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To resolve a dispute means to turn opposing positions into a single outcome. The two parties may ...
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Text3 MuchoftheAmericananxietyaboutoldageisaflightfromtherealityofdeath.OneofthestrikingqualitiesoftheAmericancharacteristheunwillingnesstofaceeitherthefactormeaningofdeath.InthemoresombertraditionofAmericanliterature--fromHawthorneandMelvilleandPoetoFaulknerandHemingway--onefindsatragicdepththatdisguisesthesurfacethinnessoftheordinaryAmericandeathattitudes.Byaneffortoftheimaginationthegreatwritersfacedproblemsthatthecultureinactionisreluctanttoface--thefactofdeathitsmysteryanditsplaceintheback-and-forthshuttlingoftheeternalrecurrence.TheunblinkingconfrontationofdeathinGreektimetheelaboratetheologicalpatternswovenarounditintheMiddleAgestheritualcelebrationofitintherichpeasantculturesofLatinandSlavicEuropeandinprimitivecultures;thesearedifficulttofindinAmericanlife. WhetherthroughfearoftheemotionaldepthsorbecauseofadryingupofthefloodgatesofreligiousintensitytheAmericanavoidsdwellingondeathorevencomingtotermswithit;hefindsitmorbidandmovesbackfromitsurroundingitwithwordavoidanceAmericansneverdie;they"passaway"andvarioustaboosofspeechandpractice.A"funeralparlor"isdecoratedtolooklikeabank;everythinginafuneralceremonyisdoneinhushedtonesasifitweresomethingsecrettobeconcealedfromtheworld;thereissomuchemphasisonbeingdignifiedthattheceremonyoftenlosesitsquality:ofdignity.Insomeoftheprimitiveculturesthereisdifficultyinunder-standingthecausesofdeath;itseemspuzzlingandevenunintelligible.LivinginascientificcultureAmericanshaveareadyenoughexplanationofhowitcomesyettheyshowlittlecapacitytocometotermswiththefactofdeathitselfandwiththegriefthataccompaniesit. "Wejubilateoverbirthanddanceatweddings"writesMargaretMead"butmoreandmoredealwiththedeathoffthescenewithoutceremonywithoutanopportunityforyoungandoldtorealizethatdeathisasmuchafactoflifeasisbirth."AndonemayaddeveninitshurryandbrevitythelaststageofanAmerican’slifemthelastoccasionofthisrelationtohissociety—isasstandardizedastherest. InthenovelsofHawthorneandMelvilleonewillfind
KarlVonLinneorLinnaeusasheiswidelyknownwasaSwedishbiologistwhodevisedthesystemofLatinisedscientificnamesforlivingthingsthatbiologistsusetothisday.Whenhecameto1peopleintohissystemheputthemintoagroupcalledHomo--andLinne’shairlessfellowhumansarestillknownbiologicallyasHomosapiens.2thegrouporiginallyhadasecondmemberHomotroglodytes.ItlivedinAfricaandthepicturesshowittobecovered3hair. Modern4arenotasgenerousasLinneinwelcomingotherspeciesintoMan’slofty5andthechimpanzeeisnowreferredto6Pantroglodytes.ButPanorHomothereisno7thatchimpsarehumans’nearestlivingrelativesandthatifthesecretsofwhatmakeshumanityspecialareevertobe8understandingwhychimpsarenotpeoplenorpeoplechimpsisacrucialpartoftheprocess.ThatinturnmeanslookingattheDNAofthetwospecies9itisherethatthe10mustoriginate. Onehalfofthepuzzlehasbeen11forseveralyears:thehumangenomewaspublishedin2001.Thesecondhasnowbeenaddedwiththeannouncementinthisweek’sNature12thechimpanzeegenomehasbeensequencedaswell.Forthoseexpecting13answerstoage-oldquestions14thepublicationofthechimpgenomemaybesomethingofan15Therearenoimmediatelyobviousgenes--presentinonebutnottheother--thataccountforsuchcharacteristichuman16asintelligenceorevenhairlessness.And17thereisageneconnectedwithlanguageknownasFOXP2ithadalreadybeendiscovered.Butalthoughthepreliminarycomparisonofthetwogenomes18bythemembersoftheChimpanzeeSequencingandAnalysisConsortiumthemultinationalteamthatgeneratedthesequencedidnot19anyobviousnuggetsofgeneticgolditdoesatleastshowwheretolookfor20. 10
Text2 TheWorldWideWebhasbeensteadilycreatingawidespreadsurgeinsocialcapitalthroughE-mailconversationschatroomsnewsgroupsande-zones.TheseongoingconnectionsarenotanundergroundphenomenonbutamainstreammovementthatisrapidlyoverwhelmingtraditionalbusinessmodelsaccordingtotheauthorsofanotherrecentbookTheCluetrainManifesto. "OurlongingfortheWebisrootedinthedeepresentmentwefeeltowardsbeingmanaged"writesco-authorDavidWeinbergeracolumnistandcommentatorontheWeb’seffectonbusiness.TheCluetrainManifestoarguesthatknowledgeworkersarefindingitintolerablethattheiremployersrequirethemtospeakinartificial"businessvoices".TheWebhasbecometheidealalternative:apublicplacewherepeoplecanconverseintheir"authenticvoices"outsideofanorganization’sofficialcommunicationschannel. SomeofthesocialcapitalgeneratedbytheseindependentWebconversationsisbeingusedbyitscreatorstocircumventtheauthorityofcorporations.Forexampleacarownerwhothinkshewasoverchargedforservicetohisvehiclepostsaninquirytoanewsgroupforpeoplewhoownthesamemodelofear.Groupmembersrespondwiththeiradviceandpersonalexperiencesofgettingtheirowncarsserviced.Thenewsgroupisnotownedorcontrolledbythecarcompany.Infactamechanicemployedbythecarcompanyparticipatesintheconversationofferinghisknowledgeofwhatchargesarereasonableandhowcompanypoliciesvaryfromdealertodealerandevensuggestingwhichdealershipsofferthebestservice. Accordingtoco-authorRickLevinetilemechanic"wasspeakingforhiscompanyinanewway:honestlyopenlyprobablywithouthisboss’sexplicitsanction."Ineffectanemployeeofthecompanyindependentlyjoinedanetworkofconsumerstodirectlyhelpsatisfyacustomer."Companiesneedtoharnessthissortofcaringandletitsviralenthusiasmbecommunicatedinemployees’ownvoices"writesLevineformerWebArchitectforSunMicrosystem’sJavaSoftwaregroup. AsmoreandmorepeopleworkonlineandformWebrelationshipssharedknowledgecouldbecomeincreasinglypersonalincyberspace.Whetherbusinessjoinsintheconversationsornotitseemslikelythatthisfast-growingstrainofsocialcapitalwillremainvaluableforthosewhohelptocreateit. Employeeslikeon-lineconversationduringthebusinessbecause
Text4 Indevelopingamodelofcognitionwemustrecognizethatperceptionoftheexternalworlddoesnotalwaysremainindependentofmotivation.Whileprogresstowardmaturityispositivelycorrelatedwithdifferentiationbetweenmotivationandcognitiontensionwilleveninthematureadultleadtowardsanarrowingoftherangeofperception.Cognitioncanbeseenasthefirststepinthesequenceeventsleadingfromtheexternalstimulustothebehavioroftheindividual.Thechilddevelopsfrombeliefthatallthingsareanextensionofitsownbodytotherecognitionthatobjectsexistindependentofhisperception.Hebeginstodemonstrateawarenessofpeopleandthingswhichareremovedfromhissensoryapparatusandinitiatesgoal-directedbehaviors.Hemayhoweverrefusetorecognizetheexistenceofbarrierstotheattainmentofhisgoaldespitethefactthathiscognitionoftheseobjectshasbeenpreviouslydemonstrated. Intheprimitivebeingsg0al-directedbehaviorcanbeverysimplemotivated.Thepresenceofanattractiveobjectwillcauseaninfanttoreachforit;itsremovalwillresultintheceaseofthataction.Inadultlifemerecognitioncanbesimilarlymotivationalalthoughthevisiblepresenceoftheopportunityisnotrequiredasthestimulantsofresponse.Thematureadultmodifieshisreactionbyobtaininginformationinterpretingitandexaminingconsequences.Heformulatesahypothesisandattemptstotestit.Hesearchesoutimplicitrelationshipsexaminesallfactors’anddifferentiatesamongthem.Justasthetrainedartistcanseparatethevalueofcolorcompositionandtechniquewhiletakinginandevaluatingthewholeworksotoothematurepersonbringshiscognitivelearningstrengthstobearinevaluatingasituation.Understandingthatcognitionisseparatefromactionhisreactionisonlyminimallyguidedfromconditioningandtakeintoconsiderationanticipatableevents.Theimpactofthesocializationprocessparticularlythatofparentalandsocialgroupideologymayreducecognitivelydirectedbehavior.Thetensionthusproducedasforinstancethestressoffearangerorextremeemotionwilloftenbetheprimaryinfluence.Theevolutionaryprocessofdevelopmentfrombodyschemathroughcognitivelearningissimilarlymanifestedintheprocessoflanguageacquisition.Everynormalinfanthasthephysiologicalequipmentnecessarytoproducesoundbutthechildmustfirstmastertheiruseforsuckingbitingandchewingbeforehecancontrolhisequipmentforuseinproducingthesoundsoflanguage.Fromtheearliertimesitisclearthatlanguageandhumanthoughthavebeenintimatelyconnected.Sendingorreceivingmessagesfromprimitivewarningsofdangertoexplainingcreativeorreflectivethinkingthisaspectofcognitivedevelopmentisalsofirmlylinkedtotheneedsandaspirationsofsociety. Adults’motivationalcognitionmaybestimulatedby
Text2 TheWorldWideWebhasbeensteadilycreatingawidespreadsurgeinsocialcapitalthroughE-mailconversationschatroomsnewsgroupsande-zones.TheseongoingconnectionsarenotanundergroundphenomenonbutamainstreammovementthatisrapidlyoverwhelmingtraditionalbusinessmodelsaccordingtotheauthorsofanotherrecentbookTheCluetrainManifesto. "OurlongingfortheWebisrootedinthedeepresentmentwefeeltowardsbeingmanaged"writesco-authorDavidWeinbergeracolumnistandcommentatorontheWeb’seffectonbusiness.TheCluetrainManifestoarguesthatknowledgeworkersarefindingitintolerablethattheiremployersrequirethemtospeakinartificial"businessvoices".TheWebhasbecometheidealalternative:apublicplacewherepeoplecanconverseintheir"authenticvoices"outsideofanorganization’sofficialcommunicationschannel. SomeofthesocialcapitalgeneratedbytheseindependentWebconversationsisbeingusedbyitscreatorstocircumventtheauthorityofcorporations.Forexampleacarownerwhothinkshewasoverchargedforservicetohisvehiclepostsaninquirytoanewsgroupforpeoplewhoownthesamemodelofear.Groupmembersrespondwiththeiradviceandpersonalexperiencesofgettingtheirowncarsserviced.Thenewsgroupisnotownedorcontrolledbythecarcompany.Infactamechanicemployedbythecarcompanyparticipatesintheconversationofferinghisknowledgeofwhatchargesarereasonableandhowcompanypoliciesvaryfromdealertodealerandevensuggestingwhichdealershipsofferthebestservice. Accordingtoco-authorRickLevinetilemechanic"wasspeakingforhiscompanyinanewway:honestlyopenlyprobablywithouthisboss’sexplicitsanction."Ineffectanemployeeofthecompanyindependentlyjoinedanetworkofconsumerstodirectlyhelpsatisfyacustomer."Companiesneedtoharnessthissortofcaringandletitsviralenthusiasmbecommunicatedinemployees’ownvoices"writesLevineformerWebArchitectforSunMicrosystem’sJavaSoftwaregroup. AsmoreandmorepeopleworkonlineandformWebrelationshipssharedknowledgecouldbecomeincreasinglypersonalincyberspace.Whetherbusinessjoinsintheconversationsornotitseemslikelythatthisfast-growingstrainofsocialcapitalwillremainvaluableforthosewhohelptocreateit. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattilecompany
Lastyear’seconomyshouldhavewontheOscarforbestpicture.Growthingrossdomesticproductwas4.1percent;profitssoared;exportsflourished;andinflationstayedaround3percentforthethirdyear. 41._______.Jobsinsecuritywasrampant.Evenastheyannouncedhighersalesandprofitscorporationsactedasiftheywereinatailspincutting516069jobsin2003alonealmostasmanyasintherecessionyearof1991.Yesunemploymentwentdown. Butoveronemillionworkersweresodiscouragedtheyleftthelaborforce.Morethan6millionwhowantedfull-timeworkwereonlypartiallyemployed;andanotherlargegroupwaseitheroverqualifiedorshelteredbehindtheeuphemismofself-employment.Welostamilliongoodmanufacturingjobsbetween1998and2002continuingthetrendthathasreducedtheblue-collarworkforcefromabout30percentinthe1950stoabouthalfofthattoday.42._____. Allthishappenedinacountrywherepeoplemeetforthefirsttimesaying"Whatdoyoudo"Thenthereisthematterofremuneration.TheLaborDepartmentrecentlyreportedthatrealwagesfell2.3percentinthe12-monthperiodendingthisMarch.Since1973wagesadjustedforinflationhavedeclinedbyaboutaquarterforhighschooldropoutsbyasixthforhighschoolgraduatesandbyabout7percentforthosewithsomecollegeeducation.Onlythewagesofcollegegraduatesareupby5percentandrecentlystartingsalariesevenforthisgrouphavenotkeptupwithinflation.Whilethetop5percentofthepopulationwassettingnewincomerecordsalmosteveryyearpovertyratesrosefrom11percentto15percent.43._______. Inpreviousbusinesscyclescompanieswithrisingproductivityraisedwagestokeeplabor.Isthehistoricallinkbetweenproductivityimprovementsandincomegrowthserved44._______.Justthinkthatin197678percentofautoworkersandsteel-workersingoodmassproductionjobswerehighschooldropouts.Butthesejobsaredisappearingfast.Educationandjobtrainingarewhatcount.Thesedayscollegegraduatescanexpecttoearn1.9timesthelikelyearningsofhighschoolgraduatesupfrom1.45timesinthe1970s. 45._______.Americanmalesnowtoilaboutaweekandahalflongerthantheydidin1973thefirsttimeworkinghourshaveincreasedoveranextendedperiodoftime.Womenparticularlyinpoorerfamiliesareworkinghardertoo.Two-workerfamiliesrosebymorethan20percentinthe1990s.Sevenmillionworkersholdatleasttwojobsthehighestproportioninhalfacentury.Americaissimplynotgrowingfastenoughtotightenthelabormarketandpushuprealwages. [A]Otherwiseanangrydisillusionedandfrustratedpopulation--whoseragetodayisfocusedonbiggovernmentexcesstaxesimmigrationwelfareandaffirmativeaction--maysomedaybebroughttogetherbyitssenseofdiminishedhopes.Thenwewillallbeinforaverydifficulttime. [B]NowonderthisisbeginningtobecalledtheSilentDepression.Whatisgoingonhere [C]Thedangeroftheinformationageisthatwhileintheshortrunitmaybecheapertoreplaceworkerswithtechnologyinthelongrunitispotentiallyself-destructivebecausetherewillnotbeenoughpurchasingpowertogrowtheeconomy. [D]SowhydidsomanyAmericansgivethepicturealousyBratingTheanswerisjobs.Themacroeconomicsituationwasgoodbutthemicroeconomicnumberswerenot.Yes3millionnewjobsweretherebutnotenoughofthemwerepermanentgoodjobspayingenoughtosup-portafamily. [E]Theearningsqueezeonmiddle-classandworking-classpeopleandthescarcityof"goodhigh-paying"jobswillbethebigpoliticalissue.Americanshavesofarrespondedtotheirfallingfortunesbyworkingharder. [F]White-collarworkersfoundouttheywerenolongerimmune.Forthefisttimetheywereletgoinnumbersvirtuallyequaltothoseforblue-collarworkers.Manyresortedtotemporarywork-withlowerpayfewerbenefitsandlessstatus. [G]Ofallthereasonsgivenforthewagesqueeze--internationalcompetitiontechnologyderegulationthedeclineofunionsanddefensecuts--technologyisprobablethemostcrucial.Ithasfavoredtheeducatedandskilled. 44
Text1 Overthelastdecadedemandforthemostcommoncosmeticsurgeryprocedureslikebreastenlargementandnosejobshasincreasedbymorethan400percent.AccordingtoDr.DuiDaviesofthePlasticSurgeryPartnershipinHammersmiththemajorityofcosmeticsurgerypatientsarenotchasingphysicalperfection.Rathertheyaredriventofantasticlengthstoimprovetheirappearancebyadesiretolooknormal."Whatwealllongforistolooknormalandbeingnormaliswhatisprescribedbytheadvertisingmediaandotherexternalpressures.Theygiveusperceptionofwhatisphysicallyacceptableandwefeelwemustlooklikethat." InAmericathedebateisnolongeraboutwhethersurgeryisnormal;ratheritcentersonwhatagepeopleshouldbebeforegoingundertheknife.NewYorksurgeonDr.GerardImberrecommends"maintenance"workforpeopleintheirthirties."Theideathatwaitinguntiloneneedsaheroictransformationissilly"hesays."Bythenyou’vewasted20greatyearsofyourlifeandal-lowedthingstogetoutofhand."Dr.Imberredrawsthelineatoperatingonpeoplewhoareunder18however"Itseemsthatsomeonewedon’tconsideroldenoughtoorderadrinkshouldn’tbeconsideringplasticsurgery. IntheUKcosmeticsurgeryhaslongbeenseenastheexclusivedomainoftheveryrichandfamous.Buttheproportionalcostoftreatmenthasfallensubstantiallybringingallbutthemostadvancedlasertechnologywithinthereachofmostpeople.Dr.Daviewhoclaimsto"eaterfortheaverageperson"agrees.Hesays:"Itreatafewoftherichandfamousandanawfullotofsecretaries.Ofcourse￡3000foranoperationisalotofmoney.Butitisalsoaninvestmentforlifewhichcostsabouthalfthepriceofagoodfamilyholiday." Dr.Daviessuspectsthattheincreasingsophisticationofthefatinjectingandremovaltechniquesthatallowpatientstobetreatedwithalocalanestheticinanafternoonhasalsohelpedpromotethepopularityofcosmeticsurgery.Yetasonewomanwhorecentlypaid￡2500foranoperationtoremovecellulitefromherthighsadmittedtheslopetobecomingacosmeticsurgeryveteranisadeceptivelygentleone."Ihadmylegsdonebecausethey’dbeenbuggingmeforyears.Butgoingintotheclinicstimulatedmyappetite.NowIdon’tthinkthere’sanyoperationthatIwouldruleouthavingifIcouldaffordit." Itseemsthatthewomanmentionedinthelastparagraph
KarlVonLinneorLinnaeusasheiswidelyknownwasaSwedishbiologistwhodevisedthesystemofLatinisedscientificnamesforlivingthingsthatbiologistsusetothisday.Whenhecameto1peopleintohissystemheputthemintoagroupcalledHomo--andLinne’shairlessfellowhumansarestillknownbiologicallyasHomosapiens.2thegrouporiginallyhadasecondmemberHomotroglodytes.ItlivedinAfricaandthepicturesshowittobecovered3hair. Modern4arenotasgenerousasLinneinwelcomingotherspeciesintoMan’slofty5andthechimpanzeeisnowreferredto6Pantroglodytes.ButPanorHomothereisno7thatchimpsarehumans’nearestlivingrelativesandthatifthesecretsofwhatmakeshumanityspecialareevertobe8understandingwhychimpsarenotpeoplenorpeoplechimpsisacrucialpartoftheprocess.ThatinturnmeanslookingattheDNAofthetwospecies9itisherethatthe10mustoriginate. Onehalfofthepuzzlehasbeen11forseveralyears:thehumangenomewaspublishedin2001.Thesecondhasnowbeenaddedwiththeannouncementinthisweek’sNature12thechimpanzeegenomehasbeensequencedaswell.Forthoseexpecting13answerstoage-oldquestions14thepublicationofthechimpgenomemaybesomethingofan15Therearenoimmediatelyobviousgenes--presentinonebutnottheother--thataccountforsuchcharacteristichuman16asintelligenceorevenhairlessness.And17thereisageneconnectedwithlanguageknownasFOXP2ithadalreadybeendiscovered.Butalthoughthepreliminarycomparisonofthetwogenomes18bythemembersoftheChimpanzeeSequencingandAnalysisConsortiumthemultinationalteamthatgeneratedthesequencedidnot19anyobviousnuggetsofgeneticgolditdoesatleastshowwheretolookfor20. 14
Text3 MuchoftheAmericananxietyaboutoldageisaflightfromtherealityofdeath.OneofthestrikingqualitiesoftheAmericancharacteristheunwillingnesstofaceeitherthefactormeaningofdeath.InthemoresombertraditionofAmericanliterature--fromHawthorneandMelvilleandPoetoFaulknerandHemingway--onefindsatragicdepththatdisguisesthesurfacethinnessoftheordinaryAmericandeathattitudes.Byaneffortoftheimaginationthegreatwritersfacedproblemsthatthecultureinactionisreluctanttoface--thefactofdeathitsmysteryanditsplaceintheback-and-forthshuttlingoftheeternalrecurrence.TheunblinkingconfrontationofdeathinGreektimetheelaboratetheologicalpatternswovenarounditintheMiddleAgestheritualcelebrationofitintherichpeasantculturesofLatinandSlavicEuropeandinprimitivecultures;thesearedifficulttofindinAmericanlife. WhetherthroughfearoftheemotionaldepthsorbecauseofadryingupofthefloodgatesofreligiousintensitytheAmericanavoidsdwellingondeathorevencomingtotermswithit;hefindsitmorbidandmovesbackfromitsurroundingitwithwordavoidanceAmericansneverdie;they"passaway"andvarioustaboosofspeechandpractice.A"funeralparlor"isdecoratedtolooklikeabank;everythinginafuneralceremonyisdoneinhushedtonesasifitweresomethingsecrettobeconcealedfromtheworld;thereissomuchemphasisonbeingdignifiedthattheceremonyoftenlosesitsquality:ofdignity.Insomeoftheprimitiveculturesthereisdifficultyinunder-standingthecausesofdeath;itseemspuzzlingandevenunintelligible.LivinginascientificcultureAmericanshaveareadyenoughexplanationofhowitcomesyettheyshowlittlecapacitytocometotermswiththefactofdeathitselfandwiththegriefthataccompaniesit. "Wejubilateoverbirthanddanceatweddings"writesMargaretMead"butmoreandmoredealwiththedeathoffthescenewithoutceremonywithoutanopportunityforyoungandoldtorealizethatdeathisasmuchafactoflifeasisbirth."AndonemayaddeveninitshurryandbrevitythelaststageofanAmerican’slifemthelastoccasionofthisrelationtohissociety—isasstandardizedastherest. Whatis/waspeople'sattitudetowordsdeath
KarlVonLinneorLinnaeusasheiswidelyknownwasaSwedishbiologistwhodevisedthesystemofLatinisedscientificnamesforlivingthingsthatbiologistsusetothisday.Whenhecameto1peopleintohissystemheputthemintoagroupcalledHomo--andLinne’shairlessfellowhumansarestillknownbiologicallyasHomosapiens.2thegrouporiginallyhadasecondmemberHomotroglodytes.ItlivedinAfricaandthepicturesshowittobecovered3hair. Modern4arenotasgenerousasLinneinwelcomingotherspeciesintoMan’slofty5andthechimpanzeeisnowreferredto6Pantroglodytes.ButPanorHomothereisno7thatchimpsarehumans’nearestlivingrelativesandthatifthesecretsofwhatmakeshumanityspecialareevertobe8understandingwhychimpsarenotpeoplenorpeoplechimpsisacrucialpartoftheprocess.ThatinturnmeanslookingattheDNAofthetwospecies9itisherethatthe10mustoriginate. Onehalfofthepuzzlehasbeen11forseveralyears:thehumangenomewaspublishedin2001.Thesecondhasnowbeenaddedwiththeannouncementinthisweek’sNature12thechimpanzeegenomehasbeensequencedaswell.Forthoseexpecting13answerstoage-oldquestions14thepublicationofthechimpgenomemaybesomethingofan15Therearenoimmediatelyobviousgenes--presentinonebutnottheother--thataccountforsuchcharacteristichuman16asintelligenceorevenhairlessness.And17thereisageneconnectedwithlanguageknownasFOXP2ithadalreadybeendiscovered.Butalthoughthepreliminarycomparisonofthetwogenomes18bythemembersoftheChimpanzeeSequencingandAnalysisConsortiumthemultinationalteamthatgeneratedthesequencedidnot19anyobviousnuggetsofgeneticgolditdoesatleastshowwheretolookfor20. 2
KarlVonLinneorLinnaeusasheiswidelyknownwasaSwedishbiologistwhodevisedthesystemofLatinisedscientificnamesforlivingthingsthatbiologistsusetothisday.Whenhecameto1peopleintohissystemheputthemintoagroupcalledHomo--andLinne’shairlessfellowhumansarestillknownbiologicallyasHomosapiens.2thegrouporiginallyhadasecondmemberHomotroglodytes.ItlivedinAfricaandthepicturesshowittobecovered3hair. Modern4arenotasgenerousasLinneinwelcomingotherspeciesintoMan’slofty5andthechimpanzeeisnowreferredto6Pantroglodytes.ButPanorHomothereisno7thatchimpsarehumans’nearestlivingrelativesandthatifthesecretsofwhatmakeshumanityspecialareevertobe8understandingwhychimpsarenotpeoplenorpeoplechimpsisacrucialpartoftheprocess.ThatinturnmeanslookingattheDNAofthetwospecies9itisherethatthe10mustoriginate. Onehalfofthepuzzlehasbeen11forseveralyears:thehumangenomewaspublishedin2001.Thesecondhasnowbeenaddedwiththeannouncementinthisweek’sNature12thechimpanzeegenomehasbeensequencedaswell.Forthoseexpecting13answerstoage-oldquestions14thepublicationofthechimpgenomemaybesomethingofan15Therearenoimmediatelyobviousgenes--presentinonebutnottheother--thataccountforsuchcharacteristichuman16asintelligenceorevenhairlessness.And17thereisageneconnectedwithlanguageknownasFOXP2ithadalreadybeendiscovered.Butalthoughthepreliminarycomparisonofthetwogenomes18bythemembersoftheChimpanzeeSequencingandAnalysisConsortiumthemultinationalteamthatgeneratedthesequencedidnot19anyobviousnuggetsofgeneticgolditdoesatleastshowwheretolookfor20. 8
GooglethedominantInternetsearchcompanyisplanningtoraisethestakesinitsintensifyingcompetitionwithYahooandMicrosoftbyunveilinganewconsumer-orientede-mailservice. ThenewservicetobenamedGmailisscheduledtobereleasedonApril1accordingtopeopleinvolvedwiththeplan.Itwillbe"softlaunched"inamannerthatGooglehasfollowedwithotherfeaturesthatithasaddedtoitsWebsitewithlittlefanfareandpresentedinitiallyasalong-runningtest. 46E-mailhasbecomeacrucialweaponinthecompetitiontowintheloyaltyofInternetuserswhooftenturntooneortwoWebsitesasthefoundationfortheironlineactivities. 47MSNfromMicrosoftandYahooarepreparingtoattackGoogle’sroleasthefirstplacemostpeopleturntoconductanInternetsearch. GooglewhichrefusedtocommentonthislatestmoveisstartingfarbehindMicrosoft34.4millionusersaccordingtotheNielsenNetRatingsAOL31.8millionandYahoo39.9mil-lion.ButGooglewhichisbasedinMountainViewCalif.isplanningtoplayonitsinformationsearchstrengthtocompetewiththeexistingservices. 48Googlewillofferconsumersbetteraccesstosearchingtheirowne-mailandcouldwellup-settheindustrybalancebyofferingfreeaccesstoservicesthatpreviouslywereavailableonlybypayingamonthlysubscriptionfee. 49Thestandardindustrypracticeistooffere-mailservicesprovidingonlylimitedstoragefreeandcharginghigherfeestouserswhowanttopreservealargernumberofe-mailmessagesforcapabilitieslikeonlinestorage.Googlebycontrastisplanningaservieetobesupportedbyadvertisingthatwillpermititsuserstostoreverylargeamountsofmailatnocost. 50InrecentweeksGooglehaspickedupthepaceofupdatingandaddingnewfeaturestoitsbasicsearchserviceaspartofitsefforttopositionitselfasastrongbusinessreadytosellsharestoinvestorsinwhatisexpectedtobethemostpopularinitialpublicofferingbyaSiliconValleycompanyinyears. GooglehasbeencloselywatchedinSiliconValleyandonWallStreetduringthelastyearforanyindicationaboutitsplansforaninitialpublicstockoffering.Thecompanyhassteadfastlydeclinedtorespondtospeculation. 46E-mailhasbecomeacrucialweaponinthecompetitiontowintheloyaltyofInternetuserswhooftenturntooneortwoWebsitesasthefoundationfortheironlineactivities.
Text4 Inaperfectlyfreeandopenmarketeconomythetypeofemployer--governmentorprivate--shouldhavelittleornoimpactontheearningsdifferentialsbetweenwomenandmen.Howeverifthereisdiscriminationagainstonesexitisunlikelythatthedegreeofdiscriminationbygovernmentandprivateemployerswillbethesame.Differencesinthedegreeofdiscriminationwouldresultinearningsdifferentialsassociatedwiththetypeofemployer.Giventhenatureofgovernmentandprivateemployersitseemsmostlikelythatdiscriminationbyprivateemployerswouldbegreater.Thusonewouldexpectthatifwomenarebeingdiscriminatedagainstgovernmentemploymentwouldhaveapositiveeffectonwomen’searningsascomparedwiththeirearningsfromprivateemployment.TheresultsofastudybyFuchssupportthisassumption.Fuchs’resultssuggestthattheearningsofwomeninanindustrycomposedentirelyofgovernmentemployeeswouldby14.6percentgreaterthantheearningsofwomeninanindustrycomposedexclusivelyofprivateemployeesotherthingsbeingequal. InadditionbothFuchsandSanbornhavesuggestedthattheeffectofdiscriminationbyconsumersontheearningsofself-employedwomenmaybegreaterthantheeffectofeithergovernmentorprivateemployerdiscriminationontheearningsofwomenemployees.TotestthishypothesisBrownselectedalargesampleofWhitemaleandfemaleworkersfromthe1970Censusanddividedthemintothreecategories:privateemployeesgovernmentemployeesandself-employedBlackworkerswereexcludedfromthesampletoavoidpickingupearningsdifferentialsthatweretheresultofracialdisparities.Brown’sresearchdesigncontrolledforeducationlabor-forceparticipationmobilitymotivationandageinordertoeliminatethesefactorsasexplanationsofthestudy’sresults.Brown’sresultssuggestthatmenandwomenarenottreatedthesamebyemployersandconsumers.Formenself-employmentisthehighestearningscategorywithprivateemploymentnextandgovernmentlowest.Forwomenthisorderisreversed. OnecaninferfromBrown’sresultsthatconsumersdiscriminateagainstself-employedwomen.Inadditionself-employedwomenmayhavemoredifficultythanmeningettinggoodemployeesandmayencounterdiscriminationfromsuppliersandfromfinancialinstitutions. Brown’sresultsareclearlyconsistentwithFuchs’argumentthatdiscriminationbyconsumershasagreaterimpactontheearningsofwomenthandoesdiscriminationbyeithergovernmentorprivateemployers.Alsothefactthatwomendobetterworkingforgovernmentthanforprivateemployersimpliesthatprivateemployersarediscriminatingagainstwomen.Theresultsdonotprovethatgovernmentdoesnotdiscriminateagainstwomen.Theydohoweverdemonstratethatifgovernmentisdiscriminatingwomenitsdiscriminationisnothavingasmucheffectonwomen’searningsasisdiscriminationintheprivatesector. Thepassageexplicitlyanswersthequestion
KarlVonLinneorLinnaeusasheiswidelyknownwasaSwedishbiologistwhodevisedthesystemofLatinisedscientificnamesforlivingthingsthatbiologistsusetothisday.Whenhecameto1peopleintohissystemheputthemintoagroupcalledHomo--andLinne’shairlessfellowhumansarestillknownbiologicallyasHomosapiens.2thegrouporiginallyhadasecondmemberHomotroglodytes.ItlivedinAfricaandthepicturesshowittobecovered3hair. Modern4arenotasgenerousasLinneinwelcomingotherspeciesintoMan’slofty5andthechimpanzeeisnowreferredto6Pantroglodytes.ButPanorHomothereisno7thatchimpsarehumans’nearestlivingrelativesandthatifthesecretsofwhatmakeshumanityspecialareevertobe8understandingwhychimpsarenotpeoplenorpeoplechimpsisacrucialpartoftheprocess.ThatinturnmeanslookingattheDNAofthetwospecies9itisherethatthe10mustoriginate. Onehalfofthepuzzlehasbeen11forseveralyears:thehumangenomewaspublishedin2001.Thesecondhasnowbeenaddedwiththeannouncementinthisweek’sNature12thechimpanzeegenomehasbeensequencedaswell.Forthoseexpecting13answerstoage-oldquestions14thepublicationofthechimpgenomemaybesomethingofan15Therearenoimmediatelyobviousgenes--presentinonebutnottheother--thataccountforsuchcharacteristichuman16asintelligenceorevenhairlessness.And17thereisageneconnectedwithlanguageknownasFOXP2ithadalreadybeendiscovered.Butalthoughthepreliminarycomparisonofthetwogenomes18bythemembersoftheChimpanzeeSequencingandAnalysisConsortiumthemultinationalteamthatgeneratedthesequencedidnot19anyobviousnuggetsofgeneticgolditdoesatleastshowwheretolookfor20. 12
KarlVonLinneorLinnaeusasheiswidelyknownwasaSwedishbiologistwhodevisedthesystemofLatinisedscientificnamesforlivingthingsthatbiologistsusetothisday.Whenhecameto1peopleintohissystemheputthemintoagroupcalledHomo--andLinne’shairlessfellowhumansarestillknownbiologicallyasHomosapiens.2thegrouporiginallyhadasecondmemberHomotroglodytes.ItlivedinAfricaandthepicturesshowittobecovered3hair. Modern4arenotasgenerousasLinneinwelcomingotherspeciesintoMan’slofty5andthechimpanzeeisnowreferredto6Pantroglodytes.ButPanorHomothereisno7thatchimpsarehumans’nearestlivingrelativesandthatifthesecretsofwhatmakeshumanityspecialareevertobe8understandingwhychimpsarenotpeoplenorpeoplechimpsisacrucialpartoftheprocess.ThatinturnmeanslookingattheDNAofthetwospecies9itisherethatthe10mustoriginate. Onehalfofthepuzzlehasbeen11forseveralyears:thehumangenomewaspublishedin2001.Thesecondhasnowbeenaddedwiththeannouncementinthisweek’sNature12thechimpanzeegenomehasbeensequencedaswell.Forthoseexpecting13answerstoage-oldquestions14thepublicationofthechimpgenomemaybesomethingofan15Therearenoimmediatelyobviousgenes--presentinonebutnottheother--thataccountforsuchcharacteristichuman16asintelligenceorevenhairlessness.And17thereisageneconnectedwithlanguageknownasFOXP2ithadalreadybeendiscovered.Butalthoughthepreliminarycomparisonofthetwogenomes18bythemembersoftheChimpanzeeSequencingandAnalysisConsortiumthemultinationalteamthatgeneratedthesequencedidnot19anyobviousnuggetsofgeneticgolditdoesatleastshowwheretolookfor20. 4
GooglethedominantInternetsearchcompanyisplanningtoraisethestakesinitsintensifyingcompetitionwithYahooandMicrosoftbyunveilinganewconsumer-orientede-mailservice. ThenewservicetobenamedGmailisscheduledtobereleasedonApril1accordingtopeopleinvolvedwiththeplan.Itwillbe"softlaunched"inamannerthatGooglehasfollowedwithotherfeaturesthatithasaddedtoitsWebsitewithlittlefanfareandpresentedinitiallyasalong-runningtest. 46E-mailhasbecomeacrucialweaponinthecompetitiontowintheloyaltyofInternetuserswhooftenturntooneortwoWebsitesasthefoundationfortheironlineactivities. 47MSNfromMicrosoftandYahooarepreparingtoattackGoogle’sroleasthefirstplacemostpeopleturntoconductanInternetsearch. GooglewhichrefusedtocommentonthislatestmoveisstartingfarbehindMicrosoft34.4millionusersaccordingtotheNielsenNetRatingsAOL31.8millionandYahoo39.9mil-lion.ButGooglewhichisbasedinMountainViewCalif.isplanningtoplayonitsinformationsearchstrengthtocompetewiththeexistingservices. 48Googlewillofferconsumersbetteraccesstosearchingtheirowne-mailandcouldwellup-settheindustrybalancebyofferingfreeaccesstoservicesthatpreviouslywereavailableonlybypayingamonthlysubscriptionfee. 49Thestandardindustrypracticeistooffere-mailservicesprovidingonlylimitedstoragefreeandcharginghigherfeestouserswhowanttopreservealargernumberofe-mailmessagesforcapabilitieslikeonlinestorage.Googlebycontrastisplanningaservieetobesupportedbyadvertisingthatwillpermititsuserstostoreverylargeamountsofmailatnocost. 50InrecentweeksGooglehaspickedupthepaceofupdatingandaddingnewfeaturestoitsbasicsearchserviceaspartofitsefforttopositionitselfasastrongbusinessreadytosellsharestoinvestorsinwhatisexpectedtobethemostpopularinitialpublicofferingbyaSiliconValleycompanyinyears. GooglehasbeencloselywatchedinSiliconValleyandonWallStreetduringthelastyearforanyindicationaboutitsplansforaninitialpublicstockoffering.Thecompanyhassteadfastlydeclinedtorespondtospeculation. 50InrecentweeksGooglehaspickedupthepaceofupdatingandaddingnewfeaturestoitsbasicsearchserviceaspartofitsefforttopositionitselfasastrongbusinessreadytosellsharestoinvestorsinwhatisexpectedtobethemostpopularinitialpublicofferingbyaSiliconValleycompanyinyears.
GooglethedominantInternetsearchcompanyisplanningtoraisethestakesinitsintensifyingcompetitionwithYahooandMicrosoftbyunveilinganewconsumer-orientede-mailservice. ThenewservicetobenamedGmailisscheduledtobereleasedonApril1accordingtopeopleinvolvedwiththeplan.Itwillbe"softlaunched"inamannerthatGooglehasfollowedwithotherfeaturesthatithasaddedtoitsWebsitewithlittlefanfareandpresentedinitiallyasalong-runningtest. 46E-mailhasbecomeacrucialweaponinthecompetitiontowintheloyaltyofInternetuserswhooftenturntooneortwoWebsitesasthefoundationfortheironlineactivities. 47MSNfromMicrosoftandYahooarepreparingtoattackGoogle’sroleasthefirstplacemostpeopleturntoconductanInternetsearch. GooglewhichrefusedtocommentonthislatestmoveisstartingfarbehindMicrosoft34.4millionusersaccordingtotheNielsenNetRatingsAOL31.8millionandYahoo39.9mil-lion.ButGooglewhichisbasedinMountainViewCalif.isplanningtoplayonitsinformationsearchstrengthtocompetewiththeexistingservices. 48Googlewillofferconsumersbetteraccesstosearchingtheirowne-mailandcouldwellup-settheindustrybalancebyofferingfreeaccesstoservicesthatpreviouslywereavailableonlybypayingamonthlysubscriptionfee. 49Thestandardindustrypracticeistooffere-mailservicesprovidingonlylimitedstoragefreeandcharginghigherfeestouserswhowanttopreservealargernumberofe-mailmessagesforcapabilitieslikeonlinestorage.Googlebycontrastisplanningaservieetobesupportedbyadvertisingthatwillpermititsuserstostoreverylargeamountsofmailatnocost. 50InrecentweeksGooglehaspickedupthepaceofupdatingandaddingnewfeaturestoitsbasicsearchserviceaspartofitsefforttopositionitselfasastrongbusinessreadytosellsharestoinvestorsinwhatisexpectedtobethemostpopularinitialpublicofferingbyaSiliconValleycompanyinyears. GooglehasbeencloselywatchedinSiliconValleyandonWallStreetduringthelastyearforanyindicationaboutitsplansforaninitialpublicstockoffering.Thecompanyhassteadfastlydeclinedtorespondtospeculation. 48Googlewillofferconsumersbetteraccesstosearchingtheirowne-mailandcouldwellup-settheindustrybalancebyofferingfreeaccesstoservicesthatpreviouslywereavailableonlybypayingamonthlysubscriptionfee.
Text4 Inaperfectlyfreeandopenmarketeconomythetypeofemployer--governmentorprivate--shouldhavelittleornoimpactontheearningsdifferentialsbetweenwomenandmen.Howeverifthereisdiscriminationagainstonesexitisunlikelythatthedegreeofdiscriminationbygovernmentandprivateemployerswillbethesame.Differencesinthedegreeofdiscriminationwouldresultinearningsdifferentialsassociatedwiththetypeofemployer.Giventhenatureofgovernmentandprivateemployersitseemsmostlikelythatdiscriminationbyprivateemployerswouldbegreater.Thusonewouldexpectthatifwomenarebeingdiscriminatedagainstgovernmentemploymentwouldhaveapositiveeffectonwomen’searningsascomparedwiththeirearningsfromprivateemployment.TheresultsofastudybyFuchssupportthisassumption.Fuchs’resultssuggestthattheearningsofwomeninanindustrycomposedentirelyofgovernmentemployeeswouldby14.6percentgreaterthantheearningsofwomeninanindustrycomposedexclusivelyofprivateemployeesotherthingsbeingequal. InadditionbothFuchsandSanbornhavesuggestedthattheeffectofdiscriminationbyconsumersontheearningsofself-employedwomenmaybegreaterthantheeffectofeithergovernmentorprivateemployerdiscriminationontheearningsofwomenemployees.TotestthishypothesisBrownselectedalargesampleofWhitemaleandfemaleworkersfromthe1970Censusanddividedthemintothreecategories:privateemployeesgovernmentemployeesandself-employedBlackworkerswereexcludedfromthesampletoavoidpickingupearningsdifferentialsthatweretheresultofracialdisparities.Brown’sresearchdesigncontrolledforeducationlabor-forceparticipationmobilitymotivationandageinordertoeliminatethesefactorsasexplanationsofthestudy’sresults.Brown’sresultssuggestthatmenandwomenarenottreatedthesamebyemployersandconsumers.Formenself-employmentisthehighestearningscategorywithprivateemploymentnextandgovernmentlowest.Forwomenthisorderisreversed. OnecaninferfromBrown’sresultsthatconsumersdiscriminateagainstself-employedwomen.Inadditionself-employedwomenmayhavemoredifficultythanmeningettinggoodemployeesandmayencounterdiscriminationfromsuppliersandfromfinancialinstitutions. Brown’sresultsareclearlyconsistentwithFuchs’argumentthatdiscriminationbyconsumershasagreaterimpactontheearningsofwomenthandoesdiscriminationbyeithergovernmentorprivateemployers.Alsothefactthatwomendobetterworkingforgovernmentthanforprivateemployersimpliesthatprivateemployersarediscriminatingagainstwomen.Theresultsdonotprovethatgovernmentdoesnotdiscriminateagainstwomen.Theydohoweverdemonstratethatifgovernmentisdiscriminatingwomenitsdiscriminationisnothavingasmucheffectonwomen’searningsasisdiscriminationintheprivatesector. Astudyofpracticesoffinancialinstitutionswithnodiscriminationagainstself-employedwomenwouldtendtocontradict
WillAmerica’scitieseveragainbeplacesmostpeoplewanttoliveinItseemsunlikely.hereasin1970America’ssuburbscontained25%morefamiliesthanitscitiestodaytheycontain75%more.Middle-classfamilies--"thebedrockofastablecommunity"inthewordsoftheDepartmentofHousingandUrbanDevelopment--associatecitieswithpovertyandthereforecrime.41______.NowondersomanyfamiliesequatetheAmericandreamwithahomeinthesuburbs. Buttheresultingurbansprawlcarriesacost.AreportthisweekfromtheSierraClubwhichhasbeenpreachingecologicalsensitivityformorethanacenturyunderlineswhatitcalls"thedarksideoftheAmericandream"~trafficcongestion;commutingjourneysthat"stealtimefromfamilyandwork";airandwaterpollution;lostfarfnlandandrecreationalspace;increasedflooding;andmoretaxestopayforasuburbaninfrastructurethatrangesfrompolicingtosewagesystems.42______ PuttingnumberstoitsargumenttheSierraClubreckonsairpollution"costsUSagriculture morethan＄2.5billioneveryyear"anditarguesthatthepavingoverofnaturalwetlandshelpsproducethefloodsthatcostAmericaanaverageof$4.3billionayear.Intheperiodfrom1970to1990urbansprawlledthetwincitiesofMinneapolis--StPaulinMinnesotatoclose162schoolsinandaroundthecitycenterswhilebuilding78newonesintheouter’suburbs.Between1970and1995Mainespent6ver＄338millionbuildingnewschoolsevenasthenumberofstudentsinitspublicschoolsfellby27000.43______ 44______Amongthecountry’slargestcitiesthemostthreatenedapparentlyarethecitizensofAtlanta;amongmedium-sizedcitiesitisthepeopleofOrlandoFloridawhohavemosttofear;andamongsmallcitiestheinhabitantsofMcAllenTexas.AsforLosAnglesthe"grand-daddyofsprawl"thecitydeservesa“dishonorablemention”alongwithSanDiegoandPhoenix. 45______OneideabeingtriedinpartsofMichiganandMaryland’isforcommunitiestobuyfarmlandorenvironmentallysensitivelandtopreventitsdevelopment;anotherideapracticedinOregonandWashingtonstateistosetan"urbangrowthboundary"toencloseanurbanareawithinaninviolategreenbelt;athirdistooffertaxinducementstocommunitiesthatforgodevelopmentrights.ButinthelandofthecarperhapsthemostunlikelyideaisthatAmericanswillfollowtheexampleofNewJerseywhichrecentlyvotedforhigherpetroltaxestopreserveamillionacresofundevelopedlandoverthenexttenyears. A.Moreoverasthesuburbexpandstheinnercity’staxbaseshrinkssettingoffavicious cycleofhighertaxeslowercorporateprofitshigherjoblessnessandlowerpropertyvalues. B.Itwasobviousthatafter1970peoplepreferredtoliveinthesuburbwhileworkinthecity. C.Canurbansprawlberepulsed D.Theyhaveapoint:thepovertyrateinAmerica’surbanareasrosefrom14.2%in1970to21.5%in1993withmostoftheincreaseintheinner-cityareasfromwhichthemiddleclasshasfled. E.Meanwhiletheexhaustionofcommutersishardlylessenedbynewandbetterroadssinceeach1%increaseinnewlane-milesgenerateswithinfiveyearsa0.9%increaseintraffic. F.Thehouseinthesuburbmaynotbefullofconveniencesofeverysortsocarsaretheonlymeansforshoppingandtransportation. G.AllthistheSierraClubmaintainsillustratesthethreatthaturbansprawlrepresentstothequalityoflife. 42
KarlVonLinneorLinnaeusasheiswidelyknownwasaSwedishbiologistwhodevisedthesystemofLatinisedscientificnamesforlivingthingsthatbiologistsusetothisday.Whenhecameto1peopleintohissystemheputthemintoagroupcalledHomo--andLinne’shairlessfellowhumansarestillknownbiologicallyasHomosapiens.2thegrouporiginallyhadasecondmemberHomotroglodytes.ItlivedinAfricaandthepicturesshowittobecovered3hair. Modern4arenotasgenerousasLinneinwelcomingotherspeciesintoMan’slofty5andthechimpanzeeisnowreferredto6Pantroglodytes.ButPanorHomothereisno7thatchimpsarehumans’nearestlivingrelativesandthatifthesecretsofwhatmakeshumanityspecialareevertobe8understandingwhychimpsarenotpeoplenorpeoplechimpsisacrucialpartoftheprocess.ThatinturnmeanslookingattheDNAofthetwospecies9itisherethatthe10mustoriginate. Onehalfofthepuzzlehasbeen11forseveralyears:thehumangenomewaspublishedin2001.Thesecondhasnowbeenaddedwiththeannouncementinthisweek’sNature12thechimpanzeegenomehasbeensequencedaswell.Forthoseexpecting13answerstoage-oldquestions14thepublicationofthechimpgenomemaybesomethingofan15Therearenoimmediatelyobviousgenes--presentinonebutnottheother--thataccountforsuchcharacteristichuman16asintelligenceorevenhairlessness.And17thereisageneconnectedwithlanguageknownasFOXP2ithadalreadybeendiscovered.Butalthoughthepreliminarycomparisonofthetwogenomes18bythemembersoftheChimpanzeeSequencingandAnalysisConsortiumthemultinationalteamthatgeneratedthesequencedidnot19anyobviousnuggetsofgeneticgolditdoesatleastshowwheretolookfor20. 6
Text4 Indevelopingamodelofcognitionwemustrecognizethatperceptionoftheexternalworlddoesnotalwaysremainindependentofmotivation.Whileprogresstowardmaturityispositivelycorrelatedwithdifferentiationbetweenmotivationandcognitiontensionwilleveninthematureadultleadtowardsanarrowingoftherangeofperception.Cognitioncanbeseenasthefirststepinthesequenceeventsleadingfromtheexternalstimulustothebehavioroftheindividual.Thechilddevelopsfrombeliefthatallthingsareanextensionofitsownbodytotherecognitionthatobjectsexistindependentofhisperception.Hebeginstodemonstrateawarenessofpeopleandthingswhichareremovedfromhissensoryapparatusandinitiatesgoal-directedbehaviors.Hemayhoweverrefusetorecognizetheexistenceofbarrierstotheattainmentofhisgoaldespitethefactthathiscognitionoftheseobjectshasbeenpreviouslydemonstrated. Intheprimitivebeingsg0al-directedbehaviorcanbeverysimplemotivated.Thepresenceofanattractiveobjectwillcauseaninfanttoreachforit;itsremovalwillresultintheceaseofthataction.Inadultlifemerecognitioncanbesimilarlymotivationalalthoughthevisiblepresenceoftheopportunityisnotrequiredasthestimulantsofresponse.Thematureadultmodifieshisreactionbyobtaininginformationinterpretingitandexaminingconsequences.Heformulatesahypothesisandattemptstotestit.Hesearchesoutimplicitrelationshipsexaminesallfactors’anddifferentiatesamongthem.Justasthetrainedartistcanseparatethevalueofcolorcompositionandtechniquewhiletakinginandevaluatingthewholeworksotoothematurepersonbringshiscognitivelearningstrengthstobearinevaluatingasituation.Understandingthatcognitionisseparatefromactionhisreactionisonlyminimallyguidedfromconditioningandtakeintoconsiderationanticipatableevents.Theimpactofthesocializationprocessparticularlythatofparentalandsocialgroupideologymayreducecognitivelydirectedbehavior.Thetensionthusproducedasforinstancethestressoffearangerorextremeemotionwilloftenbetheprimaryinfluence.Theevolutionaryprocessofdevelopmentfrombodyschemathroughcognitivelearningissimilarlymanifestedintheprocessoflanguageacquisition.Everynormalinfanthasthephysiologicalequipmentnecessarytoproducesoundbutthechildmustfirstmastertheiruseforsuckingbitingandchewingbeforehecancontrolhisequipmentforuseinproducingthesoundsoflanguage.Fromtheearliertimesitisclearthatlanguageandhumanthoughthavebeenintimatelyconnected.Sendingorreceivingmessagesfromprimitivewarningsofdangertoexplainingcreativeorreflectivethinkingthisaspectofcognitivedevelopmentisalsofirmlylinkedtotheneedsandaspirationsofsociety. Ifachildmeetssomedifficultiesintheprocessofreachinghisgoalhemay
Text2 TheWorldWideWebhasbeensteadilycreatingawidespreadsurgeinsocialcapitalthroughE-mailconversationschatroomsnewsgroupsande-zones.TheseongoingconnectionsarenotanundergroundphenomenonbutamainstreammovementthatisrapidlyoverwhelmingtraditionalbusinessmodelsaccordingtotheauthorsofanotherrecentbookTheCluetrainManifesto. "OurlongingfortheWebisrootedinthedeepresentmentwefeeltowardsbeingmanaged"writesco-authorDavidWeinbergeracolumnistandcommentatorontheWeb’seffectonbusiness.TheCluetrainManifestoarguesthatknowledgeworkersarefindingitintolerablethattheiremployersrequirethemtospeakinartificial"businessvoices".TheWebhasbecometheidealalternative:apublicplacewherepeoplecanconverseintheir"authenticvoices"outsideofanorganization’sofficialcommunicationschannel. SomeofthesocialcapitalgeneratedbytheseindependentWebconversationsisbeingusedbyitscreatorstocircumventtheauthorityofcorporations.Forexampleacarownerwhothinkshewasoverchargedforservicetohisvehiclepostsaninquirytoanewsgroupforpeoplewhoownthesamemodelofear.Groupmembersrespondwiththeiradviceandpersonalexperiencesofgettingtheirowncarsserviced.Thenewsgroupisnotownedorcontrolledbythecarcompany.Infactamechanicemployedbythecarcompanyparticipatesintheconversationofferinghisknowledgeofwhatchargesarereasonableandhowcompanypoliciesvaryfromdealertodealerandevensuggestingwhichdealershipsofferthebestservice. Accordingtoco-authorRickLevinetilemechanic"wasspeakingforhiscompanyinanewway:honestlyopenlyprobablywithouthisboss’sexplicitsanction."Ineffectanemployeeofthecompanyindependentlyjoinedanetworkofconsumerstodirectlyhelpsatisfyacustomer."Companiesneedtoharnessthissortofcaringandletitsviralenthusiasmbecommunicatedinemployees’ownvoices"writesLevineformerWebArchitectforSunMicrosystem’sJavaSoftwaregroup. AsmoreandmorepeopleworkonlineandformWebrelationshipssharedknowledgecouldbecomeincreasinglypersonalincyberspace.Whetherbusinessjoinsintheconversationsornotitseemslikelythatthisfast-growingstrainofsocialcapitalwillremainvaluableforthosewhohelptocreateit. ThewordoverwhelmingLine3Paragraph1probablymeans
KarlVonLinneorLinnaeusasheiswidelyknownwasaSwedishbiologistwhodevisedthesystemofLatinisedscientificnamesforlivingthingsthatbiologistsusetothisday.Whenhecameto1peopleintohissystemheputthemintoagroupcalledHomo--andLinne’shairlessfellowhumansarestillknownbiologicallyasHomosapiens.2thegrouporiginallyhadasecondmemberHomotroglodytes.ItlivedinAfricaandthepicturesshowittobecovered3hair. Modern4arenotasgenerousasLinneinwelcomingotherspeciesintoMan’slofty5andthechimpanzeeisnowreferredto6Pantroglodytes.ButPanorHomothereisno7thatchimpsarehumans’nearestlivingrelativesandthatifthesecretsofwhatmakeshumanityspecialareevertobe8understandingwhychimpsarenotpeoplenorpeoplechimpsisacrucialpartoftheprocess.ThatinturnmeanslookingattheDNAofthetwospecies9itisherethatthe10mustoriginate. Onehalfofthepuzzlehasbeen11forseveralyears:thehumangenomewaspublishedin2001.Thesecondhasnowbeenaddedwiththeannouncementinthisweek’sNature12thechimpanzeegenomehasbeensequencedaswell.Forthoseexpecting13answerstoage-oldquestions14thepublicationofthechimpgenomemaybesomethingofan15Therearenoimmediatelyobviousgenes--presentinonebutnottheother--thataccountforsuchcharacteristichuman16asintelligenceorevenhairlessness.And17thereisageneconnectedwithlanguageknownasFOXP2ithadalreadybeendiscovered.Butalthoughthepreliminarycomparisonofthetwogenomes18bythemembersoftheChimpanzeeSequencingandAnalysisConsortiumthemultinationalteamthatgeneratedthesequencedidnot19anyobviousnuggetsofgeneticgolditdoesatleastshowwheretolookfor20. 18
KarlVonLinneorLinnaeusasheiswidelyknownwasaSwedishbiologistwhodevisedthesystemofLatinisedscientificnamesforlivingthingsthatbiologistsusetothisday.Whenhecameto1peopleintohissystemheputthemintoagroupcalledHomo--andLinne’shairlessfellowhumansarestillknownbiologicallyasHomosapiens.2thegrouporiginallyhadasecondmemberHomotroglodytes.ItlivedinAfricaandthepicturesshowittobecovered3hair. Modern4arenotasgenerousasLinneinwelcomingotherspeciesintoMan’slofty5andthechimpanzeeisnowreferredto6Pantroglodytes.ButPanorHomothereisno7thatchimpsarehumans’nearestlivingrelativesandthatifthesecretsofwhatmakeshumanityspecialareevertobe8understandingwhychimpsarenotpeoplenorpeoplechimpsisacrucialpartoftheprocess.ThatinturnmeanslookingattheDNAofthetwospecies9itisherethatthe10mustoriginate. Onehalfofthepuzzlehasbeen11forseveralyears:thehumangenomewaspublishedin2001.Thesecondhasnowbeenaddedwiththeannouncementinthisweek’sNature12thechimpanzeegenomehasbeensequencedaswell.Forthoseexpecting13answerstoage-oldquestions14thepublicationofthechimpgenomemaybesomethingofan15Therearenoimmediatelyobviousgenes--presentinonebutnottheother--thataccountforsuchcharacteristichuman16asintelligenceorevenhairlessness.And17thereisageneconnectedwithlanguageknownasFOXP2ithadalreadybeendiscovered.Butalthoughthepreliminarycomparisonofthetwogenomes18bythemembersoftheChimpanzeeSequencingandAnalysisConsortiumthemultinationalteamthatgeneratedthesequencedidnot19anyobviousnuggetsofgeneticgolditdoesatleastshowwheretolookfor20. 16
Text1 Overthelastdecadedemandforthemostcommoncosmeticsurgeryprocedureslikebreastenlargementandnosejobshasincreasedbymorethan400percent.AccordingtoDr.DuiDaviesofthePlasticSurgeryPartnershipinHammersmiththemajorityofcosmeticsurgerypatientsarenotchasingphysicalperfection.Rathertheyaredriventofantasticlengthstoimprovetheirappearancebyadesiretolooknormal."Whatwealllongforistolooknormalandbeingnormaliswhatisprescribedbytheadvertisingmediaandotherexternalpressures.Theygiveusperceptionofwhatisphysicallyacceptableandwefeelwemustlooklikethat." InAmericathedebateisnolongeraboutwhethersurgeryisnormal;ratheritcentersonwhatagepeopleshouldbebeforegoingundertheknife.NewYorksurgeonDr.GerardImberrecommends"maintenance"workforpeopleintheirthirties."Theideathatwaitinguntiloneneedsaheroictransformationissilly"hesays."Bythenyou’vewasted20greatyearsofyourlifeandal-lowedthingstogetoutofhand."Dr.Imberredrawsthelineatoperatingonpeoplewhoareunder18however"Itseemsthatsomeonewedon’tconsideroldenoughtoorderadrinkshouldn’tbeconsideringplasticsurgery. IntheUKcosmeticsurgeryhaslongbeenseenastheexclusivedomainoftheveryrichandfamous.Buttheproportionalcostoftreatmenthasfallensubstantiallybringingallbutthemostadvancedlasertechnologywithinthereachofmostpeople.Dr.Daviewhoclaimsto"eaterfortheaverageperson"agrees.Hesays:"Itreatafewoftherichandfamousandanawfullotofsecretaries.Ofcourse￡3000foranoperationisalotofmoney.Butitisalsoaninvestmentforlifewhichcostsabouthalfthepriceofagoodfamilyholiday." Dr.Daviessuspectsthattheincreasingsophisticationofthefatinjectingandremovaltechniquesthatallowpatientstobetreatedwithalocalanestheticinanafternoonhasalsohelpedpromotethepopularityofcosmeticsurgery.Yetasonewomanwhorecentlypaid￡2500foranoperationtoremovecellulitefromherthighsadmittedtheslopetobecomingacosmeticsurgeryveteranisadeceptivelygentleone."Ihadmylegsdonebecausethey’dbeenbuggingmeforyears.Butgoingintotheclinicstimulatedmyappetite.NowIdon’tthinkthere’sanyoperationthatIwouldruleouthavingifIcouldaffordit." AccordingtoDr.GerardImberrepeopleshouldhavecosmeticsurgery
KarlVonLinneorLinnaeusasheiswidelyknownwasaSwedishbiologistwhodevisedthesystemofLatinisedscientificnamesforlivingthingsthatbiologistsusetothisday.Whenhecameto1peopleintohissystemheputthemintoagroupcalledHomo--andLinne’shairlessfellowhumansarestillknownbiologicallyasHomosapiens.2thegrouporiginallyhadasecondmemberHomotroglodytes.ItlivedinAfricaandthepicturesshowittobecovered3hair. Modern4arenotasgenerousasLinneinwelcomingotherspeciesintoMan’slofty5andthechimpanzeeisnowreferredto6Pantroglodytes.ButPanorHomothereisno7thatchimpsarehumans’nearestlivingrelativesandthatifthesecretsofwhatmakeshumanityspecialareevertobe8understandingwhychimpsarenotpeoplenorpeoplechimpsisacrucialpartoftheprocess.ThatinturnmeanslookingattheDNAofthetwospecies9itisherethatthe10mustoriginate. Onehalfofthepuzzlehasbeen11forseveralyears:thehumangenomewaspublishedin2001.Thesecondhasnowbeenaddedwiththeannouncementinthisweek’sNature12thechimpanzeegenomehasbeensequencedaswell.Forthoseexpecting13answerstoage-oldquestions14thepublicationofthechimpgenomemaybesomethingofan15Therearenoimmediatelyobviousgenes--presentinonebutnottheother--thataccountforsuchcharacteristichuman16asintelligenceorevenhairlessness.And17thereisageneconnectedwithlanguageknownasFOXP2ithadalreadybeendiscovered.Butalthoughthepreliminarycomparisonofthetwogenomes18bythemembersoftheChimpanzeeSequencingandAnalysisConsortiumthemultinationalteamthatgeneratedthesequencedidnot19anyobviousnuggetsofgeneticgolditdoesatleastshowwheretolookfor20. 20
Lastyear’seconomyshouldhavewontheOscarforbestpicture.Growthingrossdomesticproductwas4.1percent;profitssoared;exportsflourished;andinflationstayedaround3percentforthethirdyear. 41._______.Jobsinsecuritywasrampant.Evenastheyannouncedhighersalesandprofitscorporationsactedasiftheywereinatailspincutting516069jobsin2003alonealmostasmanyasintherecessionyearof1991.Yesunemploymentwentdown. Butoveronemillionworkersweresodiscouragedtheyleftthelaborforce.Morethan6millionwhowantedfull-timeworkwereonlypartiallyemployed;andanotherlargegroupwaseitheroverqualifiedorshelteredbehindtheeuphemismofself-employment.Welostamilliongoodmanufacturingjobsbetween1998and2002continuingthetrendthathasreducedtheblue-collarworkforcefromabout30percentinthe1950stoabouthalfofthattoday.42._____. Allthishappenedinacountrywherepeoplemeetforthefirsttimesaying"Whatdoyoudo"Thenthereisthematterofremuneration.TheLaborDepartmentrecentlyreportedthatrealwagesfell2.3percentinthe12-monthperiodendingthisMarch.Since1973wagesadjustedforinflationhavedeclinedbyaboutaquarterforhighschooldropoutsbyasixthforhighschoolgraduatesandbyabout7percentforthosewithsomecollegeeducation.Onlythewagesofcollegegraduatesareupby5percentandrecentlystartingsalariesevenforthisgrouphavenotkeptupwithinflation.Whilethetop5percentofthepopulationwassettingnewincomerecordsalmosteveryyearpovertyratesrosefrom11percentto15percent.43._______. Inpreviousbusinesscyclescompanieswithrisingproductivityraisedwagestokeeplabor.Isthehistoricallinkbetweenproductivityimprovementsandincomegrowthserved44._______.Justthinkthatin197678percentofautoworkersandsteel-workersingoodmassproductionjobswerehighschooldropouts.Butthesejobsaredisappearingfast.Educationandjobtrainingarewhatcount.Thesedayscollegegraduatescanexpecttoearn1.9timesthelikelyearningsofhighschoolgraduatesupfrom1.45timesinthe1970s. 45._______.Americanmalesnowtoilaboutaweekandahalflongerthantheydidin1973thefirsttimeworkinghourshaveincreasedoveranextendedperiodoftime.Womenparticularlyinpoorerfamiliesareworkinghardertoo.Two-workerfamiliesrosebymorethan20percentinthe1990s.Sevenmillionworkersholdatleasttwojobsthehighestproportioninhalfacentury.Americaissimplynotgrowingfastenoughtotightenthelabormarketandpushuprealwages. [A]Otherwiseanangrydisillusionedandfrustratedpopulation--whoseragetodayisfocusedonbiggovernmentexcesstaxesimmigrationwelfareandaffirmativeaction--maysomedaybebroughttogetherbyitssenseofdiminishedhopes.Thenwewillallbeinforaverydifficulttime. [B]NowonderthisisbeginningtobecalledtheSilentDepression.Whatisgoingonhere [C]Thedangeroftheinformationageisthatwhileintheshortrunitmaybecheapertoreplaceworkerswithtechnologyinthelongrunitispotentiallyself-destructivebecausetherewillnotbeenoughpurchasingpowertogrowtheeconomy. [D]SowhydidsomanyAmericansgivethepicturealousyBratingTheanswerisjobs.Themacroeconomicsituationwasgoodbutthemicroeconomicnumberswerenot.Yes3millionnewjobsweretherebutnotenoughofthemwerepermanentgoodjobspayingenoughtosup-portafamily. [E]Theearningsqueezeonmiddle-classandworking-classpeopleandthescarcityof"goodhigh-paying"jobswillbethebigpoliticalissue.Americanshavesofarrespondedtotheirfallingfortunesbyworkingharder. [F]White-collarworkersfoundouttheywerenolongerimmune.Forthefisttimetheywereletgoinnumbersvirtuallyequaltothoseforblue-collarworkers.Manyresortedtotemporarywork-withlowerpayfewerbenefitsandlessstatus. [G]Ofallthereasonsgivenforthewagesqueeze--internationalcompetitiontechnologyderegulationthedeclineofunionsanddefensecuts--technologyisprobablethemostcrucial.Ithasfavoredtheeducatedandskilled. 42
WillAmerica’scitieseveragainbeplacesmostpeoplewanttoliveinItseemsunlikely.hereasin1970America’ssuburbscontained25%morefamiliesthanitscitiestodaytheycontain75%more.Middle-classfamilies--"thebedrockofastablecommunity"inthewordsoftheDepartmentofHousingandUrbanDevelopment--associatecitieswithpovertyandthereforecrime.41______.NowondersomanyfamiliesequatetheAmericandreamwithahomeinthesuburbs. Buttheresultingurbansprawlcarriesacost.AreportthisweekfromtheSierraClubwhichhasbeenpreachingecologicalsensitivityformorethanacenturyunderlineswhatitcalls"thedarksideoftheAmericandream"~trafficcongestion;commutingjourneysthat"stealtimefromfamilyandwork";airandwaterpollution;lostfarfnlandandrecreationalspace;increasedflooding;andmoretaxestopayforasuburbaninfrastructurethatrangesfrompolicingtosewagesystems.42______ PuttingnumberstoitsargumenttheSierraClubreckonsairpollution"costsUSagriculture morethan＄2.5billioneveryyear"anditarguesthatthepavingoverofnaturalwetlandshelpsproducethefloodsthatcostAmericaanaverageof$4.3billionayear.Intheperiodfrom1970to1990urbansprawlledthetwincitiesofMinneapolis--StPaulinMinnesotatoclose162schoolsinandaroundthecitycenterswhilebuilding78newonesintheouter’suburbs.Between1970and1995Mainespent6ver＄338millionbuildingnewschoolsevenasthenumberofstudentsinitspublicschoolsfellby27000.43______ 44______Amongthecountry’slargestcitiesthemostthreatenedapparentlyarethecitizensofAtlanta;amongmedium-sizedcitiesitisthepeopleofOrlandoFloridawhohavemosttofear;andamongsmallcitiestheinhabitantsofMcAllenTexas.AsforLosAnglesthe"grand-daddyofsprawl"thecitydeservesa“dishonorablemention”alongwithSanDiegoandPhoenix. 45______OneideabeingtriedinpartsofMichiganandMaryland’isforcommunitiestobuyfarmlandorenvironmentallysensitivelandtopreventitsdevelopment;anotherideapracticedinOregonandWashingtonstateistosetan"urbangrowthboundary"toencloseanurbanareawithinaninviolategreenbelt;athirdistooffertaxinducementstocommunitiesthatforgodevelopmentrights.ButinthelandofthecarperhapsthemostunlikelyideaisthatAmericanswillfollowtheexampleofNewJerseywhichrecentlyvotedforhigherpetroltaxestopreserveamillionacresofundevelopedlandoverthenexttenyears. A.Moreoverasthesuburbexpandstheinnercity’staxbaseshrinkssettingoffavicious cycleofhighertaxeslowercorporateprofitshigherjoblessnessandlowerpropertyvalues. B.Itwasobviousthatafter1970peoplepreferredtoliveinthesuburbwhileworkinthecity. C.Canurbansprawlberepulsed D.Theyhaveapoint:thepovertyrateinAmerica’surbanareasrosefrom14.2%in1970to21.5%in1993withmostoftheincreaseintheinner-cityareasfromwhichthemiddleclasshasfled. E.Meanwhiletheexhaustionofcommutersishardlylessenedbynewandbetterroadssinceeach1%increaseinnewlane-milesgenerateswithinfiveyearsa0.9%increaseintraffic. F.Thehouseinthesuburbmaynotbefullofconveniencesofeverysortsocarsaretheonlymeansforshoppingandtransportation. G.AllthistheSierraClubmaintainsillustratesthethreatthaturbansprawlrepresentstothequalityoflife. 44
Directions: StudythepicturescarefullyandwriteacompositionentitledTheIncreasingUseofPrivateCarsinChina.Baseyouressayontheoutlinegivenbelow: 1.showyourunderstandingofthepictures 2.presentpossiblereasonsforthephenomenonand 3.drawaconclusion. Youshouldneatlywrite160—200wordsonANSWERSHEET2.
Text4 Inaperfectlyfreeandopenmarketeconomythetypeofemployer--governmentorprivate--shouldhavelittleornoimpactontheearningsdifferentialsbetweenwomenandmen.Howeverifthereisdiscriminationagainstonesexitisunlikelythatthedegreeofdiscriminationbygovernmentandprivateemployerswillbethesame.Differencesinthedegreeofdiscriminationwouldresultinearningsdifferentialsassociatedwiththetypeofemployer.Giventhenatureofgovernmentandprivateemployersitseemsmostlikelythatdiscriminationbyprivateemployerswouldbegreater.Thusonewouldexpectthatifwomenarebeingdiscriminatedagainstgovernmentemploymentwouldhaveapositiveeffectonwomen’searningsascomparedwiththeirearningsfromprivateemployment.TheresultsofastudybyFuchssupportthisassumption.Fuchs’resultssuggestthattheearningsofwomeninanindustrycomposedentirelyofgovernmentemployeeswouldby14.6percentgreaterthantheearningsofwomeninanindustrycomposedexclusivelyofprivateemployeesotherthingsbeingequal. InadditionbothFuchsandSanbornhavesuggestedthattheeffectofdiscriminationbyconsumersontheearningsofself-employedwomenmaybegreaterthantheeffectofeithergovernmentorprivateemployerdiscriminationontheearningsofwomenemployees.TotestthishypothesisBrownselectedalargesampleofWhitemaleandfemaleworkersfromthe1970Censusanddividedthemintothreecategories:privateemployeesgovernmentemployeesandself-employedBlackworkerswereexcludedfromthesampletoavoidpickingupearningsdifferentialsthatweretheresultofracialdisparities.Brown’sresearchdesigncontrolledforeducationlabor-forceparticipationmobilitymotivationandageinordertoeliminatethesefactorsasexplanationsofthestudy’sresults.Brown’sresultssuggestthatmenandwomenarenottreatedthesamebyemployersandconsumers.Formenself-employmentisthehighestearningscategorywithprivateemploymentnextandgovernmentlowest.Forwomenthisorderisreversed. OnecaninferfromBrown’sresultsthatconsumersdiscriminateagainstself-employedwomen.Inadditionself-employedwomenmayhavemoredifficultythanmeningettinggoodemployeesandmayencounterdiscriminationfromsuppliersandfromfinancialinstitutions. Brown’sresultsareclearlyconsistentwithFuchs’argumentthatdiscriminationbyconsumershasagreaterimpactontheearningsofwomenthandoesdiscriminationbyeithergovernmentorprivateemployers.Alsothefactthatwomendobetterworkingforgovernmentthanforprivateemployersimpliesthatprivateemployersarediscriminatingagainstwomen.Theresultsdonotprovethatgovernmentdoesnotdiscriminateagainstwomen.Theydohoweverdemonstratethatifgovernmentisdiscriminatingwomenitsdiscriminationisnothavingasmucheffectonwomen’searningsasisdiscriminationintheprivatesector. Itcanbeinferredthatthestatementsinthelastparagrapharemostprobably
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