay.OvertimetheamountofC-14inthematerialdecreasesandtheratioofC-14toothercarbonatomsgoesdown.IntermsofradiocarbondatingthefewerC-14atomsinasampletheolderthatsampleis. Nowadaysmanyscientistsdependonradiocarbonfordatingage-oldobjects
Chimpanzees 1Chimpanzees黑猩猩willsoonbeextinct灭绝.Ifthepresentrateofhuntingandhabitat栖息地destructioncontinuesthenwithin20yearstherewillbenochimpanzeeslivinginthewild.Butthisismorethananenvironmentalormoraltragedy悲剧.Chimpanzeeextinctionmayalsohaveprofoundimplications含意forthesurvivaloftheirdistantrelatives-humanbeings. 2In1975thebiologistMarie-ClaireKingandAllanWilsondiscoveredthatthehumanandchimpanzeegenomes基因组matchbyover98%.Comparethistothemouseusedasmodelforhumandiseaseinlabtestswhichsharesonly60%ofitsDNAwithus.Infactchimpanzeesarefarmoresimilartohumansthantheyaretoanyotherspeciesofmonkey.Aswellasresemblingusgeneticallychimpsarehighlyintelligentandabletousetools.Thesefactsaloneshouldbeenoughtomakeprotectionofchimpsanurgentpriority优先.Butthereisanothermoreselfishreasontopreservethechimp. 3Thechimpanzees’trumpcard王牌comesinthefieldofmedicalresearch.Chimpanzeesaresosimilartohumansthatveterinarians兽医oftenrefertohumanmedicaltextbookswhentreatingthem.Yetchimpanzeesdoshowdifferencesinseveralkeyareas.Inparticularchimpsaremuchmoreresistanttoanumberofmajordiseases.Itisthisabilitythatissointeresting. 4ForexamplechimpsseemtoshowamuchhigherresistancethanhumanstoHIVthevirusthatcausesAIDS.IndeedtheiruseasexperimentalanimalsinAIDSresearchhasdeclinedbecausetheyaresoresistant. 5Bysequencingthechimpgenomeandpinpointing找到theplacewherethechimpanzeeDNAsequencediffersfromthatofhumansscientistshopetobeabletodiscoverwhichpartofthegeneticcodegiveschimpstheirincreasedresistancetosomediseases.Thistheyhopewillallowthemtodevelopnewandmoreeffectivetreatmentsforthehumanformsofthesediseases.Suchtreatmentscouldincludetheproductionofnewdrugsoreventhealteration改变ofthehumangeneticsequence.Therecentlycompletedhumangenomesequencingprojecthasshownthatsuchaneffortisnowwellwithinourreach. 23Paragraph_____1. 24Paragraph_____2. 25Paragraph_____3. 26Paragraph_____4. AReasonsforHIVresistance BImplicationsofchimpanzeeextinctionforhumans CEffectiveAIDStreatment DGeneticsimilaritiesbetweenchimpsandhumans EChimps’resistancetoHIV FGeneticdifferencesbetweenchimpsandhumans 27Chimpanzeeextinctionmayaffect 28Thereisadifferenceoflessthan2%betweenthechimpand 29Scientistssuspectthatgenes.PlaYasignificantroleinprotectingchimpsfromgetting 30Thediscoveryofthegeneticcodeofchimpswillbehelpfulto Asomehumandiseasetreatments Bsomediseases Chumansurvival Dhumangenomes Ekeyareas Fhealthierlifestyle
RadiocarbonDating Nowadaysscientistscananswermanyquestionsaboutthepastthroughatechniquecalledradiocarbon放射性碳orcarbon-14dating.Onekeytounderstandinghowandbysomethinghappenedistodiscoverwhenithappened. Radiocarbondatingwasdevelopedinthelate1940sbyphysicistWillardF.LibbyatheUniversityofChicago.Anatomofordinarycarboncalledcarbon-12hassixprotons质子andsixneutrons中子initsnucleus原子核.Carbon-14orC-14isaradioactiveunstableformofcarbonthathastwoextraneutrons.Itreturnstoamorestableformofcarbonthroughaprocesscalleddecay衰减.Thisprocessinvolvesthelossofheextraneutronsandenergyfromthenucleus. InLibby’sradiocarbondatingtechniquetheweakradioactiveemissions放射fromthisdecayprocessarecountedbyinstrumentssuchasaradiationdetectorandcounter.ThedecayrateisusedtodeterminetheproportionofC-14atomsinthesamplebeingdated. Carbon-14isproducedintheEarth’satmospherewhennitrogen氮-14orN-14interactswithcosmicrays宇宙射线.ScientistsbelievesincetheEarthwasformedthemountofnitrogenintheatmospherehasremainedconstant.ConsequentlyC-14formationisthoughttooccurataconstantrate.NowtheratioofC-14toothercarbontomsintheatmosphereisknown.Mostscientistsagreethatthisratioisusefulfordatingitemsbacktoatleast50000years. AlllifeonEarthismadeoforganicmolecules分子thatcontaincarbonatomscomingfromtheatmosphere.SoalllivingthingshaveaboutthesameratioofC-14atomstoothercarbonatomsintheirtissues组织.Onceanorganism有机体diesitstopstakingincarboninanyformandtheC-14alreadypresentbeginstodecay.OvertimetheamountofC-14inthematerialdecreasesandtheratioofC-14toothercarbonatomsgoesdown.IntermsofradiocarbondatingthefewerC-14atomsinasampletheolderthatsampleis. Radiocarbonisreliableindatinganobjectbacktoatleast50000years.
第一篇 Water Thesecondmostimportantconstituent构成成份ofthebiosphere生物圈isliquidwater.Thiscanonlyexistinaverynarrowrangeoftemperaturessincewaterfreezesat0℃andboilsat100℃.Lifeasweknowitwouldonlybepossibleonthesurfaceofaplanetwhichhadtemperaturessomewherewithinthisnarrowrange. Theearth’ssupplyofwaterprobablyremainsfairlyconstantinquantity.Thetotalquantityofwaterisnotknownveryaccuratelybutitisaboutenoughtocoverthesurfaceoftheglobetoadepthofabouttwoandthree-quarterkilometers.Mostofitisintheformofthesaltwateroftheoceansabout97percent.TherestisfreshbutthreequartersofthisisintheformoficeatthePolesandonmountainsandcannotbeusedbylivingsystemsuntilmelted.Oftheremainingfractionalwhichissomewhatlessthanonepercentofthewholethereis10—20timesasmuchstoredundergroundwaterasthereisactuallyonthesurface.Thereisalsoatinybutextremelyimportantfractionofthewatersupplywhichispresentaswatervaporintheatmosphere. Watervaporintheatmosphereisthechannelthroughwhichthewholewatercirculation循环ofthebiospherehastopass.Waterevaporated蒸发fromthesurfaceoftheoceansfromlakesandriversandfrommoist潮湿的earthisaddedtoit.Fromitthewatercomesoutagainasrainorsnowfallingoneithertheseaortheland.Thereisasmightbeexpectedamoreintensiveevaporationperunitareaovertheseaandoceansthanoverthelandbutthereismorerainfalloverthelandthanovertheoceansandthebalanceisrestoredbytherunofffromthelandintheformofrivers. Thewordfractioninthesecondparagraphmeans
Thatguyisintelligentbutabit{{U}}dull{{/U}}.
第二篇 Mind-readingMachine AteamofresearchersinCaliforniahasdevelopedawaytopredictwhatkindsofobjectspeoplearelookingatbyscanning扫描what’shappeningintheirbrains. Whenyoulookatsomethingyoureyessendasignalaboutthatobjecttoyourbrain.Differentregionsofthebrainprocesstheinformationyoureyessend.Cellsinyourbraincalledneurons神经元areresponsibleforthisprocessing. ThefMRIfunctionalMagneticResonanceImaging功能性磁振造影brainscanscouldgenerallymatchelectricalactivityinthebraintothebasicshapeofapicturethatsomeonewaslookingat. Likecellsanywhereelseinyourbodyactiveneuronsuseoxygen.Bloodbringsoxygentotheneuronsandthemoreactiveaneuronisthemoreoxygenitwillconsume.Themoreactivearegionofthebrainthemoreactiveitsneuronsandinturnthemorebloodwilltraveltothatregion.AndbyusingfMRIscientistscanvisualize使显现whichpartsofthebrainreceivemoreoxygen-richblood-andthereforewhichpartsareworkingtoprocessinformation. AnfMRImachineisadevicethatscansthebrainandmeasureschangesinbloodflowtothebrain.Thetechnologyshowsresearchershowbrainactivitychangeswhenapersonthinkslooksatsomethingorcarriesoutanactivitylikespeakingorreading.ByhighlightingtheareasofthebrainatworkwhenapersonlooksatdifferentimagesfMRImayhelpscientistsdeterminespecificpatternsofbrainactivityassociatedwithdifferentkindsofimages. TheCaliforniaresearcherstestedbrainactivitybyhavingtwovolunteersviewhundredsofpicturesofeverydayobjectslikepeopleanimalsandfruits.ThescientistsusedanfMRImachinetorecordthevolunteers’brainactivitywitheachphotographtheylookedat.Differentobjectscauseddifferentregionsofthevolunteers’brainstolightuponthescanindicatingactivity.Thescientistsusedthisinformationtobuildamodeltopredicthowthebrainmightrespondtoanyimagetheeyessee. Inasecondtestthescientistsaskedthevolunteerstolookat120newpictures.Likebeforetheirbrainswerescannedeverytimetheylookedatanewimage.ThistimethescientistsusedtheirmodeltomatchthefMRIscanstotheimage.Forexampleifascaninthesecondtestshowedthesamepatternofbrainactivitythatwasstronglyrelatedtopicturesofapplesinthefirsttesttheirmodelwouldhavepredictedthevolunteerswerelookingatapples. Whatisresponsibleforprocessingtheinformationsentbyyoureyes?
Iamvery{{U}}grateful{{/U}}toyouforyourassistance.
Weshouldnotsacrificeenvironmentalprotectionsto{{U}}foster{{/U}}economicgrowth.
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