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第一篇Heat and Health Extremely hot weather is common in many parts of the world.Although hot weat...
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被白先勇评价为第一篇台湾中国作家受西方存在主义影响产生的第一篇探讨人类基本存在困境的小说是丛甦的哪部
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ScientistsDevelopWaysofDetectingHeartAttack Germanresearchershavecomeupwithanewgenerationofdefibrillators除颤器andearly-warningsoftwareaimedatofferingheartpatientsgreater_________51fromsuddendeathfromcardiacarrest心脏停搏. InGermanyalonearound100000peopledieannually_________52aresultofcardiacarrestandmanyofthesecasesarecausedbydisruptiontotheheart’srhythm.Thosemostat_________53arepatientswhohavealreadysufferedaheartattackandforyearstheuseofdefibrillatorshasprovedusefulin_________54life-threateningdisruptionstoheartrhythmsandcorrectingthemautomaticallybyinterveningwithinseconds.Thesedevices_________55onarangeoffunctionssuchasthatofpacemaker起搏器 HeartspecialistsatFreiburg’sUniversityClinichavenowachievedabreakthroughwithanimplanteddefibrillator_________56ofgeneratingasix-channelelectrocardiogramECG心电图withinthebody.Thisintegratedsystemallows_________57diagnosisofsevereblood-flowproblemsandapending即将发生的heartattack.Itwill.beimplantedin_________58forthefirsttimethisyear.MeanwhileresearchersattheFraunhoferInstituteforAppliedMathematicsinKaiserslauternhavedevelopednewcomputersoftwarethat_________59theevaluationofECGdatamoreprecise. Theoverwhelmingmajorityofpatientsatriskwillnothaveanimplanteddefibrillatorandmustforthis_________60undergoregularECGs.Manyofthecurrentprogramsonlytakeinto_________61alinearcorrelationofthedata.Wearehowevermakinguseofanon-linearprocess_________62revealsthechaoticpatternsofheartbeatsasanopenandcomplexsystemHagenKnafsays.Inthiswaychangesintheheart_________63overtimecanbemonitoredandindividualvariationsinpatientstakenintoaccount.AnoldstudyofECGdatabasedupon600patientswhohadtocomparerisksandtoshowthatthenewsoftwareevaluatestheconsiderablybetter.
TheMind-BodyConnections NormanCousinswasafamousAmericanmagazineeditor.In1964hereturnedfromanoverseastripandthenbecameveryill.Inthehospitalhehadterriblepainandcouldn’tmovehisbody.Doctorstoldhimhehadaseriousdiseasecalledankylosingspondylitis强直性脊柱炎andsaidhehadonly1chancein500ofsurviving.Theygavehimpowerfuldrugsbuthisconditiononlygotworse. Cousinshadreadaboutatheorythatnegativeemotionscanharmyourhealth.Hebelievedthatpositiveemotionsweregoodforone’shealthandhedecidedtotryanexperiment.Hewouldfillhisdayswithgoodfeelingsandlaughterandseeifthatmightimprovehiscondition. Heleftthehospitalandmovedintoahotelroom.TherehegotalargesupplyoffunnyTVprogramsandcopiesofoldMarxBrothersmoviesandcartoons.Healsohiredanursetoreadfunnystoriestohim.Hisplanwastospendthewholedaylaughingandthinkingabouthappythings.OnhisfirstnightinthehotelCousinsfoundthatlaughingatthemovieshelpedhisbodyproducechemicalsthatreducedpain.Forthefirsttimeinweekshecouldsleepcomfortablyforafewhours.Everytimethepaincamebackhewatchedanotherfunnymovieandlaugheduntilhefeltbetter. OvertimeCousinswasabletomeasurechangesinhisbodywithbloodtests.Hefoundthattheharmfulchemicalsinhisbodydecreasedatleast5percenteverytimehewatchedafunnymovie.Afterashorttimehewasabletostoptakingallofhismedications.Finallyhisconditionimprovedsomuchthathecouldgobacktowork. Cousinslaterwroteabookabouthowlaughterandhappinesshelpedhimtosurviveadeadlyillness.Manypeopledidn’tbelievehisstoryandsaidthathisdoctorswerewrongabouthisdisease.Butsincethenresearchhasfoundthatemotionsdohaveastrongeffectonphysicalhealthandexperimentsfoundthatlaughtercanhelptoreducepain.Scientiststodayareworkingtounderstandthewaysthatourmindsaffectourbodies. Movieswerebetterthanfunnystoriesforstoppingpain.
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InYourFace Whyisthismansoangry?Wedon’tknowthereasonbutwecanseetheemotioninhisface.Whatevercultureyoucomefromyoucanexpressing. FortyyearsagopsychologistPaulEkmanoftheUniversityofCaliforniaSanFranciscobecameinterestedinhowpeople’sfacesshowtheirfeelings.HetookphotographsofAmericansexpressingvariousemotions.ThenheshowedthemtotheForepeoplewholiveinthejungleinNewGuinea.MostoftheForehadneverseenforeignfacesbuttheyeasilyunderstoodAmericans’expressionsofangerhappinesssadnessdisgustfearandsurprise. ThenEkmandidthesameexperimentinreverse.HeshowedpicturesofForefacestoAmericansandtheresultsweresimilar.AmericanshadnoproblemsreadingtheemotionsontheForepeople’sfaces.Ekman’sresearchgavepowerfulsupporttothetheorythatfacialexpressionsforbasicemotionsarethesameeverywhere.HedidmoreresearchinJapanBrazilandArgentinaandgotthesameresults. AccordingtoEkmanthesesixemotionsareuniversalbecausetheyarebuiltintoourbrains.Theydevelopedtohelpusdealwiththingsquicklythatmighthurtus.Someemotionaltriggersareuniversalaswell.Whensomethingsuddenlycomesintosightpeoplefeelfearbecauseitmightbedangerous.Butmostemotionaltriggersarelearned.Forexampletwopeoplemightsmellnewlycutgrass.Onepersonspentwonderfulsummersinthecountryasachildsothesmellmakeshimhappy.Theotherpersonremembersworkingveryhardonafarmandbeinghungrysohefeelssad. Butwecanlearntomanageouremotionsbetter.Forinstancewecanbemoreawareofthingsthatmakeusangryandwecanthinkbeforewereact. Therearemanydifferencesbetweenculturesintheirlanguagesandcustoms.Butasmileisexactlythesameeverywhere.Ekmanthinksthatsomebasicemotionsarethesameeverywhere.
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第一篇WhyDon’tBabiesTalkLikeAdults? Overthepasthalf-centuryscientistshavesettledontworeasonabletheoriesrelatedtobabytalk.Onestatesthatayoungchild’sbrainneedstimetomasterlanguageinthesamewaythatitdoestomasterotherabilitiessuchasphysicalmovement.Thesecondtheorystatesthatachild’svocabularylevelisthekeyfactor.Accordingtothistheorysomekeystepshavetooccurinalogicalsequencebeforesentenceformationoccurs.Children’smathematicalknowledgedevelopsinthesameway. In2007researchersatHarvardUniversitywhowerestudyingthetwotheoriesfoundacleverwaytotestthem.Morethan20000internationallyadoptedchildrenentertheU.S.eachyear.ManyofthemnolongerheartheirbirthlanguageaftertheyarriveandtheymustlearnEnglishmoreorlessthesamewayinfantsdo一thatisbylisteningandbytrialanderror.Internationaladopteesdon’ttakeclassesoruseadictionarywhentheyarelearningtheirnewtongueandmostofthemdon’thaveawell-developedfirstlanguage.Allofthesefactorsmakethemanidealpopulationinwhichtotestthesecompetinghypothesesabouthowlanguageislearned NeuroscientistsJesseSnedekerJoyGerenandCarissaShaftostudiedthelanguagedevelopmentof27childrenadoptedfromChinabetweentheagesoftwoandfiveyears.ThesechildrenbeganlearningEnglishatanolderagethanUSnativesandhadmorematurebrainswithwhichtotacklethetask.EvensojustaswithAmerican-borninfantstheirfirstEnglishsentencesconsistedofsinglewordsandwerelargelybereft缺乏的offunctionwordswordendingsandverbs.TheadopteesthenwentthroughthesamestagesastypicalAmerican-bornchildrenthoughatafasterclip.Theadopteesandnativechildrenstartedcombiningwordsinsentenceswhentheirvocabularyreachedthesamesizesfurthersuggestingthatwhatmattersisnothowoldyouareorhowmatureyourbrainisbutthenumberofwordsyouknow. Thisfinding一thathavingmorematurebrainsdidnothelptheadopteesavoidthetoddle-talkstage一suggeststhatbabiesspeakinbabytalknotbecausetheyhavebabybrainsbutbecausetheyhaveonlyjuststartedlearningandneedtimetogainenoughvocabularytobeabletoexpandtheirconversations.Beforelongtheone-wordstagewillgivewaytothetwo-wordstageandsoon.Learninghowtochatlikeanadultisagradualprocess. Butthispotentialansweralsoraisesanevenolderandmoredifficultquestion.Adultimmigrantswholearnasecondlanguagerarelyachievethesameproficiencyinaforeignlanguageastheaveragechildraisedasanativespeaker.Researchershavelongsuspectedthereisacriticalperiodforlanguagedevelopmentafterwhichitcannotproceedwithfullsuccesstofluency.Yetwestilldonotunderstandthiscriticalperiodorknowwhyitends.Whatisthewriter’smainpurposeinParagraph2?
第二篇DNAFingerprinting DNAisthegeneticmaterialfoundwithinthecellnucleiofalllivingthings.InmammalsthestrandsofDNAaregroupedintostructurescalledchromosomes.WiththeexceptionofidenticalsiblingsasinidenticaltwinsthecompleteDNAofeachindividualisunique. DNAfingerprintingissometimescalledDNAtyping.ItisamethodofidentificationthatcomparesbitsofDNA.ADNAfingerprintisconstructedbyfirstdrawingoutaDNAsamplefrombodytissueorfluidsuchashairbloodorsaliva.Thesampleisthensegmentedusingenzymesandthesegmentsarearrangedbysize.ThesegmentsaremarkedwithprobesandexposedonX-rayfilmwheretheyformapatternofblackbars—theDNAfingerprint.IftheDNAfingerprintsproducedfromtwodifferentsamplesmatchthetwosamplesprobablycamefromthesameperson. DNAfingerprintingwasfirstdevelopedasanidentificationtechniquein1985.Originallyusedtodetectthepresenceofgeneticdiseasesitsooncametobeusedincriminalinvestigationsandlegalaffairs.ThefirstcriminalconvictionbasedonDNAevidenceintheUnitedStatesoccurredin1988.IncriminalinvestigationsDNAfingerprintsderivedfromevidencecollectedatthecrimescenearecomparedtotheDNAfingerprintsofsuspects.GenerallycourtshaveacceptedthereliabilityofDNAtestingandadmittedDNAtestresultsintoevidence.HoweverDNAfingerprintingiscontroversialinanumberofareas:theaccuracyoftheresultsthecostoftestingandthepossiblemisuseofthetechnique. TheaccuracyofDNAfingerprintinghasbeenchallengedforseveralreasons.FirstbecauseDNAsegmentsratherthancompleteDNAstrandsarefingerprinted;aDNAfingerprintmaynotbeunique;large-scaleresearchtoconfirmtheuniquenessofDNAfingerprintingtestresultshasnotbeenconducted.InadditionDNAfingerprintingisoftendoneinprivatelaboratoriesthatmaynotfollowuniformtestingstandardsandqualitycontrols.Alsosincehumanbeingsmustinterpretthetesthumanerrorcouldleadtofalseresults. DNAfingerprintingisexpensive.SuspectswhoareunabletoprovidetheirownDNAtoexpertsmaynotbeabletosuccessfullydefendthemselvesagainstchargesbasedonDNAevidence. WidespreaduseofDNAtestingforidentificationpurposesmayleadtotheestablishmentofaDNAfingerprintdatabase.DNAfingerprintingisatechniqueof
第三篇OntheTrailoftheHoneyBadgers OnarecentfieldtriptotheKalahariDesertateamofresearcherslearntalotmoreabouthoneybadgers獾.TheteamemployedalocalwildlifeexpertKitsoKhamatohelpthemlocateandfollowthebadgersacrossthedesert.Theirmainaimwastostudythebadgers’movementsandbehaviourasdiscreetly谨慎地aspossiblewithoutfrighteningthemawayorcausingthemtochangetheirnaturalbehaviour.Theyalsoplannedtotrapafewandstudythemcloseupbeforereleasingthem.Inviewoftheanimal’sreputationthiswassomethingthatevenKhamawasreluctanttodo. Theproblemwithhoneybadgersistheyarenaturallycuriousanimalsespeciallywhentheyseesomethingnewhesays.thatcombinedwiththeirunpredictablenaturecanbeadangerousmixture.Iftheysenseyouhavefoodforexampletheywon’tbeshyaboutcomingrightuptoyouforsomethingtoeat.They’reactuallyquitesociablecreaturesaroundhumansbutassoonastheyfeeltheymightbeindangertheycanbecomeextremelyvicious凶恶的.Fortunatelythisisrarebutitdoeshappen. Theresearchconfirmedmanythingsthatwerealreadyknown.Asexpectedhoneybadgersateanycreaturestheycouldcatchandkill.Evenpoisonoussnakesfearedandavoidedbymostotheranimalswerenotsafefromthem.Theresearchersweresurprisedhoweverbytheanimal’sfondnessforlocalmelonsprobablybecauseoftheirhighwatercontent.Previouslyresearchersthoughtthattheanimalgotallofitsliquidrequirementsfromitsprey猎物.Theteamalsolearntthatcontrarytopreviousresearchfindingsthebadgersoccasionallyformedloosefamilygroups.Theywerealsoabletoconfirmcertainresultsfrompreviousresearchincludingthefatthatfemalebadgersneversocializedwitheachother. Followingsomeofthemalebadgerswasachallengesincetheycancoverlargedistancesinashortspaceoftime.Somehuntingterritoriescovermorethan500squarekilometers.Althoughtheyseemhappytosharetheseterritorieswithothermalesthereareoccasionalfightsoveranimportantfoodsourceandmalebadgerscanbeasaggressivetowardseachotherastheyaretowardsotherspecies. Asthebadgersbecameaccustomedtothepresenceofpeopleitgavetheteamthechancetogetupclosetothemwithoutbeingthesubjectoftheanimal’scuriosity—ortheirsuddenaggression.Thebadgers’eatingpatternswhichhadbeendisruptedreturnedtonormal.Italsoallowedtheteamtoobservemorecloselysomeoftheothercreaturesthatformworkingassociationswiththehoneybadgerastheseseemstoadoptthebadgers’relaxedattitudewhennearhumans.WhydidthewildlifeexpertsvisittheKalahariDesert?
ScientistsDevelopWaysofDetectingHeartAttack Germanresearchershavecomeupwithanewgenerationofdefibrillators除颤器andearly-warningsoftwareaimedatofferingheartpatientsgreater_________51fromsuddendeathfromcardiacarrest心脏停搏. InGermanyalonearound100000peopledieannually_________52aresultofcardiacarrestandmanyofthesecasesarecausedbydisruptiontotheheart’srhythm.Thosemostat_________53arepatientswhohavealreadysufferedaheartattackandforyearstheuseofdefibrillatorshasprovedusefulin_________54life-threateningdisruptionstoheartrhythmsandcorrectingthemautomaticallybyinterveningwithinseconds.Thesedevices_________55onarangeoffunctionssuchasthatofpacemaker起搏器 HeartspecialistsatFreiburg’sUniversityClinichavenowachievedabreakthroughwithanimplanteddefibrillator_________56ofgeneratingasix-channelelectrocardiogramECG心电图withinthebody.Thisintegratedsystemallows_________57diagnosisofsevereblood-flowproblemsandapending即将发生的heartattack.Itwill.beimplantedin_________58forthefirsttimethisyear.MeanwhileresearchersattheFraunhoferInstituteforAppliedMathematicsinKaiserslauternhavedevelopednewcomputersoftwarethat_________59theevaluationofECGdatamoreprecise. Theoverwhelmingmajorityofpatientsatriskwillnothaveanimplanteddefibrillatorandmustforthis_________60undergoregularECGs.Manyofthecurrentprogramsonlytakeinto_________61alinearcorrelationofthedata.Wearehowevermakinguseofanon-linearprocess_________62revealsthechaoticpatternsofheartbeatsasanopenandcomplexsystemHagenKnafsays.Inthiswaychangesintheheart_________63overtimecanbemonitoredandindividualvariationsinpatientstakenintoaccount.AnoldstudyofECGdatabasedupon600patientswhohadtocomparerisksandtoshowthatthenewsoftwareevaluatestheconsiderablybetter.
TheMind-BodyConnections NormanCousinswasafamousAmericanmagazineeditor.In1964hereturnedfromanoverseastripandthenbecameveryill.Inthehospitalhehadterriblepainandcouldn’tmovehisbody.Doctorstoldhimhehadaseriousdiseasecalledankylosingspondylitis强直性脊柱炎andsaidhehadonly1chancein500ofsurviving.Theygavehimpowerfuldrugsbuthisconditiononlygotworse. Cousinshadreadaboutatheorythatnegativeemotionscanharmyourhealth.Hebelievedthatpositiveemotionsweregoodforone’shealthandhedecidedtotryanexperiment.Hewouldfillhisdayswithgoodfeelingsandlaughterandseeifthatmightimprovehiscondition. Heleftthehospitalandmovedintoahotelroom.TherehegotalargesupplyoffunnyTVprogramsandcopiesofoldMarxBrothersmoviesandcartoons.Healsohiredanursetoreadfunnystoriestohim.Hisplanwastospendthewholedaylaughingandthinkingabouthappythings.OnhisfirstnightinthehotelCousinsfoundthatlaughingatthemovieshelpedhisbodyproducechemicalsthatreducedpain.Forthefirsttimeinweekshecouldsleepcomfortablyforafewhours.Everytimethepaincamebackhewatchedanotherfunnymovieandlaugheduntilhefeltbetter. OvertimeCousinswasabletomeasurechangesinhisbodywithbloodtests.Hefoundthattheharmfulchemicalsinhisbodydecreasedatleast5percenteverytimehewatchedafunnymovie.Afterashorttimehewasabletostoptakingallofhismedications.Finallyhisconditionimprovedsomuchthathecouldgobacktowork. Cousinslaterwroteabookabouthowlaughterandhappinesshelpedhimtosurviveadeadlyillness.Manypeopledidn’tbelievehisstoryandsaidthathisdoctorswerewrongabouthisdisease.Butsincethenresearchhasfoundthatemotionsdohaveastrongeffectonphysicalhealthandexperimentsfoundthatlaughtercanhelptoreducepain.Scientiststodayareworkingtounderstandthewaysthatourmindsaffectourbodies. Cousinsstartedwatchingmoviesbecausehewasbored.
ScientistsDevelopWaysofDetectingHeartAttack Germanresearchershavecomeupwithanewgenerationofdefibrillators除颤器andearly-warningsoftwareaimedatofferingheartpatientsgreater_________51fromsuddendeathfromcardiacarrest心脏停搏. InGermanyalonearound100000peopledieannually_________52aresultofcardiacarrestandmanyofthesecasesarecausedbydisruptiontotheheart’srhythm.Thosemostat_________53arepatientswhohavealreadysufferedaheartattackandforyearstheuseofdefibrillatorshasprovedusefulin_________54life-threateningdisruptionstoheartrhythmsandcorrectingthemautomaticallybyinterveningwithinseconds.Thesedevices_________55onarangeoffunctionssuchasthatofpacemaker起搏器 HeartspecialistsatFreiburg’sUniversityClinichavenowachievedabreakthroughwithanimplanteddefibrillator_________56ofgeneratingasix-channelelectrocardiogramECG心电图withinthebody.Thisintegratedsystemallows_________57diagnosisofsevereblood-flowproblemsandapending即将发生的heartattack.Itwill.beimplantedin_________58forthefirsttimethisyear.MeanwhileresearchersattheFraunhoferInstituteforAppliedMathematicsinKaiserslauternhavedevelopednewcomputersoftwarethat_________59theevaluationofECGdatamoreprecise. Theoverwhelmingmajorityofpatientsatriskwillnothaveanimplanteddefibrillatorandmustforthis_________60undergoregularECGs.Manyofthecurrentprogramsonlytakeinto_________61alinearcorrelationofthedata.Wearehowevermakinguseofanon-linearprocess_________62revealsthechaoticpatternsofheartbeatsasanopenandcomplexsystemHagenKnafsays.Inthiswaychangesintheheart_________63overtimecanbemonitoredandindividualvariationsinpatientstakenintoaccount.AnoldstudyofECGdatabasedupon600patientswhohadtocomparerisksandtoshowthatthenewsoftwareevaluatestheconsiderablybetter.
第一篇 GrossNationalHappiness Inthelastcenturynewtechnologyimprovedthelivesofmanypeopleinmanycountries.Howeveronecountryresistedthesechanges.HighintheHimalayanmountainsofAsiathekingdomofBhutanremainedseparate.ItspeopleandBuddhistfó jiāo culturehadnotbeenaffectedforalmostathousandyears.Bhutanhoweverwasapoorcountry.Peoplediedatayoungage.Mostofitspeoplecouldnotreadandtheydidnotknowmuchabouttheoutsideworld.Thenin1972anewrulernamedKingJigmeSingyeWangchuckdecidedtohelpBhutantobecomemodernbutwithoutlosingitstraditions. KingWangchucklookedatothercountriesforideas.HesawthatmostcountriesmeasuredtheirprogressbytheirGrossNatonalProductGNP.TheGNPmeasuresproductsandmoney.Whenthenumberofproductssoldincreasespeoplesaythecountryismakingprogress.KingWangchuckhadadifferentideaforBhutan.Hewantedtomeasurehiscountry’sprogressbypeople’shappiness.Ifthepeople’shappinessincreasedthekingcouldsaythatBhutanwasmakingprogress.TodecideifpeoplewerehappierhecreatedameasurecalledGrossNationalHappinessGNH. GNHisbasedoncertainprinciplesthatcreatehappiness.Peoplearehappieriftheyhavehealthcareeducationandjobs.Theyarehappierwhentheyliveinahealthyprotectedenvironment.Theyarehappierwhentheycankeeptheirtraditionalcultureandcustoms.Finallypeoplearehappierwhentheyhaveagoodstablegovernment. NowtheseissomeevidenceofincreasedGNHinBhutan.Peoplearehealthierandarelivinglonger.Morepeopleareeducatedandemployed.Teenty-fivepercentofthelandhasbecomenationalparksandthecountryhasalmostnopollution.TheBhutanesecontinuetoweartheirtraditionalclothingandfollowtheirancientBuddhistcustoms.Bhutanhasalsobecomeademocracy.In2008KingWangchuckgavehispowertohisson.Althoughthecountrystillhadakingithelditsfirstdemocraticelectionsthatyear.Bhutanhadpoliticalpartiesandpoliticalcandidatesforthefirsttime.FinallyBhutanhasconnectedtotherestoftheworldthroughtelevisionandinternet. Bhutanisasymbolforsocialprogress.ManycountriesarenowinterestedinBhutan’sGNH.Thesecountriesareinvestigatingtheirownwaystomeasurehappiness.Theywanttocreatenewpoliciesthattakecareoftheirpeopleculturesandland. BrazilmaybethenestcountrytousetheprinciplesofGNH.BrazilianleadersseetheprinciplesofGNHasasourceofinspiration.Brazilisalargecountrywithadiversepopulation.IfhappinessworksasameasureofprogressinBrazilperhapstherestoftheworldwillfollow. AcountryshowsitsprogresswithGNPby
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第一篇WhyDon’tBabiesTalkLikeAdults? Overthepasthalf-centuryscientistshavesettledontworeasonabletheoriesrelatedtobabytalk.Onestatesthatayoungchild’sbrainneedstimetomasterlanguageinthesamewaythatitdoestomasterotherabilitiessuchasphysicalmovement.Thesecondtheorystatesthatachild’svocabularylevelisthekeyfactor.Accordingtothistheorysomekeystepshavetooccurinalogicalsequencebeforesentenceformationoccurs.Children’smathematicalknowledgedevelopsinthesameway. In2007researchersatHarvardUniversitywhowerestudyingthetwotheoriesfoundacleverwaytotestthem.Morethan20000internationallyadoptedchildrenentertheU.S.eachyear.ManyofthemnolongerheartheirbirthlanguageaftertheyarriveandtheymustlearnEnglishmoreorlessthesamewayinfantsdo一thatisbylisteningandbytrialanderror.Internationaladopteesdon’ttakeclassesoruseadictionarywhentheyarelearningtheirnewtongueandmostofthemdon’thaveawell-developedfirstlanguage.Allofthesefactorsmakethemanidealpopulationinwhichtotestthesecompetinghypothesesabouthowlanguageislearned NeuroscientistsJesseSnedekerJoyGerenandCarissaShaftostudiedthelanguagedevelopmentof27childrenadoptedfromChinabetweentheagesoftwoandfiveyears.ThesechildrenbeganlearningEnglishatanolderagethanUSnativesandhadmorematurebrainswithwhichtotacklethetask.EvensojustaswithAmerican-borninfantstheirfirstEnglishsentencesconsistedofsinglewordsandwerelargelybereft缺乏的offunctionwordswordendingsandverbs.TheadopteesthenwentthroughthesamestagesastypicalAmerican-bornchildrenthoughatafasterclip.Theadopteesandnativechildrenstartedcombiningwordsinsentenceswhentheirvocabularyreachedthesamesizesfurthersuggestingthatwhatmattersisnothowoldyouareorhowmatureyourbrainisbutthenumberofwordsyouknow. Thisfinding一thathavingmorematurebrainsdidnothelptheadopteesavoidthetoddle-talkstage一suggeststhatbabiesspeakinbabytalknotbecausetheyhavebabybrainsbutbecausetheyhaveonlyjuststartedlearningandneedtimetogainenoughvocabularytobeabletoexpandtheirconversations.Beforelongtheone-wordstagewillgivewaytothetwo-wordstageandsoon.Learninghowtochatlikeanadultisagradualprocess. Butthispotentialansweralsoraisesanevenolderandmoredifficultquestion.Adultimmigrantswholearnasecondlanguagerarelyachievethesameproficiencyinaforeignlanguageastheaveragechildraisedasanativespeaker.Researchershavelongsuspectedthereisacriticalperiodforlanguagedevelopmentafterwhichitcannotproceedwithfullsuccesstofluency.Yetwestilldonotunderstandthiscriticalperiodorknowwhyitends.Whenthewritersayscriticalperiodhemeansaperiodwhen
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ScientistsDevelopWaysofDetectingHeartAttack Germanresearchershavecomeupwithanewgenerationofdefibrillators除颤器andearly-warningsoftwareaimedatofferingheartpatientsgreater_________51fromsuddendeathfromcardiacarrest心脏停搏. InGermanyalonearound100000peopledieannually_________52aresultofcardiacarrestandmanyofthesecasesarecausedbydisruptiontotheheart’srhythm.Thosemostat_________53arepatientswhohavealreadysufferedaheartattackandforyearstheuseofdefibrillatorshasprovedusefulin_________54life-threateningdisruptionstoheartrhythmsandcorrectingthemautomaticallybyinterveningwithinseconds.Thesedevices_________55onarangeoffunctionssuchasthatofpacemaker起搏器 HeartspecialistsatFreiburg’sUniversityClinichavenowachievedabreakthroughwithanimplanteddefibrillator_________56ofgeneratingasix-channelelectrocardiogramECG心电图withinthebody.Thisintegratedsystemallows_________57diagnosisofsevereblood-flowproblemsandapending即将发生的heartattack.Itwill.beimplantedin_________58forthefirsttimethisyear.MeanwhileresearchersattheFraunhoferInstituteforAppliedMathematicsinKaiserslauternhavedevelopednewcomputersoftwarethat_________59theevaluationofECGdatamoreprecise. Theoverwhelmingmajorityofpatientsatriskwillnothaveanimplanteddefibrillatorandmustforthis_________60undergoregularECGs.Manyofthecurrentprogramsonlytakeinto_________61alinearcorrelationofthedata.Wearehowevermakinguseofanon-linearprocess_________62revealsthechaoticpatternsofheartbeatsasanopenandcomplexsystemHagenKnafsays.Inthiswaychangesintheheart_________63overtimecanbemonitoredandindividualvariationsinpatientstakenintoaccount.AnoldstudyofECGdatabasedupon600patientswhohadtocomparerisksandtoshowthatthenewsoftwareevaluatestheconsiderablybetter.
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第二篇DNAFingerprinting DNAisthegeneticmaterialfoundwithinthecellnucleiofalllivingthings.InmammalsthestrandsofDNAaregroupedintostructurescalledchromosomes.WiththeexceptionofidenticalsiblingsasinidenticaltwinsthecompleteDNAofeachindividualisunique. DNAfingerprintingissometimescalledDNAtyping.ItisamethodofidentificationthatcomparesbitsofDNA.ADNAfingerprintisconstructedbyfirstdrawingoutaDNAsamplefrombodytissueorfluidsuchashairbloodorsaliva.Thesampleisthensegmentedusingenzymesandthesegmentsarearrangedbysize.ThesegmentsaremarkedwithprobesandexposedonX-rayfilmwheretheyformapatternofblackbars—theDNAfingerprint.IftheDNAfingerprintsproducedfromtwodifferentsamplesmatchthetwosamplesprobablycamefromthesameperson. DNAfingerprintingwasfirstdevelopedasanidentificationtechniquein1985.Originallyusedtodetectthepresenceofgeneticdiseasesitsooncametobeusedincriminalinvestigationsandlegalaffairs.ThefirstcriminalconvictionbasedonDNAevidenceintheUnitedStatesoccurredin1988.IncriminalinvestigationsDNAfingerprintsderivedfromevidencecollectedatthecrimescenearecomparedtotheDNAfingerprintsofsuspects.GenerallycourtshaveacceptedthereliabilityofDNAtestingandadmittedDNAtestresultsintoevidence.HoweverDNAfingerprintingiscontroversialinanumberofareas:theaccuracyoftheresultsthecostoftestingandthepossiblemisuseofthetechnique. TheaccuracyofDNAfingerprintinghasbeenchallengedforseveralreasons.FirstbecauseDNAsegmentsratherthancompleteDNAstrandsarefingerprinted;aDNAfingerprintmaynotbeunique;large-scaleresearchtoconfirmtheuniquenessofDNAfingerprintingtestresultshasnotbeenconducted.InadditionDNAfingerprintingisoftendoneinprivatelaboratoriesthatmaynotfollowuniformtestingstandardsandqualitycontrols.Alsosincehumanbeingsmustinterpretthetesthumanerrorcouldleadtofalseresults. DNAfingerprintingisexpensive.SuspectswhoareunabletoprovidetheirownDNAtoexpertsmaynotbeabletosuccessfullydefendthemselvesagainstchargesbasedonDNAevidence. WidespreaduseofDNAtestingforidentificationpurposesmayleadtotheestablishmentofaDNAfingerprintdatabase.PeoplequestionthereliabilityofDNAfingerprintingfor
ScientistsDevelopWaysofDetectingHeartAttack Germanresearchershavecomeupwithanewgenerationofdefibrillators除颤器andearly-warningsoftwareaimedatofferingheartpatientsgreater_________51fromsuddendeathfromcardiacarrest心脏停搏. InGermanyalonearound100000peopledieannually_________52aresultofcardiacarrestandmanyofthesecasesarecausedbydisruptiontotheheart’srhythm.Thosemostat_________53arepatientswhohavealreadysufferedaheartattackandforyearstheuseofdefibrillatorshasprovedusefulin_________54life-threateningdisruptionstoheartrhythmsandcorrectingthemautomaticallybyinterveningwithinseconds.Thesedevices_________55onarangeoffunctionssuchasthatofpacemaker起搏器 HeartspecialistsatFreiburg’sUniversityClinichavenowachievedabreakthroughwithanimplanteddefibrillator_________56ofgeneratingasix-channelelectrocardiogramECG心电图withinthebody.Thisintegratedsystemallows_________57diagnosisofsevereblood-flowproblemsandapending即将发生的heartattack.Itwill.beimplantedin_________58forthefirsttimethisyear.MeanwhileresearchersattheFraunhoferInstituteforAppliedMathematicsinKaiserslauternhavedevelopednewcomputersoftwarethat_________59theevaluationofECGdatamoreprecise. Theoverwhelmingmajorityofpatientsatriskwillnothaveanimplanteddefibrillatorandmustforthis_________60undergoregularECGs.Manyofthecurrentprogramsonlytakeinto_________61alinearcorrelationofthedata.Wearehowevermakinguseofanon-linearprocess_________62revealsthechaoticpatternsofheartbeatsasanopenandcomplexsystemHagenKnafsays.Inthiswaychangesintheheart_________63overtimecanbemonitoredandindividualvariationsinpatientstakenintoaccount.AnoldstudyofECGdatabasedupon600patientswhohadtocomparerisksandtoshowthatthenewsoftwareevaluatestheconsiderablybetter.
TheMind-BodyConnections NormanCousinswasafamousAmericanmagazineeditor.In1964hereturnedfromanoverseastripandthenbecameveryill.Inthehospitalhehadterriblepainandcouldn’tmovehisbody.Doctorstoldhimhehadaseriousdiseasecalledankylosingspondylitis强直性脊柱炎andsaidhehadonly1chancein500ofsurviving.Theygavehimpowerfuldrugsbuthisconditiononlygotworse. Cousinshadreadaboutatheorythatnegativeemotionscanharmyourhealth.Hebelievedthatpositiveemotionsweregoodforone’shealthandhedecidedtotryanexperiment.Hewouldfillhisdayswithgoodfeelingsandlaughterandseeifthatmightimprovehiscondition. Heleftthehospitalandmovedintoahotelroom.TherehegotalargesupplyoffunnyTVprogramsandcopiesofoldMarxBrothersmoviesandcartoons.Healsohiredanursetoreadfunnystoriestohim.Hisplanwastospendthewholedaylaughingandthinkingabouthappythings.OnhisfirstnightinthehotelCousinsfoundthatlaughingatthemovieshelpedhisbodyproducechemicalsthatreducedpain.Forthefirsttimeinweekshecouldsleepcomfortablyforafewhours.Everytimethepaincamebackhewatchedanotherfunnymovieandlaugheduntilhefeltbetter. OvertimeCousinswasabletomeasurechangesinhisbodywithbloodtests.Hefoundthattheharmfulchemicalsinhisbodydecreasedatleast5percenteverytimehewatchedafunnymovie.Afterashorttimehewasabletostoptakingallofhismedications.Finallyhisconditionimprovedsomuchthathecouldgobacktowork. Cousinslaterwroteabookabouthowlaughterandhappinesshelpedhimtosurviveadeadlyillness.Manypeopledidn’tbelievehisstoryandsaidthathisdoctorswerewrongabouthisdisease.Butsincethenresearchhasfoundthatemotionsdohaveastrongeffectonphysicalhealthandexperimentsfoundthatlaughtercanhelptoreducepain.Scientiststodayareworkingtounderstandthewaysthatourmindsaffectourbodies. DoctorstoldCousinsthathewouldprobablydiefromhisdisease.
第一篇 GrossNationalHappiness Inthelastcenturynewtechnologyimprovedthelivesofmanypeopleinmanycountries.Howeveronecountryresistedthesechanges.HighintheHimalayanmountainsofAsiathekingdomofBhutanremainedseparate.ItspeopleandBuddhistfó jiāo culturehadnotbeenaffectedforalmostathousandyears.Bhutanhoweverwasapoorcountry.Peoplediedatayoungage.Mostofitspeoplecouldnotreadandtheydidnotknowmuchabouttheoutsideworld.Thenin1972anewrulernamedKingJigmeSingyeWangchuckdecidedtohelpBhutantobecomemodernbutwithoutlosingitstraditions. KingWangchucklookedatothercountriesforideas.HesawthatmostcountriesmeasuredtheirprogressbytheirGrossNatonalProductGNP.TheGNPmeasuresproductsandmoney.Whenthenumberofproductssoldincreasespeoplesaythecountryismakingprogress.KingWangchuckhadadifferentideaforBhutan.Hewantedtomeasurehiscountry’sprogressbypeople’shappiness.Ifthepeople’shappinessincreasedthekingcouldsaythatBhutanwasmakingprogress.TodecideifpeoplewerehappierhecreatedameasurecalledGrossNationalHappinessGNH. GNHisbasedoncertainprinciplesthatcreatehappiness.Peoplearehappieriftheyhavehealthcareeducationandjobs.Theyarehappierwhentheyliveinahealthyprotectedenvironment.Theyarehappierwhentheycankeeptheirtraditionalcultureandcustoms.Finallypeoplearehappierwhentheyhaveagoodstablegovernment. NowtheseissomeevidenceofincreasedGNHinBhutan.Peoplearehealthierandarelivinglonger.Morepeopleareeducatedandemployed.Teenty-fivepercentofthelandhasbecomenationalparksandthecountryhasalmostnopollution.TheBhutanesecontinuetoweartheirtraditionalclothingandfollowtheirancientBuddhistcustoms.Bhutanhasalsobecomeademocracy.In2008KingWangchuckgavehispowertohisson.Althoughthecountrystillhadakingithelditsfirstdemocraticelectionsthatyear.Bhutanhadpoliticalpartiesandpoliticalcandidatesforthefirsttime.FinallyBhutanhasconnectedtotherestoftheworldthroughtelevisionandinternet. Bhutanisasymbolforsocialprogress.ManycountriesarenowinterestedinBhutan’sGNH.Thesecountriesareinvestigatingtheirownwaystomeasurehappiness.Theywanttocreatenewpoliciesthattakecareoftheirpeopleculturesandland. BrazilmaybethenestcountrytousetheprinciplesofGNH.BrazilianleadersseetheprinciplesofGNHasasourceofinspiration.Brazilisalargecountrywithadiversepopulation.IfhappinessworksasameasureofprogressinBrazilperhapstherestoftheworldwillfollow. WhowasJigmeSingyeWangchuck?
第三篇OntheTrailoftheHoneyBadgers OnarecentfieldtriptotheKalahariDesertateamofresearcherslearntalotmoreabouthoneybadgers獾.TheteamemployedalocalwildlifeexpertKitsoKhamatohelpthemlocateandfollowthebadgersacrossthedesert.Theirmainaimwastostudythebadgers’movementsandbehaviourasdiscreetly谨慎地aspossiblewithoutfrighteningthemawayorcausingthemtochangetheirnaturalbehaviour.Theyalsoplannedtotrapafewandstudythemcloseupbeforereleasingthem.Inviewoftheanimal’sreputationthiswassomethingthatevenKhamawasreluctanttodo. Theproblemwithhoneybadgersistheyarenaturallycuriousanimalsespeciallywhentheyseesomethingnewhesays.thatcombinedwiththeirunpredictablenaturecanbeadangerousmixture.Iftheysenseyouhavefoodforexampletheywon’tbeshyaboutcomingrightuptoyouforsomethingtoeat.They’reactuallyquitesociablecreaturesaroundhumansbutassoonastheyfeeltheymightbeindangertheycanbecomeextremelyvicious凶恶的.Fortunatelythisisrarebutitdoeshappen. Theresearchconfirmedmanythingsthatwerealreadyknown.Asexpectedhoneybadgersateanycreaturestheycouldcatchandkill.Evenpoisonoussnakesfearedandavoidedbymostotheranimalswerenotsafefromthem.Theresearchersweresurprisedhoweverbytheanimal’sfondnessforlocalmelonsprobablybecauseoftheirhighwatercontent.Previouslyresearchersthoughtthattheanimalgotallofitsliquidrequirementsfromitsprey猎物.Theteamalsolearntthatcontrarytopreviousresearchfindingsthebadgersoccasionallyformedloosefamilygroups.Theywerealsoabletoconfirmcertainresultsfrompreviousresearchincludingthefatthatfemalebadgersneversocializedwitheachother. Followingsomeofthemalebadgerswasachallengesincetheycancoverlargedistancesinashortspaceoftime.Somehuntingterritoriescovermorethan500squarekilometers.Althoughtheyseemhappytosharetheseterritorieswithothermalesthereareoccasionalfightsoveranimportantfoodsourceandmalebadgerscanbeasaggressivetowardseachotherastheyaretowardsotherspecies. Asthebadgersbecameaccustomedtothepresenceofpeopleitgavetheteamthechancetogetupclosetothemwithoutbeingthesubjectoftheanimal’scuriosity—ortheirsuddenaggression.Thebadgers’eatingpatternswhichhadbeendisruptedreturnedtonormal.Italsoallowedtheteamtoobservemorecloselysomeoftheothercreaturesthatformworkingassociationswiththehoneybadgerastheseseemstoadoptthebadgers’relaxedattitudewhennearhumans.Whathappenedwhenhoneybadgersgotusedtohumansaroundthem?
ScientistsDevelopWaysofDetectingHeartAttack Germanresearchershavecomeupwithanewgenerationofdefibrillators除颤器andearly-warningsoftwareaimedatofferingheartpatientsgreater_________51fromsuddendeathfromcardiacarrest心脏停搏. InGermanyalonearound100000peopledieannually_________52aresultofcardiacarrestandmanyofthesecasesarecausedbydisruptiontotheheart’srhythm.Thosemostat_________53arepatientswhohavealreadysufferedaheartattackandforyearstheuseofdefibrillatorshasprovedusefulin_________54life-threateningdisruptionstoheartrhythmsandcorrectingthemautomaticallybyinterveningwithinseconds.Thesedevices_________55onarangeoffunctionssuchasthatofpacemaker起搏器 HeartspecialistsatFreiburg’sUniversityClinichavenowachievedabreakthroughwithanimplanteddefibrillator_________56ofgeneratingasix-channelelectrocardiogramECG心电图withinthebody.Thisintegratedsystemallows_________57diagnosisofsevereblood-flowproblemsandapending即将发生的heartattack.Itwill.beimplantedin_________58forthefirsttimethisyear.MeanwhileresearchersattheFraunhoferInstituteforAppliedMathematicsinKaiserslauternhavedevelopednewcomputersoftwarethat_________59theevaluationofECGdatamoreprecise. Theoverwhelmingmajorityofpatientsatriskwillnothaveanimplanteddefibrillatorandmustforthis_________60undergoregularECGs.Manyofthecurrentprogramsonlytakeinto_________61alinearcorrelationofthedata.Wearehowevermakinguseofanon-linearprocess_________62revealsthechaoticpatternsofheartbeatsasanopenandcomplexsystemHagenKnafsays.Inthiswaychangesintheheart_________63overtimecanbemonitoredandindividualvariationsinpatientstakenintoaccount.AnoldstudyofECGdatabasedupon600patientswhohadtocomparerisksandtoshowthatthenewsoftwareevaluatestheconsiderablybetter.
第三篇OntheTrailoftheHoneyBadgers OnarecentfieldtriptotheKalahariDesertateamofresearcherslearntalotmoreabouthoneybadgers獾.TheteamemployedalocalwildlifeexpertKitsoKhamatohelpthemlocateandfollowthebadgersacrossthedesert.Theirmainaimwastostudythebadgers’movementsandbehaviourasdiscreetly谨慎地aspossiblewithoutfrighteningthemawayorcausingthemtochangetheirnaturalbehaviour.Theyalsoplannedtotrapafewandstudythemcloseupbeforereleasingthem.Inviewoftheanimal’sreputationthiswassomethingthatevenKhamawasreluctanttodo. Theproblemwithhoneybadgersistheyarenaturallycuriousanimalsespeciallywhentheyseesomethingnewhesays.thatcombinedwiththeirunpredictablenaturecanbeadangerousmixture.Iftheysenseyouhavefoodforexampletheywon’tbeshyaboutcomingrightuptoyouforsomethingtoeat.They’reactuallyquitesociablecreaturesaroundhumansbutassoonastheyfeeltheymightbeindangertheycanbecomeextremelyvicious凶恶的.Fortunatelythisisrarebutitdoeshappen. Theresearchconfirmedmanythingsthatwerealreadyknown.Asexpectedhoneybadgersateanycreaturestheycouldcatchandkill.Evenpoisonoussnakesfearedandavoidedbymostotheranimalswerenotsafefromthem.Theresearchersweresurprisedhoweverbytheanimal’sfondnessforlocalmelonsprobablybecauseoftheirhighwatercontent.Previouslyresearchersthoughtthattheanimalgotallofitsliquidrequirementsfromitsprey猎物.Theteamalsolearntthatcontrarytopreviousresearchfindingsthebadgersoccasionallyformedloosefamilygroups.Theywerealsoabletoconfirmcertainresultsfrompreviousresearchincludingthefatthatfemalebadgersneversocializedwitheachother. Followingsomeofthemalebadgerswasachallengesincetheycancoverlargedistancesinashortspaceoftime.Somehuntingterritoriescovermorethan500squarekilometers.Althoughtheyseemhappytosharetheseterritorieswithothermalesthereareoccasionalfightsoveranimportantfoodsourceandmalebadgerscanbeasaggressivetowardseachotherastheyaretowardsotherspecies. Asthebadgersbecameaccustomedtothepresenceofpeopleitgavetheteamthechancetogetupclosetothemwithoutbeingthesubjectoftheanimal’scuriosity—ortheirsuddenaggression.Thebadgers’eatingpatternswhichhadbeendisruptedreturnedtonormal.Italsoallowedtheteamtoobservemorecloselysomeoftheothercreaturesthatformworkingassociationswiththehoneybadgerastheseseemstoadoptthebadgers’relaxedattitudewhennearhumans.Whatdidtheteamfindoutabouthoneybadgers?
ScientistsDevelopWaysofDetectingHeartAttack Germanresearchershavecomeupwithanewgenerationofdefibrillators除颤器andearly-warningsoftwareaimedatofferingheartpatientsgreater_________51fromsuddendeathfromcardiacarrest心脏停搏. InGermanyalonearound100000peopledieannually_________52aresultofcardiacarrestandmanyofthesecasesarecausedbydisruptiontotheheart’srhythm.Thosemostat_________53arepatientswhohavealreadysufferedaheartattackandforyearstheuseofdefibrillatorshasprovedusefulin_________54life-threateningdisruptionstoheartrhythmsandcorrectingthemautomaticallybyinterveningwithinseconds.Thesedevices_________55onarangeoffunctionssuchasthatofpacemaker起搏器 HeartspecialistsatFreiburg’sUniversityClinichavenowachievedabreakthroughwithanimplanteddefibrillator_________56ofgeneratingasix-channelelectrocardiogramECG心电图withinthebody.Thisintegratedsystemallows_________57diagnosisofsevereblood-flowproblemsandapending即将发生的heartattack.Itwill.beimplantedin_________58forthefirsttimethisyear.MeanwhileresearchersattheFraunhoferInstituteforAppliedMathematicsinKaiserslauternhavedevelopednewcomputersoftwarethat_________59theevaluationofECGdatamoreprecise. Theoverwhelmingmajorityofpatientsatriskwillnothaveanimplanteddefibrillatorandmustforthis_________60undergoregularECGs.Manyofthecurrentprogramsonlytakeinto_________61alinearcorrelationofthedata.Wearehowevermakinguseofanon-linearprocess_________62revealsthechaoticpatternsofheartbeatsasanopenandcomplexsystemHagenKnafsays.Inthiswaychangesintheheart_________63overtimecanbemonitoredandindividualvariationsinpatientstakenintoaccount.AnoldstudyofECGdatabasedupon600patientswhohadtocomparerisksandtoshowthatthenewsoftwareevaluatestheconsiderablybetter.
InYourFace Whyisthismansoangry?Wedon’tknowthereasonbutwecanseetheemotioninhisface.Whatevercultureyoucomefromyoucanexpressing. FortyyearsagopsychologistPaulEkmanoftheUniversityofCaliforniaSanFranciscobecameinterestedinhowpeople’sfacesshowtheirfeelings.HetookphotographsofAmericansexpressingvariousemotions.ThenheshowedthemtotheForepeoplewholiveinthejungleinNewGuinea.MostoftheForehadneverseenforeignfacesbuttheyeasilyunderstoodAmericans’expressionsofangerhappinesssadnessdisgustfearandsurprise. ThenEkmandidthesameexperimentinreverse.HeshowedpicturesofForefacestoAmericansandtheresultsweresimilar.AmericanshadnoproblemsreadingtheemotionsontheForepeople’sfaces.Ekman’sresearchgavepowerfulsupporttothetheorythatfacialexpressionsforbasicemotionsarethesameeverywhere.HedidmoreresearchinJapanBrazilandArgentinaandgotthesameresults. AccordingtoEkmanthesesixemotionsareuniversalbecausetheyarebuiltintoourbrains.Theydevelopedtohelpusdealwiththingsquicklythatmighthurtus.Someemotionaltriggersareuniversalaswell.Whensomethingsuddenlycomesintosightpeoplefeelfearbecauseitmightbedangerous.Butmostemotionaltriggersarelearned.Forexampletwopeoplemightsmellnewlycutgrass.Onepersonspentwonderfulsummersinthecountryasachildsothesmellmakeshimhappy.Theotherpersonremembersworkingveryhardonafarmandbeinghungrysohefeelssad. Butwecanlearntomanageouremotionsbetter.Forinstancewecanbemoreawareofthingsthatmakeusangryandwecanthinkbeforewereact. Therearemanydifferencesbetweenculturesintheirlanguagesandcustoms.Butasmileisexactlythesameeverywhere.Fearisthemostdifficultemotiontochange.
第一篇WhyDon’tBabiesTalkLikeAdults? Overthepasthalf-centuryscientistshavesettledontworeasonabletheoriesrelatedtobabytalk.Onestatesthatayoungchild’sbrainneedstimetomasterlanguageinthesamewaythatitdoestomasterotherabilitiessuchasphysicalmovement.Thesecondtheorystatesthatachild’svocabularylevelisthekeyfactor.Accordingtothistheorysomekeystepshavetooccurinalogicalsequencebeforesentenceformationoccurs.Children’smathematicalknowledgedevelopsinthesameway. In2007researchersatHarvardUniversitywhowerestudyingthetwotheoriesfoundacleverwaytotestthem.Morethan20000internationallyadoptedchildrenentertheU.S.eachyear.ManyofthemnolongerheartheirbirthlanguageaftertheyarriveandtheymustlearnEnglishmoreorlessthesamewayinfantsdo一thatisbylisteningandbytrialanderror.Internationaladopteesdon’ttakeclassesoruseadictionarywhentheyarelearningtheirnewtongueandmostofthemdon’thaveawell-developedfirstlanguage.Allofthesefactorsmakethemanidealpopulationinwhichtotestthesecompetinghypothesesabouthowlanguageislearned NeuroscientistsJesseSnedekerJoyGerenandCarissaShaftostudiedthelanguagedevelopmentof27childrenadoptedfromChinabetweentheagesoftwoandfiveyears.ThesechildrenbeganlearningEnglishatanolderagethanUSnativesandhadmorematurebrainswithwhichtotacklethetask.EvensojustaswithAmerican-borninfantstheirfirstEnglishsentencesconsistedofsinglewordsandwerelargelybereft缺乏的offunctionwordswordendingsandverbs.TheadopteesthenwentthroughthesamestagesastypicalAmerican-bornchildrenthoughatafasterclip.Theadopteesandnativechildrenstartedcombiningwordsinsentenceswhentheirvocabularyreachedthesamesizesfurthersuggestingthatwhatmattersisnothowoldyouareorhowmatureyourbrainisbutthenumberofwordsyouknow. Thisfinding一thathavingmorematurebrainsdidnothelptheadopteesavoidthetoddle-talkstage一suggeststhatbabiesspeakinbabytalknotbecausetheyhavebabybrainsbutbecausetheyhaveonlyjuststartedlearningandneedtimetogainenoughvocabularytobeabletoexpandtheirconversations.Beforelongtheone-wordstagewillgivewaytothetwo-wordstageandsoon.Learninghowtochatlikeanadultisagradualprocess. Butthispotentialansweralsoraisesanevenolderandmoredifficultquestion.Adultimmigrantswholearnasecondlanguagerarelyachievethesameproficiencyinaforeignlanguageastheaveragechildraisedasanativespeaker.Researchershavelongsuspectedthereisacriticalperiodforlanguagedevelopmentafterwhichitcannotproceedwithfullsuccesstofluency.Yetwestilldonotunderstandthiscriticalperiodorknowwhyitends.Whataspectoftheadoptedchildren’slanguagedevelopmentdifferedfromthatofUS-bornchildren?
{{*HTML*}}Practicallyallanimalscommunicateeitherthroughsoundsorthroughsoundlesscodes.
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