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[A] Fist convention of Comite Maritime International [B] The convention having been revised thr...
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[A]FistconventionofComiteMaritimeInternational
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[A]FistconventionofComiteMaritimeInternational
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[A]FistconventionofComiteMaritimeInternational
[A]FistconventionofComiteMaritimeInternational
[A]FistconventionofComiteMaritimeInternational
[A]FistconventionofComiteMaritimeInternational
[A]FistconventionofComiteMaritimeInternational
[A]FistconventionofComiteMaritimeInternational
[A]FistconventionofComiteMaritimeInternational
[A]FistconventionofComiteMaritimeInternational
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Beforeyouspeaktoanyaudienceyoushouldlearnasmuchaboutitsmembersaspossible.Onlyinthatwaycanyoubestadaptthelevelofyourlanguageandthecontentofyourtalktoyourlisteners. 41.Speakingtosomeoneyouknowwell.__________ WhereareyoulikelytospeakCertainlyinthisclassyou’llgiveseveraltalksandsinceyouknowmostifnotallofthestudentsyoushouldfacenomajorproblemsinadaptingyourapproachtothem.Anotherspeakingpossibilityexistsinyourworkplace. Athirdspeakingpossibilityexistsinanyorganizationsocialculturalathleticandsoonthatyoubelongto.Youmaybeaskedtospeakatthenextmeetingorattheannualbanquet.Hereagainyouknowthepeopleinvolvedtheirbackgroundtheireducationlevelandtheirattitudesandthat’satremendousadvantageforyou.Sincewe’reupbeatandpositiveinthiscoursewe’llassumethatyou’vegivensuccessfultalksunderallthreecircumstancesandwiththiscourseunderyourbeltyoucandoitagain.Sincegoodspeakersarehardtofindandwordaboutthemtravelsfastsupposethatonedayyougetaninvitationtospeaktoanorganizationinwhichyoudon’tknowasoul.WhatdoyoudonowIfyoufeelabletohandlethetopicyou’reaskedtospeakonacceptthisrarechallenge.Here’swhereaudienceanalysiscomesintoplay.Besuretoaskthepersonwhoinvitedyouforinformationonthemembersinformationthatencompassesabroadspectrumsuchasinthefollowingareas. 42.Howoldareyourlisteners 43.Sexcompositionofyourlisteners. 44.Interestintopic.__________ 45.Interestsorhobbiesofthelisteners.__________ [A]Ifyou’reinvitedtospeaktoawomen’sormen’sorganizationyouknowtheanswertothisquestionatonce.Quiteoftenhoweveraudiencesaremixedfairlyevenlyalthoughattimesonesexmaypredominate. [B]DomembersofyourprospectiveaudiencespendeveningswatchingTVmoviesanddrinkingbeeratalocaltavernordotheyreadtheHarvardClassicsandattendconcertsofBeethovenandMozartDotheyplaybingoand21ordotheypursuethequestionstheintriguingintricaciesofcontractbridgeandchessAnswerstothesequestionscanhelpyouchoosethemostappropriatematerialandlanguageforyouraudience.Yourchoicescanbecrucialindeterminingthesuccessorfailureofyourpresentation. [C]ArethemembersrecentcollegegraduatesseniorcitizensorbusinessexecutivesinmidcareerJustrememberageexertsapowerfulimpactonpeople’sattitudesvaluesandmotivations. [D]Forexampleyourdepartmentmanagermayaskyoutoexplainanddemonstrateaproceduretosomefellowemployee.Orshemayselectyoutoaddressyourdepartmentonbehalfofthelocalblooddonordrive.Inbothspeechsituations—inclassandonthejob—you’refamiliarwithyouraudience;youspeaktheirlanguage;youhavethingsincommonwiththem. [E]AreyouawareoftheeducationalbackgroundofyouraudienceHowmanyofthemhavedoctoraldegreesmasterdegreesorbachelordegreesThiswilldecidewhatkindoflanguageyoushouldadoptandhowmuchtheycanunderstand. [F]ArethemembersoftheorganizationinterestedinthetopicoraretheyrequiredtoattendregardlessoftheirinterestIfthelatteristruewhattypesofmaterialwillmostlikelypiquetheircuriosity 43
Afactorythatmakesuraniumfuelfornuclearreactorshadaspillsobaditkepttheplantclosedforsevenmonthslastyearandbecameoneofonlythreeeventsinallof2006seriousenoughfortheNuclearRegulatoryCommissiontoincludeinanannualreporttoCongress.Afteraninvestigationthecommissionchangedthetermsofthefactory’slicenseandsaidthepublichad20daystorequestahearingonthechanges.Butnomemberofthepubliceverdid.Infactnomemberofthepubliccouldfindoutaboutthechanges.Thedocumentdescribingthemincludingthenoticeofhearingrightsforanyonewhofeltadverselyaffectedwasstampedofficialuseonlymeaningthatitwasnotpubliclyaccessible.TheagencywouldnotevenhavetoldCongresswhichfactorywasinvolvedwereitnotfortheeffortsofGregoryB.Jaczkooneofthefivecommissioners.Mr.JaczkoidentifiedthecompanyNuclearFuelServicesofErwinTenn.inamemorandumthatbecamepartofthepublicrecord.HismemorandumsaidotherpublicdocumentswouldallowaninformedpersontodeducethatthefactorybelongedtoNuclearFuelServices.SuchsecrecybytheNuclearRegulatoryCommissionisnowcomingunderattackbyinfluentialmembersofCongress.Theselawmakersarguethattheagencyiswithholdingnumerousdocumentsaboutnuclearfacilitiesinthenameofnationalsecuritybutthatmanywith-helddocumentsarenotsensitive.Thelawmakerssaytheagencymustrebalanceitspenchantforsecrecywiththepublic’srighttoparticipateinthelicensingprocessanditsrighttoknowaboutpotentialhazards.TheagencythecongressmensaidhasremovedhundredsofinnocuousdocumentsrelatingtotheN.F.S.plantfrompublicview.Witharesurgenceofnuclearplantconstructionexpectedaftera30-yearhiatusagencyofficialssayfrequentlythattheyaretryingtostrikeabalancebetweenwinningpublicconfidencebyregulatingopenlyandprotectingsensitiveinformation.AcommissionspokesmanScottBurnellsaidtheofficialuseonlydesignationwasunderreview.Aslaidoutbythecommission’sreporttoCongressandothersourcestheeventattheNuclearFuelServicefactorywasdiscoveredwhenasupervisorsawayellowliquiddribblingunderadoorandintoahallway.Workershadpreviouslydescribedayellowliquidinagloveboxasealedcontainerwithglovesbuiltintothesidestoallowatechniciantomanipulateobjectsinsidebutmanagershaddecideditwasordinaryuranium.InfactitwashighlyenricheduraniumthathadbeendeclaredsurplusfromtheweaponsinventoryoftheEnergyDepartmentandsenttotheplanttobedilutedtoastrengthappropriateforacivilianreactor.Ifthematerialhadgonecriticalitislikelythatatleastoneworkerwouldhavereceivedanexposurehighenoughtocauseacutehealtheffectsordeaththecommissionsaid.GenerallytheNuclearRegulatoryCommissiondoesdescribenuclearincidentsandchangesinlicenses.Butin2004accordingtothecommittee’slettertheOfficeofNavalReatorspartoftheEnergyDepartmentreachedanagreementwiththecommissionthatanycorrespondencewithNuclearFuelServiceswouldbemarkedofficialuseonly./NRCiscriticizedbyCongressmemberschieflybecause
PlatoaskedWhatismanandStAugustineaskedWhoamIAnewbreedofcriminalshasanovelanswer:Iamyou!Althoughimpostorshaveexistedforagesthegrowingfrequencyandcostofidentitytheftisworrisome.Around10mAmericansarevictimsannuallyanditistheleadingconsumer-fraudcomplaintoverthepastfiveyears.Thecosttobusinesseswasalmost＄50billionandtoconsumers＄5billionin2002themostrecentyearthatAmerica’sFederalTradeCommissioncollectedfigures.Aftertworecentbigprivacydisasterspeopleandpoliticiansarecallingforaction.InFebruaryChoicePointalargedata-collectionagencybegansendingoutletterswarning145000AmericansthatithadwronglyprovidedfraudsterswiththeirpersonaldetailsincludingSocialSecuritynumbers.Around750peoplehavealreadyspottedfraudulentactivity.AndonFebruary25thBankofAmericarevealedthatitlostdatatapesthatcontainpersonalinformationonover1mgovernmentemployeesincludingsomeSenators.Althoughaccidentandnotillegalityissuspectedallmusttakeprecautionsagainstidentitytheft.Facedwithsuchincidentsstateandnationallawmakersarecallingfornewregulationsincludingovercompaniesthatcollectandsellpersonalinformation.Asanindustrythefirms—suchasChoicePointAcxiomLexisNexisandWestlaw—arelargelyunregulated.Theyhavealsogrownenormous.ForexampleChoicePointwasfoundedin1997andhasacquirednearly60firmstoamassdatabaseswith19billionrecordsonpeople.Itisusedbyinsurancefirmslandlordsandevenpoliceagencies.Californiaistheonlystatewithalawrequiringcompaniestonotifyindividualswhentheirpersonalinformationhasbeencompromised—whichmadeChoicePointrevealthefraudalbeitfivemonthsafteritwasnoticedandafteritstoptwobossesexercisedstockoptions.Legislationtomaketherequirementafederallawisunderconsideration.Moreoverlawmakerssaytheywillproposethatrulesgoverningcreditbureausandmedicalcompaniesareextendedtodata-collectionfirms.Andalongsidelegislationthereisalwayslitigation.AlreadyChoicePointhasbeensuedforfailingtosafeguardindividuals’data.YetthelegalremedieswouldstillbefarlooserthaninEuropewhereidentitytheftisalsoamenacethoughlessfrequentandcostly.TheEuropeanDataProtectionDirectiveimplementedin1998givespeopletherighttoaccesstheftinformationchangeinaccuraciesanddenypermissionforittobeshared.Moreoveritplacesthecostofmistakesonthecompaniesthatcollectthedatanotonindividuals.WhenthelawwasputinforceAmericanpolicymakersgroanedthatitwasbadforbusiness.Butnowtheyseemtobereconsideringit.Accordingtoparagraph2whichofthefollowingistrue
DomobilephonescauseexplosionsatpetrolstationsThatquestionhasjustbeenexhaustivelyansweredbyAdamBurgessaresearcherattheUniversityofKentinEngland.OddlyhoweverDrBurgessisnotaphysicistbutasociologist.Fortheconcernrestsnotonscientificevidenceofanydangerbutisinsteadtheresultofsociologicalfactors:itisanurbanmythsupportedandpropagatedbyofficialsourcesbutnolessamythforthat.DrBurgesspresentedhisfindingsthisweekattheannualconferenceoftheBritishSociologicalAssociation. Mobilephonesstartedtobecomewidespreadinthelate1980swhentheoilindustrywasinthemiddleofaconcertedsafetydriveDrBurgessnotes.Thiswasinlargepart.aresponsetothePiperAlphadisasterin1988when167peoplediedinanexplosiononanoilplatformofftheScottishcoast.41__________Sonobodyquestionedtheprecautionarybanontheuseofmobilephonesatpetrolstations.Theworrywasthatanelectricalsparkmightigniteexplosivefumes. 42__________Butitwastoolate.Themythhadtakenhold. OneproblemsaysDrBurgessisthatthenumberofpetrol-stationfiresincreasedinthelate1990sjustasmobilephoneswereproliferating.RichardCoatesBP’sfire-safetyadviserinvestigatedmanyofthe243suchfiresthatoccurredaroundtheworldbetween1993and2004.Heconcludedthatmostwereindeedcausedbysparksignitingpetrolvapourbutthesparksthemselvesweretheresultofstaticelectricitynotelectricalequipment.Mostdriverswillhaveexperiencedamildelectricshockwhenclimbingoutoftheirvehicles.Itiscausedbyfrictionbetweendriverandseatwiththeresultthatbothendupelectricallycharged.Whenthedrivertouchesthemetalframeofthevehicletheresultissometimesaspark.43__________ 44__________Onee-mailcontainedfictitiousexamplesofsuchexplosionssaidtohavehappenedinIndonesiaandAustralia.AnothersupposedlysentoutbyShellfounditswayontoaninternalwebsiteatExxonsaysDrBurgesswhereitwastreatedasauthoritativebyemployees.Suchmemosgenerallyexplainstaticfiresquiteaccuratelybutmistakenlyattributethemtomobilephones.OfficialdenialssaysDrBurgesssimplyinflamethesuspicionsofconspiracytheorists. 45__________WarningsignsaboundinBritainAmericaCanadaandAustralia.ThecityofSaoPauloinBrazilintroducedabanlastyear.AndearlierthismonthamemberofConnecticut’ssenateproposedmakingtheuseofmobilephonesinpetrolstationsinthatstatepunishablebya$250fine. [A]Thesafetydrivedidnotapplymerelytooffshoreoperations:employeesatsomeBritishoil-companyofficesarenowrequiredtousehandrailswhilewalkingupanddownstairsforexample. [B]Asaresultthecompanyhadtopayahugeamountofcompensationtothefamiliesofthevictimsandlawsuitsconcerningthosefiresseemedtobeendless. [C]Afurthercomplicationwastheriseoftheinternetwherehoaxmemosmanyclaimingtooriginatefromoilcompanieswarnedofthedangerofusingmobilephonesinpetrolstations. [D]ThisisparticularlynoticeableinBritain.Thecountrythatledthewayinbanningmobilephonesatpetrolstationsisalsothecountrythathastakenthestrongestlineonthesafetyofmobile-phoneusebychildren. [E]Despitethelackofevidencethatmobilephonescancauseexplosionsbansremaininplacearoundtheworldthoughtherulesvarywidely. [F]Bytilelate1990showeverphonemakers—havingconductedtheirownresearch—realizedthattherewasnodangerofphonescausingexplosionssincetheycouldnotgeneratetherequiredsparks. [G]Thisseemstohavebecomemorecommonasplasticcarinteriorssyntheticgarmentsandrubber-soledshoeshaveproliferated. 41
PlatoaskedWhatismanandStAugustineaskedWhoamIAnewbreedofcriminalshasanovelanswer:Iamyou!Althoughimpostorshaveexistedforagesthegrowingfrequencyandcostofidentitytheftisworrisome.Around10mAmericansarevictimsannuallyanditistheleadingconsumer-fraudcomplaintoverthepastfiveyears.Thecosttobusinesseswasalmost＄50billionandtoconsumers＄5billionin2002themostrecentyearthatAmerica’sFederalTradeCommissioncollectedfigures.Aftertworecentbigprivacydisasterspeopleandpoliticiansarecallingforaction.InFebruaryChoicePointalargedata-collectionagencybegansendingoutletterswarning145000AmericansthatithadwronglyprovidedfraudsterswiththeirpersonaldetailsincludingSocialSecuritynumbers.Around750peoplehavealreadyspottedfraudulentactivity.AndonFebruary25thBankofAmericarevealedthatitlostdatatapesthatcontainpersonalinformationonover1mgovernmentemployeesincludingsomeSenators.Althoughaccidentandnotillegalityissuspectedallmusttakeprecautionsagainstidentitytheft.Facedwithsuchincidentsstateandnationallawmakersarecallingfornewregulationsincludingovercompaniesthatcollectandsellpersonalinformation.Asanindustrythefirms—suchasChoicePointAcxiomLexisNexisandWestlaw—arelargelyunregulated.Theyhavealsogrownenormous.ForexampleChoicePointwasfoundedin1997andhasacquirednearly60firmstoamassdatabaseswith19billionrecordsonpeople.Itisusedbyinsurancefirmslandlordsandevenpoliceagencies.Californiaistheonlystatewithalawrequiringcompaniestonotifyindividualswhentheirpersonalinformationhasbeencompromised—whichmadeChoicePointrevealthefraudalbeitfivemonthsafteritwasnoticedandafteritstoptwobossesexercisedstockoptions.Legislationtomaketherequirementafederallawisunderconsideration.Moreoverlawmakerssaytheywillproposethatrulesgoverningcreditbureausandmedicalcompaniesareextendedtodata-collectionfirms.Andalongsidelegislationthereisalwayslitigation.AlreadyChoicePointhasbeensuedforfailingtosafeguardindividuals’data.YetthelegalremedieswouldstillbefarlooserthaninEuropewhereidentitytheftisalsoamenacethoughlessfrequentandcostly.TheEuropeanDataProtectionDirectiveimplementedin1998givespeopletherighttoaccesstheftinformationchangeinaccuraciesanddenypermissionforittobeshared.Moreoveritplacesthecostofmistakesonthecompaniesthatcollectthedatanotonindividuals.WhenthelawwasputinforceAmericanpolicymakersgroanedthatitwasbadforbusiness.Butnowtheyseemtobereconsideringit.ChoicePointrevealedthefraudbecause
46"Popularart"hasanumberofmeaningsimpossibletodefinewithanyprecisionwhichrangefromfolkloretojunkwithpolesbeingclearenoughbutthemiddletendingtoblur.TheHollywoodWesternofthe1930’sforexamplehaselementsoffolklorebutisclosertojunkthantohighartorfolkart.Therecanbegreattrashjustasthereisbadhighart.ThemusicalsofGeorgeGershwinaregreatpopularartneveraspiringtohighart.SchubertandBrahmshoweverusedelementsofpopularmusic—folkthemes—inworksclearlyintendedashighart.ThecaseofVerdiisadifferentone:hetookapopulargenre—bourgeoismelodramasettomusicanaccuratedefinitionofnineteenth-centuryopera—andwithoutalteringitsfundamentalnaturetransmuteditintohighart.47Thisremainsoneofthegreatestachievementsinmusicandonethatcannotbefullyappreciatedwithoutrecognizingtheessentialtrashinessofthegenre. AsanexampleofsuchatransmutationconsiderwhatVerdimadeofthetypicalpoliticalelementsofnineteenth-centuryopera.48Generallyintheplotsoftheseoperasaheroorheroine—usuallyportrayedonlyasanindividualunrestrainedbyclass—iscaughtbetweentheimmoralcorruptionofthearistocracyandthedoctrinairerigidityoftheleadersofthecivilians.Verditransformsthisnaiveandunlikeformulationwithmusicofextraordinaryenergyandrhythmicvitalitymusicmoresubtlethanitseemsatfirsthearing.Therearescenesandariasthatstillsoundlikecallstoarmsandwereclearlyunderstoodassuchwhentheywerefirstperformed.Suchpieceslendanimmediacytotheotherwiseveiledpoliticalmessageoftheseoperasandcallupfeelingsbeyondthoseoftheoperaitself. OrconsiderVerdi’streatmentofcharacter.49BeforeVerditherewererarelyanycharactersatallinmusicaldramaonlyaseriesofsituationswhichallowedthesingerstoexpressaseriesofemotionalstate.Anyattempttofindcoherentpsychologicalportrayalintheseoperasismisplacedingenuity.Theonlycoherencewasthesinger’svocaltechnique:whenthecastchangednewariaswerealmostalwayssubstitutedgenerallyadaptedfromotheroperas.Verdi’scharactersontheotherhandhavegenuineconsistencyandintegrityevenifinmanycasestheconsistencyisthatofpasteboardmelodrama.Theintegrityofthecharacterisachievedthroughthemusic:50oncehehadbecomeestablishedVerdididnotrewritehismusicfordifferentsingersorallowalterationsorsubstitutionsofsomebodyelse’sariasinoneofhisoperasaseveryeighteenth-centurycomposerhaddone.Whenherevisedanoperaitwasonlyfordramaticeconomyandeffectiveness. Thisremainsoneofthegreatestachievementsinmusicandonethatcannotbefullyappreciatedwithoutrecognizingtheessentialtrashinessofthegenre.
DomobilephonescauseexplosionsatpetrolstationsThatquestionhasjustbeenexhaustivelyansweredbyAdamBurgessaresearcherattheUniversityofKentinEngland.OddlyhoweverDrBurgessisnotaphysicistbutasociologist.Fortheconcernrestsnotonscientificevidenceofanydangerbutisinsteadtheresultofsociologicalfactors:itisanurbanmythsupportedandpropagatedbyofficialsourcesbutnolessamythforthat.DrBurgesspresentedhisfindingsthisweekattheannualconferenceoftheBritishSociologicalAssociation. Mobilephonesstartedtobecomewidespreadinthelate1980swhentheoilindustrywasinthemiddleofaconcertedsafetydriveDrBurgessnotes.Thiswasinlargepart.aresponsetothePiperAlphadisasterin1988when167peoplediedinanexplosiononanoilplatformofftheScottishcoast.41__________Sonobodyquestionedtheprecautionarybanontheuseofmobilephonesatpetrolstations.Theworrywasthatanelectricalsparkmightigniteexplosivefumes. 42__________Butitwastoolate.Themythhadtakenhold. OneproblemsaysDrBurgessisthatthenumberofpetrol-stationfiresincreasedinthelate1990sjustasmobilephoneswereproliferating.RichardCoatesBP’sfire-safetyadviserinvestigatedmanyofthe243suchfiresthatoccurredaroundtheworldbetween1993and2004.Heconcludedthatmostwereindeedcausedbysparksignitingpetrolvapourbutthesparksthemselvesweretheresultofstaticelectricitynotelectricalequipment.Mostdriverswillhaveexperiencedamildelectricshockwhenclimbingoutoftheirvehicles.Itiscausedbyfrictionbetweendriverandseatwiththeresultthatbothendupelectricallycharged.Whenthedrivertouchesthemetalframeofthevehicletheresultissometimesaspark.43__________ 44__________Onee-mailcontainedfictitiousexamplesofsuchexplosionssaidtohavehappenedinIndonesiaandAustralia.AnothersupposedlysentoutbyShellfounditswayontoaninternalwebsiteatExxonsaysDrBurgesswhereitwastreatedasauthoritativebyemployees.Suchmemosgenerallyexplainstaticfiresquiteaccuratelybutmistakenlyattributethemtomobilephones.OfficialdenialssaysDrBurgesssimplyinflamethesuspicionsofconspiracytheorists. 45__________WarningsignsaboundinBritainAmericaCanadaandAustralia.ThecityofSaoPauloinBrazilintroducedabanlastyear.AndearlierthismonthamemberofConnecticut’ssenateproposedmakingtheuseofmobilephonesinpetrolstationsinthatstatepunishablebya$250fine. [A]Thesafetydrivedidnotapplymerelytooffshoreoperations:employeesatsomeBritishoil-companyofficesarenowrequiredtousehandrailswhilewalkingupanddownstairsforexample. [B]Asaresultthecompanyhadtopayahugeamountofcompensationtothefamiliesofthevictimsandlawsuitsconcerningthosefiresseemedtobeendless. [C]Afurthercomplicationwastheriseoftheinternetwherehoaxmemosmanyclaimingtooriginatefromoilcompanieswarnedofthedangerofusingmobilephonesinpetrolstations. [D]ThisisparticularlynoticeableinBritain.Thecountrythatledthewayinbanningmobilephonesatpetrolstationsisalsothecountrythathastakenthestrongestlineonthesafetyofmobile-phoneusebychildren. [E]Despitethelackofevidencethatmobilephonescancauseexplosionsbansremaininplacearoundtheworldthoughtherulesvarywidely. [F]Bytilelate1990showeverphonemakers—havingconductedtheirownresearch—realizedthattherewasnodangerofphonescausingexplosionssincetheycouldnotgeneratetherequiredsparks. [G]Thisseemstohavebecomemorecommonasplasticcarinteriorssyntheticgarmentsandrubber-soledshoeshaveproliferated. 43
Mostofthepeoplewhoappearmostoftenandmostgloriouslyinthehistorybooksaregreatconquerorsandgeneralsandsoldierswhereasthepeoplewhoreallyhelpedcivilizationforwardareoftennevermentionedatall.Wedonotknowwhofirstsetabrokenlegorlaunchedaseaworthyboatorcalculatedthelengthoftheyearormanuredafield;butweknowallaboutthekillersanddestroyers.Peoplethinkagreatdealofthemsomuchsothatonallthehighestpillarsinthegreatcitiesoftheworldyouwillfindthefigureofaconquerororageneralorasoldier.AndIthinkmostpeoplebelievethatthegreatestcountriesarethosethathavebeateninbattlethegreatestnumberofothercountriesandruledoverthemasconquerors.Itisjustpossibletheyarebuttheyarenotthemostcivilized.Animalsfight;sodosavages;hencetobegoodatfightingistobegoodinthewayinwhichananimalorasavageisgoodbutitisnottobecivilized.Evenbeinggoodatgettingotherpeopletofightforyouandtellingthemhowtodoitmostefficiently—thisafteralliswhatconquerorsandgeneralshavedone—isnotbeingcivilized.Peoplefighttosettlequarrels.Fightingmeanskillingandcivilizedpeoplesoughttobeabletofindsomewayofsettlingtheirdisputesotherthanbyseeingwhichsidecankilloffthegreaternumberoftheothersideandthensayingthatthatsidewhichhaskilledmosthaswon.Andnotonlyhaswonbutbecauseithaswonhasbeenintheright.Forthatiswhatgoingtowarmeans;itmeanssayingthatmightisright.Thatiswhatthestoryofmankindhasonthewholebeenlike.Evenourownagehasfoughtthetwogreatestwarsinhistoryinwhichmillionsofpeoplewerekilledormutilated.Andwhiletodayitistruethatpeopledonotfightandkilleachotherinthestreets—whilethatistosaywehavegottothestageofkeepingtherulesandbehavingproperlytoeachotherindailylife—nationsandcountrieshavenotlearnttodothisyetandstillbehavelikesavages.Butwemustnotexpecttoomuch.Afteralltheraceofmenhasonlyjuststarted.Fromthepointofviewofevolutionhumanbeingsareveryyoungchildrenindeedbabiesinfactofafewmonthsold.Scientistsreckonthattherehasbeenlifeofsomesortontheearthintheformofjellyfishandthatkindofcreatureforabouttwelvehundredmillionyears;buttherehavebeenmenforonlyonemillionyearsandtherehavebeencivilizedmenforabouteightthousandyearsattheoutside.Thesefiguresaredifficulttograsp;soletusscalethemdown.Supposethatwereckonthewholepastoflivingcreaturesontheearthasonehundredyears;thenthewholepastofmanworksoutataboutonemonthandduringthatmonththerehavebeencivilizationsforbetweensevenandeighthours.Soyouseetherehasbeenlittletimetolearninbuttherewillbeoceansoftimeinwhichtolearnbetter.Takingman’scivilizedpastataboutsevenoreighthourswemayestimatehisfuturethatistosaythewholeperiodbetweennowandwhenthesungrowstoocoldtomaintainlifeanylongerontheearthataboutonehundredthousandyears.ThusmankindisonlyatthebeginningofitscivilizedlifeandasIsaywemustnotexpecttoomuch.Thepastofmanhasbeenonthewholeaprettybeastlybusinessabusinessoffightingandbullyingandgorgingandgrabbingandhurting.Wemustnotexpectevencivilizedpeoplesnottohavedonethesethings.Allwecanaskisthattheywillsometimeshavedonesomethingelse.Thefirstsentenceoftheopeningparagraphindicatesthat
Beforeyouspeaktoanyaudienceyoushouldlearnasmuchaboutitsmembersaspossible.Onlyinthatwaycanyoubestadaptthelevelofyourlanguageandthecontentofyourtalktoyourlisteners. 41.Speakingtosomeoneyouknowwell.__________ WhereareyoulikelytospeakCertainlyinthisclassyou’llgiveseveraltalksandsinceyouknowmostifnotallofthestudentsyoushouldfacenomajorproblemsinadaptingyourapproachtothem.Anotherspeakingpossibilityexistsinyourworkplace. Athirdspeakingpossibilityexistsinanyorganizationsocialculturalathleticandsoonthatyoubelongto.Youmaybeaskedtospeakatthenextmeetingorattheannualbanquet.Hereagainyouknowthepeopleinvolvedtheirbackgroundtheireducationlevelandtheirattitudesandthat’satremendousadvantageforyou.Sincewe’reupbeatandpositiveinthiscoursewe’llassumethatyou’vegivensuccessfultalksunderallthreecircumstancesandwiththiscourseunderyourbeltyoucandoitagain.Sincegoodspeakersarehardtofindandwordaboutthemtravelsfastsupposethatonedayyougetaninvitationtospeaktoanorganizationinwhichyoudon’tknowasoul.WhatdoyoudonowIfyoufeelabletohandlethetopicyou’reaskedtospeakonacceptthisrarechallenge.Here’swhereaudienceanalysiscomesintoplay.Besuretoaskthepersonwhoinvitedyouforinformationonthemembersinformationthatencompassesabroadspectrumsuchasinthefollowingareas. 42.Howoldareyourlisteners 43.Sexcompositionofyourlisteners. 44.Interestintopic.__________ 45.Interestsorhobbiesofthelisteners.__________ [A]Ifyou’reinvitedtospeaktoawomen’sormen’sorganizationyouknowtheanswertothisquestionatonce.Quiteoftenhoweveraudiencesaremixedfairlyevenlyalthoughattimesonesexmaypredominate. [B]DomembersofyourprospectiveaudiencespendeveningswatchingTVmoviesanddrinkingbeeratalocaltavernordotheyreadtheHarvardClassicsandattendconcertsofBeethovenandMozartDotheyplaybingoand21ordotheypursuethequestionstheintriguingintricaciesofcontractbridgeandchessAnswerstothesequestionscanhelpyouchoosethemostappropriatematerialandlanguageforyouraudience.Yourchoicescanbecrucialindeterminingthesuccessorfailureofyourpresentation. [C]ArethemembersrecentcollegegraduatesseniorcitizensorbusinessexecutivesinmidcareerJustrememberageexertsapowerfulimpactonpeople’sattitudesvaluesandmotivations. [D]Forexampleyourdepartmentmanagermayaskyoutoexplainanddemonstrateaproceduretosomefellowemployee.Orshemayselectyoutoaddressyourdepartmentonbehalfofthelocalblooddonordrive.Inbothspeechsituations—inclassandonthejob—you’refamiliarwithyouraudience;youspeaktheirlanguage;youhavethingsincommonwiththem. [E]AreyouawareoftheeducationalbackgroundofyouraudienceHowmanyofthemhavedoctoraldegreesmasterdegreesorbachelordegreesThiswilldecidewhatkindoflanguageyoushouldadoptandhowmuchtheycanunderstand. [F]ArethemembersoftheorganizationinterestedinthetopicoraretheyrequiredtoattendregardlessoftheirinterestIfthelatteristruewhattypesofmaterialwillmostlikelypiquetheircuriosity 45
Thehistoryofmodempollutionproblemsshowsthatmosthaveresultedfromnegligenceandignorance.Wehaveanappallingtendencytointerferewithnaturebeforeallofthepossibleconsequencesofouractionshavebeenstudiedindepth.Weproduceanddistrobiteradioactivesubstancessyntheticchemicalsandmanyotherpotentcompoundsbeforefullycomprehendingtheireffectsonlivingorganisms.Oureducationisdangerouslyincomplete.Itwillbearguedthatthepurposeofscienceistomoveintounknownterritorytoexploreandtodiscover.Itcanbesaidthatsimilarriskshavebeentakenbeforeandthattheserisksarenecessarytotechnologicalprogress.Theseargumentsoverlookanimportantelement.Inthepastriskstakeninthenameofscientificprogresswererestrictedtoasmallplaceandbriefperiodoftime.Theeffectsoftheprocesseswenowstrivetomasterareneitherlocalizednorbrief.Airpollutioncoversvasturbanareas.Oceanpollutantshavebeendiscoveredinnearlyeverypartoftheworld.Syntheticchemicalsspreadoverhugestretchesofforestandfarmlandmayremaininthesoilfordecadesandyearstocome.Radioactivepollutantswillbefoundinthebiosphereforgenerations.Thesizeandpersistenceoftheseproblemshavegrownwiththeexpandingpowerofmodemscience.Onemightalsoarguethatthehazardsofmodempollutantsaresmallcomparedwiththedangersassociatedwithotherhumanactivity.Noestimateoftheactualharmdonebysmogfalloutorchemicalresiduescanobscuretherealitythattherisksarebeingtakenbeforebeingfullyunderstood.Theimportanceoftheseissuesliesinthefailureofsciencetopredictandcontrolhumaninterventionintonaturalprocesses.Thetruemeasureofthedangerisrepresentedbythehazardswewillencounterifweenterthenewageoftechnologywithoutfirstevaluatingourresponsibilitytoenvironment.Thetextismainlyabout
DomobilephonescauseexplosionsatpetrolstationsThatquestionhasjustbeenexhaustivelyansweredbyAdamBurgessaresearcherattheUniversityofKentinEngland.OddlyhoweverDrBurgessisnotaphysicistbutasociologist.Fortheconcernrestsnotonscientificevidenceofanydangerbutisinsteadtheresultofsociologicalfactors:itisanurbanmythsupportedandpropagatedbyofficialsourcesbutnolessamythforthat.DrBurgesspresentedhisfindingsthisweekattheannualconferenceoftheBritishSociologicalAssociation. Mobilephonesstartedtobecomewidespreadinthelate1980swhentheoilindustrywasinthemiddleofaconcertedsafetydriveDrBurgessnotes.Thiswasinlargepart.aresponsetothePiperAlphadisasterin1988when167peoplediedinanexplosiononanoilplatformofftheScottishcoast.41__________Sonobodyquestionedtheprecautionarybanontheuseofmobilephonesatpetrolstations.Theworrywasthatanelectricalsparkmightigniteexplosivefumes. 42__________Butitwastoolate.Themythhadtakenhold. OneproblemsaysDrBurgessisthatthenumberofpetrol-stationfiresincreasedinthelate1990sjustasmobilephoneswereproliferating.RichardCoatesBP’sfire-safetyadviserinvestigatedmanyofthe243suchfiresthatoccurredaroundtheworldbetween1993and2004.Heconcludedthatmostwereindeedcausedbysparksignitingpetrolvapourbutthesparksthemselvesweretheresultofstaticelectricitynotelectricalequipment.Mostdriverswillhaveexperiencedamildelectricshockwhenclimbingoutoftheirvehicles.Itiscausedbyfrictionbetweendriverandseatwiththeresultthatbothendupelectricallycharged.Whenthedrivertouchesthemetalframeofthevehicletheresultissometimesaspark.43__________ 44__________Onee-mailcontainedfictitiousexamplesofsuchexplosionssaidtohavehappenedinIndonesiaandAustralia.AnothersupposedlysentoutbyShellfounditswayontoaninternalwebsiteatExxonsaysDrBurgesswhereitwastreatedasauthoritativebyemployees.Suchmemosgenerallyexplainstaticfiresquiteaccuratelybutmistakenlyattributethemtomobilephones.OfficialdenialssaysDrBurgesssimplyinflamethesuspicionsofconspiracytheorists. 45__________WarningsignsaboundinBritainAmericaCanadaandAustralia.ThecityofSaoPauloinBrazilintroducedabanlastyear.AndearlierthismonthamemberofConnecticut’ssenateproposedmakingtheuseofmobilephonesinpetrolstationsinthatstatepunishablebya$250fine. [A]Thesafetydrivedidnotapplymerelytooffshoreoperations:employeesatsomeBritishoil-companyofficesarenowrequiredtousehandrailswhilewalkingupanddownstairsforexample. [B]Asaresultthecompanyhadtopayahugeamountofcompensationtothefamiliesofthevictimsandlawsuitsconcerningthosefiresseemedtobeendless. [C]Afurthercomplicationwastheriseoftheinternetwherehoaxmemosmanyclaimingtooriginatefromoilcompanieswarnedofthedangerofusingmobilephonesinpetrolstations. [D]ThisisparticularlynoticeableinBritain.Thecountrythatledthewayinbanningmobilephonesatpetrolstationsisalsothecountrythathastakenthestrongestlineonthesafetyofmobile-phoneusebychildren. [E]Despitethelackofevidencethatmobilephonescancauseexplosionsbansremaininplacearoundtheworldthoughtherulesvarywidely. [F]Bytilelate1990showeverphonemakers—havingconductedtheirownresearch—realizedthattherewasnodangerofphonescausingexplosionssincetheycouldnotgeneratetherequiredsparks. [G]Thisseemstohavebecomemorecommonasplasticcarinteriorssyntheticgarmentsandrubber-soledshoeshaveproliferated. 45
Afactorythatmakesuraniumfuelfornuclearreactorshadaspillsobaditkepttheplantclosedforsevenmonthslastyearandbecameoneofonlythreeeventsinallof2006seriousenoughfortheNuclearRegulatoryCommissiontoincludeinanannualreporttoCongress.Afteraninvestigationthecommissionchangedthetermsofthefactory’slicenseandsaidthepublichad20daystorequestahearingonthechanges.Butnomemberofthepubliceverdid.Infactnomemberofthepubliccouldfindoutaboutthechanges.Thedocumentdescribingthemincludingthenoticeofhearingrightsforanyonewhofeltadverselyaffectedwasstampedofficialuseonlymeaningthatitwasnotpubliclyaccessible.TheagencywouldnotevenhavetoldCongresswhichfactorywasinvolvedwereitnotfortheeffortsofGregoryB.Jaczkooneofthefivecommissioners.Mr.JaczkoidentifiedthecompanyNuclearFuelServicesofErwinTenn.inamemorandumthatbecamepartofthepublicrecord.HismemorandumsaidotherpublicdocumentswouldallowaninformedpersontodeducethatthefactorybelongedtoNuclearFuelServices.SuchsecrecybytheNuclearRegulatoryCommissionisnowcomingunderattackbyinfluentialmembersofCongress.Theselawmakersarguethattheagencyiswithholdingnumerousdocumentsaboutnuclearfacilitiesinthenameofnationalsecuritybutthatmanywith-helddocumentsarenotsensitive.Thelawmakerssaytheagencymustrebalanceitspenchantforsecrecywiththepublic’srighttoparticipateinthelicensingprocessanditsrighttoknowaboutpotentialhazards.TheagencythecongressmensaidhasremovedhundredsofinnocuousdocumentsrelatingtotheN.F.S.plantfrompublicview.Witharesurgenceofnuclearplantconstructionexpectedaftera30-yearhiatusagencyofficialssayfrequentlythattheyaretryingtostrikeabalancebetweenwinningpublicconfidencebyregulatingopenlyandprotectingsensitiveinformation.AcommissionspokesmanScottBurnellsaidtheofficialuseonlydesignationwasunderreview.Aslaidoutbythecommission’sreporttoCongressandothersourcestheeventattheNuclearFuelServicefactorywasdiscoveredwhenasupervisorsawayellowliquiddribblingunderadoorandintoahallway.Workershadpreviouslydescribedayellowliquidinagloveboxasealedcontainerwithglovesbuiltintothesidestoallowatechniciantomanipulateobjectsinsidebutmanagershaddecideditwasordinaryuranium.InfactitwashighlyenricheduraniumthathadbeendeclaredsurplusfromtheweaponsinventoryoftheEnergyDepartmentandsenttotheplanttobedilutedtoastrengthappropriateforacivilianreactor.Ifthematerialhadgonecriticalitislikelythatatleastoneworkerwouldhavereceivedanexposurehighenoughtocauseacutehealtheffectsordeaththecommissionsaid.GenerallytheNuclearRegulatoryCommissiondoesdescribenuclearincidentsandchangesinlicenses.Butin2004accordingtothecommittee’slettertheOfficeofNavalReatorspartoftheEnergyDepartmentreachedanagreementwiththecommissionthatanycorrespondencewithNuclearFuelServiceswouldbemarkedofficialuseonly./Whydidnomemberofthepublicrequestanyhearing
46ThedeterminationofthesourcesofcopperoreusedinthemanufactureofcopperandbronzeartifactsofBronzeAgecivilizationswouldaddgreatlytoourknowledgeofculturalcontactsandtradeinthaterawhenpreliminaryindustrywasonthehorizon.Researchershaveanalyzedartifactsandoresfortheirconcentrationsofelementsbutforavarietyofreasonsthesestudieshavegenerallyfailedtoprovideevidenceofthesourcesofthecopperusedintheobjects.Elementalcompositioncanvarywithinthesamecopper-orelodeusuallybecauseofvaryingadmixturesofotherelementsespeciallyironleadzincandarsenic.Andhighconcentrationsofcobaltorzincnoticedinsomeartifactsappearinavarietyofcopper-oresources.Moreovertheprocessingoforesintroducedpoorlycontrolledchangesintheconcentrationsofminorandtraceelementsintheresultingmetal.Someelementsevaporateduringsmeltingandroasting;differenttemperaturesandprocessesproducedifferentdegreesofloss.47Finallyfluxwhichissometimesaddedduringsmeltingtoremovewastematerialfromtheorecouldaddtothefinalproductquantitiesofelementsthataremixedtogetherwithcopper. Anelementalpropertythatisunchangedthroughthesechemicalprocessesistheisotopiccompositionofeachmetallicelementintheore.Isotopiccompositionthepercentagesofthedifferentisotopesofanelementinagivensampleoftheelementisthereforeparticularlysuitableasanindicatorofthesourcesoftheore.48Ofcourseforthispurposeitisnecessarytofindanelementwhoseelementalcompositionismoreorlessconstantthroughoutagivenorebodybutvariesfromonecopperorebodytoanotheroratleastfromonegeographicregiontoanother. Theidealchoicewhenisotopiccompositionisusedtoinvestigatethesourceofcopperorewouldseemtobecopperitself.Ithasbeenshownthatsmallbutmeasurablevariationsoccurnaturallyintheisotopiccompositionofcopper.Howeverthevariationsarelargeenoughonlyinrareores;betweensamplesofthecommonoremineralsofcopperisotopicvariationsgreaterthanthemeasurementerrorhavenotbeenfound.49AnalternativechoiceisleadwhichoccursinmostcopperandbronzeartifactsoftheBronzeAgeinamountsconsistentwiththeleadbeingderivedfromthecopperoresandpossiblyfromthefluxes.Theisotopiccompositionofleadoftenvariesfromonesourceofcommoncopperoretoanotherwithvariationsexceedingthemeasurementerror;andpreliminarystudiesindicatevirtuallyuniformistopiccompositionoftheleadfromasinglecopper-oresource.50WhilesomeoftheleadfoundinanartifactmayhavebeenintroducedfromfluxorwhenothermetalswereaddedtothecopperoreleadsoaddedinBronzeAgeprocessingwouldusuallyhavethesamecompositionastheleadfoundinthecopperore.LeadisotopestudiesmaythusproveusefulforinterpretingthearchaeologicalrecordoftheBronzeAge. AnalternativechoiceisleadwhichoccursinmostcopperandbronzeartifactsoftheBronzeAgeinamountsconsistentwiththeleadbeingderivedfromthecopperoresandpossiblyfromthefluxes.
Beforeyouspeaktoanyaudienceyoushouldlearnasmuchaboutitsmembersaspossible.Onlyinthatwaycanyoubestadaptthelevelofyourlanguageandthecontentofyourtalktoyourlisteners. 41.Speakingtosomeoneyouknowwell.__________ WhereareyoulikelytospeakCertainlyinthisclassyou’llgiveseveraltalksandsinceyouknowmostifnotallofthestudentsyoushouldfacenomajorproblemsinadaptingyourapproachtothem.Anotherspeakingpossibilityexistsinyourworkplace. Athirdspeakingpossibilityexistsinanyorganizationsocialculturalathleticandsoonthatyoubelongto.Youmaybeaskedtospeakatthenextmeetingorattheannualbanquet.Hereagainyouknowthepeopleinvolvedtheirbackgroundtheireducationlevelandtheirattitudesandthat’satremendousadvantageforyou.Sincewe’reupbeatandpositiveinthiscoursewe’llassumethatyou’vegivensuccessfultalksunderallthreecircumstancesandwiththiscourseunderyourbeltyoucandoitagain.Sincegoodspeakersarehardtofindandwordaboutthemtravelsfastsupposethatonedayyougetaninvitationtospeaktoanorganizationinwhichyoudon’tknowasoul.WhatdoyoudonowIfyoufeelabletohandlethetopicyou’reaskedtospeakonacceptthisrarechallenge.Here’swhereaudienceanalysiscomesintoplay.Besuretoaskthepersonwhoinvitedyouforinformationonthemembersinformationthatencompassesabroadspectrumsuchasinthefollowingareas. 42.Howoldareyourlisteners 43.Sexcompositionofyourlisteners. 44.Interestintopic.__________ 45.Interestsorhobbiesofthelisteners.__________ [A]Ifyou’reinvitedtospeaktoawomen’sormen’sorganizationyouknowtheanswertothisquestionatonce.Quiteoftenhoweveraudiencesaremixedfairlyevenlyalthoughattimesonesexmaypredominate. [B]DomembersofyourprospectiveaudiencespendeveningswatchingTVmoviesanddrinkingbeeratalocaltavernordotheyreadtheHarvardClassicsandattendconcertsofBeethovenandMozartDotheyplaybingoand21ordotheypursuethequestionstheintriguingintricaciesofcontractbridgeandchessAnswerstothesequestionscanhelpyouchoosethemostappropriatematerialandlanguageforyouraudience.Yourchoicescanbecrucialindeterminingthesuccessorfailureofyourpresentation. [C]ArethemembersrecentcollegegraduatesseniorcitizensorbusinessexecutivesinmidcareerJustrememberageexertsapowerfulimpactonpeople’sattitudesvaluesandmotivations. [D]Forexampleyourdepartmentmanagermayaskyoutoexplainanddemonstrateaproceduretosomefellowemployee.Orshemayselectyoutoaddressyourdepartmentonbehalfofthelocalblooddonordrive.Inbothspeechsituations—inclassandonthejob—you’refamiliarwithyouraudience;youspeaktheirlanguage;youhavethingsincommonwiththem. [E]AreyouawareoftheeducationalbackgroundofyouraudienceHowmanyofthemhavedoctoraldegreesmasterdegreesorbachelordegreesThiswilldecidewhatkindoflanguageyoushouldadoptandhowmuchtheycanunderstand. [F]ArethemembersoftheorganizationinterestedinthetopicoraretheyrequiredtoattendregardlessoftheirinterestIfthelatteristruewhattypesofmaterialwillmostlikelypiquetheircuriosity 41
Afactorythatmakesuraniumfuelfornuclearreactorshadaspillsobaditkepttheplantclosedforsevenmonthslastyearandbecameoneofonlythreeeventsinallof2006seriousenoughfortheNuclearRegulatoryCommissiontoincludeinanannualreporttoCongress.Afteraninvestigationthecommissionchangedthetermsofthefactory’slicenseandsaidthepublichad20daystorequestahearingonthechanges.Butnomemberofthepubliceverdid.Infactnomemberofthepubliccouldfindoutaboutthechanges.Thedocumentdescribingthemincludingthenoticeofhearingrightsforanyonewhofeltadverselyaffectedwasstampedofficialuseonlymeaningthatitwasnotpubliclyaccessible.TheagencywouldnotevenhavetoldCongresswhichfactorywasinvolvedwereitnotfortheeffortsofGregoryB.Jaczkooneofthefivecommissioners.Mr.JaczkoidentifiedthecompanyNuclearFuelServicesofErwinTenn.inamemorandumthatbecamepartofthepublicrecord.HismemorandumsaidotherpublicdocumentswouldallowaninformedpersontodeducethatthefactorybelongedtoNuclearFuelServices.SuchsecrecybytheNuclearRegulatoryCommissionisnowcomingunderattackbyinfluentialmembersofCongress.Theselawmakersarguethattheagencyiswithholdingnumerousdocumentsaboutnuclearfacilitiesinthenameofnationalsecuritybutthatmanywith-helddocumentsarenotsensitive.Thelawmakerssaytheagencymustrebalanceitspenchantforsecrecywiththepublic’srighttoparticipateinthelicensingprocessanditsrighttoknowaboutpotentialhazards.TheagencythecongressmensaidhasremovedhundredsofinnocuousdocumentsrelatingtotheN.F.S.plantfrompublicview.Witharesurgenceofnuclearplantconstructionexpectedaftera30-yearhiatusagencyofficialssayfrequentlythattheyaretryingtostrikeabalancebetweenwinningpublicconfidencebyregulatingopenlyandprotectingsensitiveinformation.AcommissionspokesmanScottBurnellsaidtheofficialuseonlydesignationwasunderreview.Aslaidoutbythecommission’sreporttoCongressandothersourcestheeventattheNuclearFuelServicefactorywasdiscoveredwhenasupervisorsawayellowliquiddribblingunderadoorandintoahallway.Workershadpreviouslydescribedayellowliquidinagloveboxasealedcontainerwithglovesbuiltintothesidestoallowatechniciantomanipulateobjectsinsidebutmanagershaddecideditwasordinaryuranium.InfactitwashighlyenricheduraniumthathadbeendeclaredsurplusfromtheweaponsinventoryoftheEnergyDepartmentandsenttotheplanttobedilutedtoastrengthappropriateforacivilianreactor.Ifthematerialhadgonecriticalitislikelythatatleastoneworkerwouldhavereceivedanexposurehighenoughtocauseacutehealtheffectsordeaththecommissionsaid.GenerallytheNuclearRegulatoryCommissiondoesdescribenuclearincidentsandchangesinlicenses.Butin2004accordingtothecommittee’slettertheOfficeofNavalReatorspartoftheEnergyDepartmentreachedanagreementwiththecommissionthatanycorrespondencewithNuclearFuelServiceswouldbemarkedofficialuseonly./Whichofthefollowingistrueaccordingtothetext
Mostofthepeoplewhoappearmostoftenandmostgloriouslyinthehistorybooksaregreatconquerorsandgeneralsandsoldierswhereasthepeoplewhoreallyhelpedcivilizationforwardareoftennevermentionedatall.Wedonotknowwhofirstsetabrokenlegorlaunchedaseaworthyboatorcalculatedthelengthoftheyearormanuredafield;butweknowallaboutthekillersanddestroyers.Peoplethinkagreatdealofthemsomuchsothatonallthehighestpillarsinthegreatcitiesoftheworldyouwillfindthefigureofaconquerororageneralorasoldier.AndIthinkmostpeoplebelievethatthegreatestcountriesarethosethathavebeateninbattlethegreatestnumberofothercountriesandruledoverthemasconquerors.Itisjustpossibletheyarebuttheyarenotthemostcivilized.Animalsfight;sodosavages;hencetobegoodatfightingistobegoodinthewayinwhichananimalorasavageisgoodbutitisnottobecivilized.Evenbeinggoodatgettingotherpeopletofightforyouandtellingthemhowtodoitmostefficiently—thisafteralliswhatconquerorsandgeneralshavedone—isnotbeingcivilized.Peoplefighttosettlequarrels.Fightingmeanskillingandcivilizedpeoplesoughttobeabletofindsomewayofsettlingtheirdisputesotherthanbyseeingwhichsidecankilloffthegreaternumberoftheothersideandthensayingthatthatsidewhichhaskilledmosthaswon.Andnotonlyhaswonbutbecauseithaswonhasbeenintheright.Forthatiswhatgoingtowarmeans;itmeanssayingthatmightisright.Thatiswhatthestoryofmankindhasonthewholebeenlike.Evenourownagehasfoughtthetwogreatestwarsinhistoryinwhichmillionsofpeoplewerekilledormutilated.Andwhiletodayitistruethatpeopledonotfightandkilleachotherinthestreets—whilethatistosaywehavegottothestageofkeepingtherulesandbehavingproperlytoeachotherindailylife—nationsandcountrieshavenotlearnttodothisyetandstillbehavelikesavages.Butwemustnotexpecttoomuch.Afteralltheraceofmenhasonlyjuststarted.Fromthepointofviewofevolutionhumanbeingsareveryyoungchildrenindeedbabiesinfactofafewmonthsold.Scientistsreckonthattherehasbeenlifeofsomesortontheearthintheformofjellyfishandthatkindofcreatureforabouttwelvehundredmillionyears;buttherehavebeenmenforonlyonemillionyearsandtherehavebeencivilizedmenforabouteightthousandyearsattheoutside.Thesefiguresaredifficulttograsp;soletusscalethemdown.Supposethatwereckonthewholepastoflivingcreaturesontheearthasonehundredyears;thenthewholepastofmanworksoutataboutonemonthandduringthatmonththerehavebeencivilizationsforbetweensevenandeighthours.Soyouseetherehasbeenlittletimetolearninbuttherewillbeoceansoftimeinwhichtolearnbetter.Takingman’scivilizedpastataboutsevenoreighthourswemayestimatehisfuturethatistosaythewholeperiodbetweennowandwhenthesungrowstoocoldtomaintainlifeanylongerontheearthataboutonehundredthousandyears.ThusmankindisonlyatthebeginningofitscivilizedlifeandasIsaywemustnotexpecttoomuch.Thepastofmanhasbeenonthewholeaprettybeastlybusinessabusinessoffightingandbullyingandgorgingandgrabbingandhurting.Wemustnotexpectevencivilizedpeoplesnottohavedonethesethings.Allwecanaskisthattheywillsometimeshavedonesomethingelse.Itcanbeinferredfromthelastthreesentencesthat
Mostplantscanmaketheirownfoodfromsunlight1somehavediscoveredthatstealingisaneasierwaytolive.Thousandsofplantspeciesgetby2photosynthesizingandover400ofthesespeciesseemtolivebypilferingsugarsfromanunderground3offungi真菌.Butin4ahandfuloftheseplantshasthismodusoperandibeentracedtoarelativelyobscurefungus.Tofindouthow5are6mycologistMartinBidartondooftheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyandhisteamlookedintheirroots.Whattheyfoundwere7ofacommontypeoffungusso8thatitisfoundinnearly70percentofallplants.Thepresenceofthiscommonfungusintheseplantsnotonly9athowtheysurvivesaysBidartondobutalsosuggeststhatmanyordinaryplantsmightprosperfromalittlelootingtoo. Plantshave10relationstogetwhattheyneedtosurvive.Normal11plantscanmaketheirowncarbohydratesthroughphotosynthesisbuttheystillneedminerals.Mostplantshave12asymbioticrelationshipwitha13networkofwhatarecalledmycorrhizalfungiwhichliesbeneaththeforest14.Thefungihelpgreenplantsabsorbmineralsthroughtheirrootsand15theplantsnormally16thefungiwithsugarsorcarbonwithanumberofplantssharingthesamefungalwebitwasperhaps17thatafewcheaters—dubbedepiparasites—wouldevolvetobeatthesystem.18theseplantsreversedtheflowofcarbon19itintotheirrootsfromthefungi20releasingitas"payment./ Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.17
Mostplantscanmaketheirownfoodfromsunlight1somehavediscoveredthatstealingisaneasierwaytolive.Thousandsofplantspeciesgetby2photosynthesizingandover400ofthesespeciesseemtolivebypilferingsugarsfromanunderground3offungi真菌.Butin4ahandfuloftheseplantshasthismodusoperandibeentracedtoarelativelyobscurefungus.Tofindouthow5are6mycologistMartinBidartondooftheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyandhisteamlookedintheirroots.Whattheyfoundwere7ofacommontypeoffungusso8thatitisfoundinnearly70percentofallplants.Thepresenceofthiscommonfungusintheseplantsnotonly9athowtheysurvivesaysBidartondobutalsosuggeststhatmanyordinaryplantsmightprosperfromalittlelootingtoo. Plantshave10relationstogetwhattheyneedtosurvive.Normal11plantscanmaketheirowncarbohydratesthroughphotosynthesisbuttheystillneedminerals.Mostplantshave12asymbioticrelationshipwitha13networkofwhatarecalledmycorrhizalfungiwhichliesbeneaththeforest14.Thefungihelpgreenplantsabsorbmineralsthroughtheirrootsand15theplantsnormally16thefungiwithsugarsorcarbonwithanumberofplantssharingthesamefungalwebitwasperhaps17thatafewcheaters—dubbedepiparasites—wouldevolvetobeatthesystem.18theseplantsreversedtheflowofcarbon19itintotheirrootsfromthefungi20releasingitas"payment./ Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.9
Mostplantscanmaketheirownfoodfromsunlight1somehavediscoveredthatstealingisaneasierwaytolive.Thousandsofplantspeciesgetby2photosynthesizingandover400ofthesespeciesseemtolivebypilferingsugarsfromanunderground3offungi真菌.Butin4ahandfuloftheseplantshasthismodusoperandibeentracedtoarelativelyobscurefungus.Tofindouthow5are6mycologistMartinBidartondooftheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyandhisteamlookedintheirroots.Whattheyfoundwere7ofacommontypeoffungusso8thatitisfoundinnearly70percentofallplants.Thepresenceofthiscommonfungusintheseplantsnotonly9athowtheysurvivesaysBidartondobutalsosuggeststhatmanyordinaryplantsmightprosperfromalittlelootingtoo. Plantshave10relationstogetwhattheyneedtosurvive.Normal11plantscanmaketheirowncarbohydratesthroughphotosynthesisbuttheystillneedminerals.Mostplantshave12asymbioticrelationshipwitha13networkofwhatarecalledmycorrhizalfungiwhichliesbeneaththeforest14.Thefungihelpgreenplantsabsorbmineralsthroughtheirrootsand15theplantsnormally16thefungiwithsugarsorcarbonwithanumberofplantssharingthesamefungalwebitwasperhaps17thatafewcheaters—dubbedepiparasites—wouldevolvetobeatthesystem.18theseplantsreversedtheflowofcarbon19itintotheirrootsfromthefungi20releasingitas"payment./ Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.3
Mostplantscanmaketheirownfoodfromsunlight1somehavediscoveredthatstealingisaneasierwaytolive.Thousandsofplantspeciesgetby2photosynthesizingandover400ofthesespeciesseemtolivebypilferingsugarsfromanunderground3offungi真菌.Butin4ahandfuloftheseplantshasthismodusoperandibeentracedtoarelativelyobscurefungus.Tofindouthow5are6mycologistMartinBidartondooftheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyandhisteamlookedintheirroots.Whattheyfoundwere7ofacommontypeoffungusso8thatitisfoundinnearly70percentofallplants.Thepresenceofthiscommonfungusintheseplantsnotonly9athowtheysurvivesaysBidartondobutalsosuggeststhatmanyordinaryplantsmightprosperfromalittlelootingtoo. Plantshave10relationstogetwhattheyneedtosurvive.Normal11plantscanmaketheirowncarbohydratesthroughphotosynthesisbuttheystillneedminerals.Mostplantshave12asymbioticrelationshipwitha13networkofwhatarecalledmycorrhizalfungiwhichliesbeneaththeforest14.Thefungihelpgreenplantsabsorbmineralsthroughtheirrootsand15theplantsnormally16thefungiwithsugarsorcarbonwithanumberofplantssharingthesamefungalwebitwasperhaps17thatafewcheaters—dubbedepiparasites—wouldevolvetobeatthesystem.18theseplantsreversedtheflowofcarbon19itintotheirrootsfromthefungi20releasingitas"payment./ Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.7
Mostplantscanmaketheirownfoodfromsunlight1somehavediscoveredthatstealingisaneasierwaytolive.Thousandsofplantspeciesgetby2photosynthesizingandover400ofthesespeciesseemtolivebypilferingsugarsfromanunderground3offungi真菌.Butin4ahandfuloftheseplantshasthismodusoperandibeentracedtoarelativelyobscurefungus.Tofindouthow5are6mycologistMartinBidartondooftheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyandhisteamlookedintheirroots.Whattheyfoundwere7ofacommontypeoffungusso8thatitisfoundinnearly70percentofallplants.Thepresenceofthiscommonfungusintheseplantsnotonly9athowtheysurvivesaysBidartondobutalsosuggeststhatmanyordinaryplantsmightprosperfromalittlelootingtoo. Plantshave10relationstogetwhattheyneedtosurvive.Normal11plantscanmaketheirowncarbohydratesthroughphotosynthesisbuttheystillneedminerals.Mostplantshave12asymbioticrelationshipwitha13networkofwhatarecalledmycorrhizalfungiwhichliesbeneaththeforest14.Thefungihelpgreenplantsabsorbmineralsthroughtheirrootsand15theplantsnormally16thefungiwithsugarsorcarbonwithanumberofplantssharingthesamefungalwebitwasperhaps17thatafewcheaters—dubbedepiparasites—wouldevolvetobeatthesystem.18theseplantsreversedtheflowofcarbon19itintotheirrootsfromthefungi20releasingitas"payment./ Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.15
Directions:Jordanisoneofyourbusinesspartners.RecentlyhewaspromotedtobetheGeneralManagerofECCCompany.Writealetterto1congratulatehimonhispromotionand2expressyourwishtocooperatewithhim.Youshouldwriteabout100wordsonANSWERSHEET2.Donotsignyourownnameattheendoftheletter.UseLiMinginstead.Youdon’thavetowritetheaddress.
Mostplantscanmaketheirownfoodfromsunlight1somehavediscoveredthatstealingisaneasierwaytolive.Thousandsofplantspeciesgetby2photosynthesizingandover400ofthesespeciesseemtolivebypilferingsugarsfromanunderground3offungi真菌.Butin4ahandfuloftheseplantshasthismodusoperandibeentracedtoarelativelyobscurefungus.Tofindouthow5are6mycologistMartinBidartondooftheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyandhisteamlookedintheirroots.Whattheyfoundwere7ofacommontypeoffungusso8thatitisfoundinnearly70percentofallplants.Thepresenceofthiscommonfungusintheseplantsnotonly9athowtheysurvivesaysBidartondobutalsosuggeststhatmanyordinaryplantsmightprosperfromalittlelootingtoo. Plantshave10relationstogetwhattheyneedtosurvive.Normal11plantscanmaketheirowncarbohydratesthroughphotosynthesisbuttheystillneedminerals.Mostplantshave12asymbioticrelationshipwitha13networkofwhatarecalledmycorrhizalfungiwhichliesbeneaththeforest14.Thefungihelpgreenplantsabsorbmineralsthroughtheirrootsand15theplantsnormally16thefungiwithsugarsorcarbonwithanumberofplantssharingthesamefungalwebitwasperhaps17thatafewcheaters—dubbedepiparasites—wouldevolvetobeatthesystem.18theseplantsreversedtheflowofcarbon19itintotheirrootsfromthefungi20releasingitas"payment./ Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.13
Thehistoryofmodempollutionproblemsshowsthatmosthaveresultedfromnegligenceandignorance.Wehaveanappallingtendencytointerferewithnaturebeforeallofthepossibleconsequencesofouractionshavebeenstudiedindepth.Weproduceanddistrobiteradioactivesubstancessyntheticchemicalsandmanyotherpotentcompoundsbeforefullycomprehendingtheireffectsonlivingorganisms.Oureducationisdangerouslyincomplete.Itwillbearguedthatthepurposeofscienceistomoveintounknownterritorytoexploreandtodiscover.Itcanbesaidthatsimilarriskshavebeentakenbeforeandthattheserisksarenecessarytotechnologicalprogress.Theseargumentsoverlookanimportantelement.Inthepastriskstakeninthenameofscientificprogresswererestrictedtoasmallplaceandbriefperiodoftime.Theeffectsoftheprocesseswenowstrivetomasterareneitherlocalizednorbrief.Airpollutioncoversvasturbanareas.Oceanpollutantshavebeendiscoveredinnearlyeverypartoftheworld.Syntheticchemicalsspreadoverhugestretchesofforestandfarmlandmayremaininthesoilfordecadesandyearstocome.Radioactivepollutantswillbefoundinthebiosphereforgenerations.Thesizeandpersistenceoftheseproblemshavegrownwiththeexpandingpowerofmodemscience.Onemightalsoarguethatthehazardsofmodempollutantsaresmallcomparedwiththedangersassociatedwithotherhumanactivity.Noestimateoftheactualharmdonebysmogfalloutorchemicalresiduescanobscuretherealitythattherisksarebeingtakenbeforebeingfullyunderstood.Theimportanceoftheseissuesliesinthefailureofsciencetopredictandcontrolhumaninterventionintonaturalprocesses.Thetruemeasureofthedangerisrepresentedbythehazardswewillencounterifweenterthenewageoftechnologywithoutfirstevaluatingourresponsibilitytoenvironment.Asusedinthesecondsentenceofthefirstparagraphthephraseindepthmeans
Mostplantscanmaketheirownfoodfromsunlight1somehavediscoveredthatstealingisaneasierwaytolive.Thousandsofplantspeciesgetby2photosynthesizingandover400ofthesespeciesseemtolivebypilferingsugarsfromanunderground3offungi真菌.Butin4ahandfuloftheseplantshasthismodusoperandibeentracedtoarelativelyobscurefungus.Tofindouthow5are6mycologistMartinBidartondooftheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyandhisteamlookedintheirroots.Whattheyfoundwere7ofacommontypeoffungusso8thatitisfoundinnearly70percentofallplants.Thepresenceofthiscommonfungusintheseplantsnotonly9athowtheysurvivesaysBidartondobutalsosuggeststhatmanyordinaryplantsmightprosperfromalittlelootingtoo. Plantshave10relationstogetwhattheyneedtosurvive.Normal11plantscanmaketheirowncarbohydratesthroughphotosynthesisbuttheystillneedminerals.Mostplantshave12asymbioticrelationshipwitha13networkofwhatarecalledmycorrhizalfungiwhichliesbeneaththeforest14.Thefungihelpgreenplantsabsorbmineralsthroughtheirrootsand15theplantsnormally16thefungiwithsugarsorcarbonwithanumberofplantssharingthesamefungalwebitwasperhaps17thatafewcheaters—dubbedepiparasites—wouldevolvetobeatthesystem.18theseplantsreversedtheflowofcarbon19itintotheirrootsfromthefungi20releasingitas"payment./ Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.5
Mostplantscanmaketheirownfoodfromsunlight1somehavediscoveredthatstealingisaneasierwaytolive.Thousandsofplantspeciesgetby2photosynthesizingandover400ofthesespeciesseemtolivebypilferingsugarsfromanunderground3offungi真菌.Butin4ahandfuloftheseplantshasthismodusoperandibeentracedtoarelativelyobscurefungus.Tofindouthow5are6mycologistMartinBidartondooftheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyandhisteamlookedintheirroots.Whattheyfoundwere7ofacommontypeoffungusso8thatitisfoundinnearly70percentofallplants.Thepresenceofthiscommonfungusintheseplantsnotonly9athowtheysurvivesaysBidartondobutalsosuggeststhatmanyordinaryplantsmightprosperfromalittlelootingtoo. Plantshave10relationstogetwhattheyneedtosurvive.Normal11plantscanmaketheirowncarbohydratesthroughphotosynthesisbuttheystillneedminerals.Mostplantshave12asymbioticrelationshipwitha13networkofwhatarecalledmycorrhizalfungiwhichliesbeneaththeforest14.Thefungihelpgreenplantsabsorbmineralsthroughtheirrootsand15theplantsnormally16thefungiwithsugarsorcarbonwithanumberofplantssharingthesamefungalwebitwasperhaps17thatafewcheaters—dubbedepiparasites—wouldevolvetobeatthesystem.18theseplantsreversedtheflowofcarbon19itintotheirrootsfromthefungi20releasingitas"payment./ Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.19
Mostplantscanmaketheirownfoodfromsunlight1somehavediscoveredthatstealingisaneasierwaytolive.Thousandsofplantspeciesgetby2photosynthesizingandover400ofthesespeciesseemtolivebypilferingsugarsfromanunderground3offungi真菌.Butin4ahandfuloftheseplantshasthismodusoperandibeentracedtoarelativelyobscurefungus.Tofindouthow5are6mycologistMartinBidartondooftheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyandhisteamlookedintheirroots.Whattheyfoundwere7ofacommontypeoffungusso8thatitisfoundinnearly70percentofallplants.Thepresenceofthiscommonfungusintheseplantsnotonly9athowtheysurvivesaysBidartondobutalsosuggeststhatmanyordinaryplantsmightprosperfromalittlelootingtoo. Plantshave10relationstogetwhattheyneedtosurvive.Normal11plantscanmaketheirowncarbohydratesthroughphotosynthesisbuttheystillneedminerals.Mostplantshave12asymbioticrelationshipwitha13networkofwhatarecalledmycorrhizalfungiwhichliesbeneaththeforest14.Thefungihelpgreenplantsabsorbmineralsthroughtheirrootsand15theplantsnormally16thefungiwithsugarsorcarbonwithanumberofplantssharingthesamefungalwebitwasperhaps17thatafewcheaters—dubbedepiparasites—wouldevolvetobeatthesystem.18theseplantsreversedtheflowofcarbon19itintotheirrootsfromthefungi20releasingitas"payment./ Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.11
Mostofthepeoplewhoappearmostoftenandmostgloriouslyinthehistorybooksaregreatconquerorsandgeneralsandsoldierswhereasthepeoplewhoreallyhelpedcivilizationforwardareoftennevermentionedatall.Wedonotknowwhofirstsetabrokenlegorlaunchedaseaworthyboatorcalculatedthelengthoftheyearormanuredafield;butweknowallaboutthekillersanddestroyers.Peoplethinkagreatdealofthemsomuchsothatonallthehighestpillarsinthegreatcitiesoftheworldyouwillfindthefigureofaconquerororageneralorasoldier.AndIthinkmostpeoplebelievethatthegreatestcountriesarethosethathavebeateninbattlethegreatestnumberofothercountriesandruledoverthemasconquerors.Itisjustpossibletheyarebuttheyarenotthemostcivilized.Animalsfight;sodosavages;hencetobegoodatfightingistobegoodinthewayinwhichananimalorasavageisgoodbutitisnottobecivilized.Evenbeinggoodatgettingotherpeopletofightforyouandtellingthemhowtodoitmostefficiently—thisafteralliswhatconquerorsandgeneralshavedone—isnotbeingcivilized.Peoplefighttosettlequarrels.Fightingmeanskillingandcivilizedpeoplesoughttobeabletofindsomewayofsettlingtheirdisputesotherthanbyseeingwhichsidecankilloffthegreaternumberoftheothersideandthensayingthatthatsidewhichhaskilledmosthaswon.Andnotonlyhaswonbutbecauseithaswonhasbeenintheright.Forthatiswhatgoingtowarmeans;itmeanssayingthatmightisright.Thatiswhatthestoryofmankindhasonthewholebeenlike.Evenourownagehasfoughtthetwogreatestwarsinhistoryinwhichmillionsofpeoplewerekilledormutilated.Andwhiletodayitistruethatpeopledonotfightandkilleachotherinthestreets—whilethatistosaywehavegottothestageofkeepingtherulesandbehavingproperlytoeachotherindailylife—nationsandcountrieshavenotlearnttodothisyetandstillbehavelikesavages.Butwemustnotexpecttoomuch.Afteralltheraceofmenhasonlyjuststarted.Fromthepointofviewofevolutionhumanbeingsareveryyoungchildrenindeedbabiesinfactofafewmonthsold.Scientistsreckonthattherehasbeenlifeofsomesortontheearthintheformofjellyfishandthatkindofcreatureforabouttwelvehundredmillionyears;buttherehavebeenmenforonlyonemillionyearsandtherehavebeencivilizedmenforabouteightthousandyearsattheoutside.Thesefiguresaredifficulttograsp;soletusscalethemdown.Supposethatwereckonthewholepastoflivingcreaturesontheearthasonehundredyears;thenthewholepastofmanworksoutataboutonemonthandduringthatmonththerehavebeencivilizationsforbetweensevenandeighthours.Soyouseetherehasbeenlittletimetolearninbuttherewillbeoceansoftimeinwhichtolearnbetter.Takingman’scivilizedpastataboutsevenoreighthourswemayestimatehisfuturethatistosaythewholeperiodbetweennowandwhenthesungrowstoocoldtomaintainlifeanylongerontheearthataboutonehundredthousandyears.ThusmankindisonlyatthebeginningofitscivilizedlifeandasIsaywemustnotexpecttoomuch.Thepastofmanhasbeenonthewholeaprettybeastlybusinessabusinessoffightingandbullyingandgorgingandgrabbingandhurting.Wemustnotexpectevencivilizedpeoplesnottohavedonethesethings.Allwecanaskisthattheywillsometimeshavedonesomethingelse.Intheauthor’sopinionthecountriesthatruledoveralargenumberofothercountriesare
46ThedeterminationofthesourcesofcopperoreusedinthemanufactureofcopperandbronzeartifactsofBronzeAgecivilizationswouldaddgreatlytoourknowledgeofculturalcontactsandtradeinthaterawhenpreliminaryindustrywasonthehorizon.Researchershaveanalyzedartifactsandoresfortheirconcentrationsofelementsbutforavarietyofreasonsthesestudieshavegenerallyfailedtoprovideevidenceofthesourcesofthecopperusedintheobjects.Elementalcompositioncanvarywithinthesamecopper-orelodeusuallybecauseofvaryingadmixturesofotherelementsespeciallyironleadzincandarsenic.Andhighconcentrationsofcobaltorzincnoticedinsomeartifactsappearinavarietyofcopper-oresources.Moreovertheprocessingoforesintroducedpoorlycontrolledchangesintheconcentrationsofminorandtraceelementsintheresultingmetal.Someelementsevaporateduringsmeltingandroasting;differenttemperaturesandprocessesproducedifferentdegreesofloss.47Finallyfluxwhichissometimesaddedduringsmeltingtoremovewastematerialfromtheorecouldaddtothefinalproductquantitiesofelementsthataremixedtogetherwithcopper. Anelementalpropertythatisunchangedthroughthesechemicalprocessesistheisotopiccompositionofeachmetallicelementintheore.Isotopiccompositionthepercentagesofthedifferentisotopesofanelementinagivensampleoftheelementisthereforeparticularlysuitableasanindicatorofthesourcesoftheore.48Ofcourseforthispurposeitisnecessarytofindanelementwhoseelementalcompositionismoreorlessconstantthroughoutagivenorebodybutvariesfromonecopperorebodytoanotheroratleastfromonegeographicregiontoanother. Theidealchoicewhenisotopiccompositionisusedtoinvestigatethesourceofcopperorewouldseemtobecopperitself.Ithasbeenshownthatsmallbutmeasurablevariationsoccurnaturallyintheisotopiccompositionofcopper.Howeverthevariationsarelargeenoughonlyinrareores;betweensamplesofthecommonoremineralsofcopperisotopicvariationsgreaterthanthemeasurementerrorhavenotbeenfound.49AnalternativechoiceisleadwhichoccursinmostcopperandbronzeartifactsoftheBronzeAgeinamountsconsistentwiththeleadbeingderivedfromthecopperoresandpossiblyfromthefluxes.Theisotopiccompositionofleadoftenvariesfromonesourceofcommoncopperoretoanotherwithvariationsexceedingthemeasurementerror;andpreliminarystudiesindicatevirtuallyuniformistopiccompositionoftheleadfromasinglecopper-oresource.50WhilesomeoftheleadfoundinanartifactmayhavebeenintroducedfromfluxorwhenothermetalswereaddedtothecopperoreleadsoaddedinBronzeAgeprocessingwouldusuallyhavethesamecompositionastheleadfoundinthecopperore.LeadisotopestudiesmaythusproveusefulforinterpretingthearchaeologicalrecordoftheBronzeAge. Finallyfluxwhichissometimesaddedduringsmeltingtoremovewastematerialfromtheorecouldaddtothefinalproductquantitiesofelementsthataremixedtogetherwithcopper.
Mostplantscanmaketheirownfoodfromsunlight1somehavediscoveredthatstealingisaneasierwaytolive.Thousandsofplantspeciesgetby2photosynthesizingandover400ofthesespeciesseemtolivebypilferingsugarsfromanunderground3offungi真菌.Butin4ahandfuloftheseplantshasthismodusoperandibeentracedtoarelativelyobscurefungus.Tofindouthow5are6mycologistMartinBidartondooftheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyandhisteamlookedintheirroots.Whattheyfoundwere7ofacommontypeoffungusso8thatitisfoundinnearly70percentofallplants.Thepresenceofthiscommonfungusintheseplantsnotonly9athowtheysurvivesaysBidartondobutalsosuggeststhatmanyordinaryplantsmightprosperfromalittlelootingtoo. Plantshave10relationstogetwhattheyneedtosurvive.Normal11plantscanmaketheirowncarbohydratesthroughphotosynthesisbuttheystillneedminerals.Mostplantshave12asymbioticrelationshipwitha13networkofwhatarecalledmycorrhizalfungiwhichliesbeneaththeforest14.Thefungihelpgreenplantsabsorbmineralsthroughtheirrootsand15theplantsnormally16thefungiwithsugarsorcarbonwithanumberofplantssharingthesamefungalwebitwasperhaps17thatafewcheaters—dubbedepiparasites—wouldevolvetobeatthesystem.18theseplantsreversedtheflowofcarbon19itintotheirrootsfromthefungi20releasingitas"payment./ Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.1
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