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Most plants can make their own food from sunlight, (1) some have discovered that stealing is an...
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阅读理解阅读下面的短文然后根据短文内容在A.B.C.D.四个选项中选择最佳答案Plantsareve
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WithoneeyeturnedtowardskeepingitsowneconomyontrackandtheothertrainedfearfullyontheimpactoftheglobaleconomicdownturnChinahasannouncedafourtrillionyuan$586billionstimuluspackagethelargestinthecountry’shistory. UnveiledbyChina’sStateCouncilontheeveningofSundayNovember9ththetwo-yearspendinginitiativewillinjectfundsintotensectorsincludinghealthcareeducationlow-incomehousingenvironmentalprotectionschemestopromotetechnologicalinnovationandtransportandotherinfrastructureprojects.ThegovernmentalsosaysthatsomeofthespendingwillbedirectedtoreconstructioneffortsinareasbatteredbynaturaldisasterssuchasSichuanprovincewhichwasdevastatedbyamassiveearthquakeinMay. "Overthepasttwomonthstheglobalfinancialcrisishasbeenintensifyingdaily"theStateCouncilsaidinastatement."Inexpandinginvestmentwemustbefastandheavy-handed."Newsofthestimuluspackagehasbeenwelcomedbyglobalinvestors.AsianandEuropeanstockmarketsroseonMondaywithAmericanmarketsalsoclimbing.China’sdecisivemoveislikelytopleaseforeigngovernmentswhicharenowgrapplingwiththeglobaldownturn.ItcomesafewdaysbeforetheChinesepresidentisscheduledtoattendaglobaleconomicsummitinWashingtonD.C.andadayafterHuJintaohadspokenbyphonetotheAmericanpresident-electBarackObamaabouttheglobaleconomiccrisisandotherissues. China’sgovernmenthassofarprovidedfewdetailsofwhenthemoneywillbespentorhowitwillbedivided.Officialsdosaythatfourthquarterinvestmentforthisyearwilltotal400billionyuanincluding20billionyuanbroughtforwardfromnextyear’scentralgovernmentbudget.Iffullyrealisedthetwo-yearspendingspreewouldamounttoabout16%ofChina’sannualgrossdomesticproduct. Thenewlyannouncedmeasuresalsoincludealooseningofcreditpoliciesandtaxcuts.Theplancallsforreformsinthecountry’svalue-addedtaxregimethatwouldsaveindustry120billionyuanaccordingtoanestimatebythegovernment.Creditceilingsforcommercialbanksaretobeabolishedinthehopeofchannellingmorecapitaltosmallenterprisesruralareasandunspecified"priorityprojects". ThegovernmentisconcernedaboutthepotentialforfrivolousorspeculativeinvestmentssotheStateCouncilalsodecreedatitsmeetingonSundaythatcreditexpansionmustbe"rational"andshould"targetspheresthatwouldpromoteandconsolidatetheexpansionofconsumercredit".FindingwaystogetChineseconsumersspendingshouldbeapriority.UnleashingdomesticdemandhasbeenalongstandinggoalofChinesepolicymakersbutChineseconsumers-withfewoftheirhealth-careorretirementneedsreliablymeteitherbyemployersorthestate-oftenprefertosave. Chinahassustaineddouble-digiteconomicgrowthratesoverthepastfiveyearsbuttheeconomyhasbeenslowingconsiderablyinsomesectors.Theeconomyloggedagrowthrateof11.9%lastyearbutmanyforecastersbelievethatitwilldipbelow10%thisyearwithfourth-quartergrowthdownto6%orevenlower. Growthratesinthatrangemaybetheenvyofrecession-batteredeconomiesbutmarksignsoftroubleforChina.Itisanarticleoffaithamongmanyeconomists-andaviewpubliclystatedearlierthisyearbytheChinesePrimeMinisterWenJiabao-thatChinaneedsagrowthrateofatleast7%toavoidmassiveunemployment.Thecountryhasbeenhurtinrecentmonthsbysofteningexportmarketsdepresseddomesticpropertyvaluesandstockmarketsanddecliningconsumerandinvestorconfidence. WhichofthefollowingisNOTthereasonwhyChineseconsumersprefertosave
Toproducetheupheaval激变intheUnitedStatesthatchangedandmodernizedthedomainofhighereducationfromthemid-1860stothemid-1880sthreeprimarycausesinteracted.The1ofahalf-dozenleadersineducationprovidedthepersonalforcethatwasneeded.2anoutcry呐喊forafreshermorepracticalandmoreadvancedkindofinstruction3amongthealumni校友andfriendsofnearlyalloftheoldcollegesandgrewintoamovementthatoverrode压倒all4opposition.Theaggressive"YoungYale"movementappeareddemandingpartialalumnicontrolamore5spiritandabroadercourseofstudy.ThegraduatesofHarvardCollegesimultaneously6torelievethecollege’spovertyanddemandnew7.EducationwaspushingtowardhigherstandardsintheEastby8offchurchleadershipeverywhereandintheWestbyfindingawiderrangeofstudiesandanew9ofpublicduty. Theold-styleclassicaleducationreceiveditsmostcrushing10inthecitadel城堡ofHarvardCollege11Dr.CharlesEliotayoungcaptainofthirty-fivesonofaformertreasurerofHarvardledthe12forces.FiverevolutionaryadvancesweremadeduringthefirstyearsofDr.Eliot’s13Theyweretheelevationandamplificationofentrancerequirementstheenlargementofthe14andthedevelopmentofthe15systemtherecognitionofgraduatestudyintheliberalartstheraisingofprofessionaltraininginlawmedicineandengineeringtoapostgraduatelevelandthefostering培养ofgreater16instudentlife.Standardofadmissionweresharplyadvancedin1872—1877.17theappointmentofaclean院长totakechargeofstudentaffairsandawisehandlingof18theundergraduateswereledtoregardthemselvesmoreasyounggentlemenand19asyounganimals.Onenewcourseofstudyafteranotherwas20—sciencemusicthehistoryofthefineartsadvancedSpanishpoliticaleconomyphysicsandinternationallaw. 4
Directions:Writeanessayof160--200wordsbasedonthefollowingdrawing.Inyouressayyoushould 1describethedrawingbriefly 2explainitsintendedmeaningand 3supportyourviewwithanexample/examples. YoushouldwriteneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.
46Forcenturiesthesmokingoftobaccoincigarettescigarsandpipeshasproducedcontroversyoverpossiblehealthhazardsbutonlysincethe1950’shassufficientscientificevidenceaccumulatedtomakepossibleathoroughevaluationofthehealthrisk. Scientificinvestigationoftherelationshipofsmokingandhealthgainedimpetusafterthebeginningofthe20thcenturythenanincreaseinlungcancerwasnoted.Astheuseoftobaccoincreasedstudiesimproved.47Althoughsomegapsinknowledgestillexisttheinformationnowavailableissufficienttopermitmakingsoundjudgmentsbasedontheconverginglinesofevidence. 48Investigatorshavedirectedtheirprincipalconsiderationtocigarettesmokingbecausethehealthconsequencesattributedtoitfarexceedthoseduetosmokingcigarsandpipes.Thewidespreadpopularityofcigarettesiscomparativelyrecentinman’suseoftobacco.Thesmokingpatternbegantochangeatthebeginningofthe20thcentury.Sincethencigaretteshavesteadilybecomemorepopularthancigarsandpipes.49IntheUnitedStates.percapitacigaretteconsumption—calculatedforallpersons15yearsofageandolderregardlessofwhethertheysmoked—rosefrom49peryearin1900to3888in1960.Percapitaconsumptionofcigarspipetobaccoandchewingtobaccodeclinedsharplyinthesameperiod.Datapresentedin1966indicatedasharpreductionincigarettesmokingintheUnitedStatesformenundertheageof55withthetrendcontinuingto1970. Furtherincreaseincigaretteconsumptionforwomenofallageswasreportedin1966andnofurtherincreasewasnoted1966and1970.Howeverin1970overallpercapitacigaretteconsumptionrose. By1962theRoyalCollegeofPhysiciansofLondonreported:"Cigarettesmokingisacauseoflungcancerandbronchitisandvariousotherlesscommondiseases.Itdelayshealingofgastricandduodenalulcers."Somescientistshoweverexpresseddissentingopinions. ThemostwidelypublicizedreportintheUnitedStateswasissuedin1964bytheSurgeonGeneral’sAdvisoryCommitteeonSmokingandHealth.50Theprincipaljudgmentinthecommittee’s150000-wordreportwas:"CigarettesmokingisahealthhazardofsufficientimportanceintheUnitedStatestowarrantappropriateremedialaction."Thesmokersofpipesandcigarswerefoundtoincurlesshealthrisk.Howevertheincidenceofcancerandheartdiseaseamongthemwasfoundtobegreaterthanamongnonsmokers. 50Theprincipaljudgmentinthecommittee’s150000-wordreportwas:CigarettesmokingisahealthhazardofsufficientimportanceintheUnitedStatestowarrantappropriateremedialaction.
[A]RefuseGimmicks [B]BeWaryofPriceLevels [C]SayNotoUselessThings [D]NeverPayListPrice [E]StanduptoTemptations [F]Switch—orThreatento [G]Don’tBuyonImpulse InrecentyearsthebasicmarketprinciplesofcompetitionandchoicehaveexpandedintonewaspectsofAmericanlife.Consumersnowfaceabewilderingarrayofoptionsforairtravelphoneservicemedicalcareevenpostalservice.CarbuyerscanshopontheInternetforthebestpriceatanydealershipintheirarea.Insomepartsofthecountryhomeownerscanpurchaseelectricityfromamenuofcompanies.Allthischoicetranslatesintounprecedentedconsumerpower. Oneofthepersistentmythsofcapitalistcultureisthatbusinesspeoplelovecompetition.Theydon’t.Theyspendtheirwakinghoursplottingwaystoavoiditandkeeppriceshigh.Thesedaystheyuseinformationtechnologiesthatgivethemintricatedataonindividualshoppersandthenpresentmultiplepricestogeteachconsumertocoughupthemaximumheiswillingtopay.Theairlineshavemasteredthisgameofferingmanylevelsoffares. SohowcanyoumakethemostofyournewpowerasaconsumerHerearerulestohelpyoufindyourway. 41.______ IntheNewEconomycompetitionissostrongthatfewerstoresandservicesareimmunetopricepressuresosharpenyourbargainingskills.Askretailerstomatchpricesyou’veseenontheInternet.Askatthecheckoutcounterifthereareanycouponsordiscountsyoucanuse.Askhotelclerksiftherearebetterratesavailable.You’llbesurprisedhowoftentheanswerisyes. 42.______ Ascompetitionheatsupandpushespricesdownbusinessesscrambletoboosttheirprofitsbyheapingonextras:rustproofingyourcarservicecontractsonyourapplianceprepaidgasolineforyourrentalcar.Thesestuntsaredevisedtomakeyoupaymoreatthelastminuteandprobablyaren’tagooddeal. 43.______ Theinformationhighwayisatwo-waystreet.Asaconsumeryoucangetmoredata.ButwhileyouareroamingtheWebbusinessesarestudyingyourhabitsandvulnerabilities. HaveaweaknessforchocolatesDon’tbesurprisedifAmazon.Comofferstosellyouaboxwhileyou’rebrowsingforbooks.They’reusingawrinkleonthelast-minutemarketingpitchperfectedbyMcDonald’s:“Wouldyoulikefrieswiththat”Theployworksremarkablywell. 44.______ Versioningisatacticusedbybusinessestoseparatestatus-consciousconsumersfromthebargain-hungryones—sincetheformermeanbiggerprofitmargins.“Deluxe”and“platinum”arecodewordsusedtoenticestatusseekerstoopentheirwallets. Addathirdpricelevelandthepursesofevenbargain-hungryshopperscanbepriedopen.Researchshowsthatmanyconsumerswhomightpickthelower-pricedoptionwhengivenjusttwochoiceswillchoosethemedium-pricedalternativeifgiventhree.“Consumerstrytoavoidextremeoptions”writeCarlShapiroandHalR.VarianintheirbookInformationRules. Consumersin.theNewEconomyfacemoredemandsontheirtimeandattentionthaneverbeforesothey’reinclinedtomakethemostfamiliarchoice.Considerthis:ithadbeenadecadeandahalfsincethebreakupofAT＆Tyetitisstillbyfarthelargestlong-distanceprovider—evenwhileotherphonecompaniesoffer$50worthoffreeserviceforswitching.Morethaneveritpaystochangeservicesandbrands. Ifyoudon’twantthehasslesofswitchingrememberthatbusinessesareeagertohangontoconsumers.Thenexttimeyougetatemptingofferfromacredit-cardissueroraphonecompanycallyourcurrentproviderandaskthemtomatchthedeal.You’llbepleasedtofindhowoftenthey’llagree. 42
46Forcenturiesthesmokingoftobaccoincigarettescigarsandpipeshasproducedcontroversyoverpossiblehealthhazardsbutonlysincethe1950’shassufficientscientificevidenceaccumulatedtomakepossibleathoroughevaluationofthehealthrisk. Scientificinvestigationoftherelationshipofsmokingandhealthgainedimpetusafterthebeginningofthe20thcenturythenanincreaseinlungcancerwasnoted.Astheuseoftobaccoincreasedstudiesimproved.47Althoughsomegapsinknowledgestillexisttheinformationnowavailableissufficienttopermitmakingsoundjudgmentsbasedontheconverginglinesofevidence. 48Investigatorshavedirectedtheirprincipalconsiderationtocigarettesmokingbecausethehealthconsequencesattributedtoitfarexceedthoseduetosmokingcigarsandpipes.Thewidespreadpopularityofcigarettesiscomparativelyrecentinman’suseoftobacco.Thesmokingpatternbegantochangeatthebeginningofthe20thcentury.Sincethencigaretteshavesteadilybecomemorepopularthancigarsandpipes.49IntheUnitedStates.percapitacigaretteconsumption—calculatedforallpersons15yearsofageandolderregardlessofwhethertheysmoked—rosefrom49peryearin1900to3888in1960.Percapitaconsumptionofcigarspipetobaccoandchewingtobaccodeclinedsharplyinthesameperiod.Datapresentedin1966indicatedasharpreductionincigarettesmokingintheUnitedStatesformenundertheageof55withthetrendcontinuingto1970. Furtherincreaseincigaretteconsumptionforwomenofallageswasreportedin1966andnofurtherincreasewasnoted1966and1970.Howeverin1970overallpercapitacigaretteconsumptionrose. By1962theRoyalCollegeofPhysiciansofLondonreported:"Cigarettesmokingisacauseoflungcancerandbronchitisandvariousotherlesscommondiseases.Itdelayshealingofgastricandduodenalulcers."Somescientistshoweverexpresseddissentingopinions. ThemostwidelypublicizedreportintheUnitedStateswasissuedin1964bytheSurgeonGeneral’sAdvisoryCommitteeonSmokingandHealth.50Theprincipaljudgmentinthecommittee’s150000-wordreportwas:"CigarettesmokingisahealthhazardofsufficientimportanceintheUnitedStatestowarrantappropriateremedialaction."Thesmokersofpipesandcigarswerefoundtoincurlesshealthrisk.Howevertheincidenceofcancerandheartdiseaseamongthemwasfoundtobegreaterthanamongnonsmokers. 46Forcenturiesthesmokingoftobaccoincigarettescigarsandpipeshasproducedcontroversyoverpossiblehealthhazardsbutonlysincethe1950’shassufficientscientificevidenceaccumulatedtomakepossibleathoroughevaluationofthehealthrisk.
Toproducetheupheaval激变intheUnitedStatesthatchangedandmodernizedthedomainofhighereducationfromthemid-1860stothemid-1880sthreeprimarycausesinteracted.The1ofahalf-dozenleadersineducationprovidedthepersonalforcethatwasneeded.2anoutcry呐喊forafreshermorepracticalandmoreadvancedkindofinstruction3amongthealumni校友andfriendsofnearlyalloftheoldcollegesandgrewintoamovementthatoverrode压倒all4opposition.Theaggressive"YoungYale"movementappeareddemandingpartialalumnicontrolamore5spiritandabroadercourseofstudy.ThegraduatesofHarvardCollegesimultaneously6torelievethecollege’spovertyanddemandnew7.EducationwaspushingtowardhigherstandardsintheEastby8offchurchleadershipeverywhereandintheWestbyfindingawiderrangeofstudiesandanew9ofpublicduty. Theold-styleclassicaleducationreceiveditsmostcrushing10inthecitadel城堡ofHarvardCollege11Dr.CharlesEliotayoungcaptainofthirty-fivesonofaformertreasurerofHarvardledthe12forces.FiverevolutionaryadvancesweremadeduringthefirstyearsofDr.Eliot’s13Theyweretheelevationandamplificationofentrancerequirementstheenlargementofthe14andthedevelopmentofthe15systemtherecognitionofgraduatestudyintheliberalartstheraisingofprofessionaltraininginlawmedicineandengineeringtoapostgraduatelevelandthefostering培养ofgreater16instudentlife.Standardofadmissionweresharplyadvancedin1872—1877.17theappointmentofaclean院长totakechargeofstudentaffairsandawisehandlingof18theundergraduateswereledtoregardthemselvesmoreasyounggentlemenand19asyounganimals.Onenewcourseofstudyafteranotherwas20—sciencemusicthehistoryofthefineartsadvancedSpanishpoliticaleconomyphysicsandinternationallaw. 2
IncreasinglyhistoriansareblamingdiseasesimportedfromtheOldWorldforthegreatdisparitybetweenthenativepopulationofAmericain1492--newestimatesofwhichjumpashighas100millionorapproximatelyone-sixthofthehumanraceatthattime--andthefewmillionfull-bloodedNativeAmericansaliveattheendofthenineteenthcentury.Thereisnodoubtthatchronicdiseasewasanimportantfactorinthesharpdeclineanditishighlyprobablethatthegreatestkillerwasepidemicdiseaseespeciallyasmanifestedinvirgin-soilepidemics. Virgin-soilepidemicsarethoseinwhichthepopulationsatriskhavehadnopreviouscontactwiththediseasesthatstrikethemandarethereforeimmunologicallyalmostdefenseless.Thatvirgin-soilepidemicswereimportantinAmericanhistoryisstronglyindicatedbyevidencethatanumberofdangerousmaladies--smallpoxmeaslesmalariayellowfeverandundoubtedlyseveralmore--wereunknowninthepre-ColumbianNewWorld.TheeffectsoftheirsuddenintroductionaredemonstratedintheearlychroniclesofAmericawhichcontainreportsofhorribleepidemicsandsteeppopulationdeclinesconfirmedinmanycasesbyquantitativeanalyzesofSpanishtributerecordsandothersources.TheevidenceprovidedbythedocumentsofBritishandFrenchcoloniesisnotasdefinitivebecausetheconquerorsofthoseareasdidnotestablishpermanentsettlementsandbegantokeepcontinuousrecordsuntiltheseventeenthcenturybywhichtimetheworstepidemicshadprobablyalreadytakenplace.FurthermoretheBritishtendedtodrivethenativepopulationsawayratherthantoenslavethemastheSpaniardsdid;sothattheepidemicsofBritishAmericaoccurredbeyondtherangeofcolonists’directobservation. EvensothesurvivingrecordsofNorthAmericadocontainreferencestodeadlyepidemicsamongthenativepopulation.In1616--1619anepidemicpossiblyofpneumonicplaguesweptcoastalNewEnglandkillingasmanyasnineoutoften.Duringthe1630’ssmallpoxthediseasemostfataltotheNativeAmericanpeopleeliminatedhalfthepopulationoftheHuronandIroquoisconfederations.Inthe1820’sfeverruinedthepeopleoftheColumbiaRiverareakillingeightoutoftenofthem. UnfortunatelythedocumentationoftheseandotherepidemicsisslightandfrequentlyunreliableanditisnecessarytosupplementwhatlittlewedeknowwithevidencefromrecentepidemicsamongNativeAmericans.Forexamplein1952anoutbreakofmeaslesamongtheNativeAmericaninhabitantsofUngavaBayQuebecaffected99percentofthepopulationandkilled7percenteventhoughsomehadthebenefitofmodernmedicine.Casessuchasthisdemonstratethatevendiseasesthatarenotnormallyfatalcanhavedestroyingconsequenceswhentheystrikeanimmunologicallydefenselesscommunity. Notes:disparity差距virgin-soil处女地malady疾病chronicle编年史tribute贡品pneumonicplague肺鼠疫confederation同盟smallpox天花measles麻疹 Theprimarypurposeofthetextisto
WithoneeyeturnedtowardskeepingitsowneconomyontrackandtheothertrainedfearfullyontheimpactoftheglobaleconomicdownturnChinahasannouncedafourtrillionyuan$586billionstimuluspackagethelargestinthecountry’shistory. UnveiledbyChina’sStateCouncilontheeveningofSundayNovember9ththetwo-yearspendinginitiativewillinjectfundsintotensectorsincludinghealthcareeducationlow-incomehousingenvironmentalprotectionschemestopromotetechnologicalinnovationandtransportandotherinfrastructureprojects.ThegovernmentalsosaysthatsomeofthespendingwillbedirectedtoreconstructioneffortsinareasbatteredbynaturaldisasterssuchasSichuanprovincewhichwasdevastatedbyamassiveearthquakeinMay. "Overthepasttwomonthstheglobalfinancialcrisishasbeenintensifyingdaily"theStateCouncilsaidinastatement."Inexpandinginvestmentwemustbefastandheavy-handed."Newsofthestimuluspackagehasbeenwelcomedbyglobalinvestors.AsianandEuropeanstockmarketsroseonMondaywithAmericanmarketsalsoclimbing.China’sdecisivemoveislikelytopleaseforeigngovernmentswhicharenowgrapplingwiththeglobaldownturn.ItcomesafewdaysbeforetheChinesepresidentisscheduledtoattendaglobaleconomicsummitinWashingtonD.C.andadayafterHuJintaohadspokenbyphonetotheAmericanpresident-electBarackObamaabouttheglobaleconomiccrisisandotherissues. China’sgovernmenthassofarprovidedfewdetailsofwhenthemoneywillbespentorhowitwillbedivided.Officialsdosaythatfourthquarterinvestmentforthisyearwilltotal400billionyuanincluding20billionyuanbroughtforwardfromnextyear’scentralgovernmentbudget.Iffullyrealisedthetwo-yearspendingspreewouldamounttoabout16%ofChina’sannualgrossdomesticproduct. Thenewlyannouncedmeasuresalsoincludealooseningofcreditpoliciesandtaxcuts.Theplancallsforreformsinthecountry’svalue-addedtaxregimethatwouldsaveindustry120billionyuanaccordingtoanestimatebythegovernment.Creditceilingsforcommercialbanksaretobeabolishedinthehopeofchannellingmorecapitaltosmallenterprisesruralareasandunspecified"priorityprojects". ThegovernmentisconcernedaboutthepotentialforfrivolousorspeculativeinvestmentssotheStateCouncilalsodecreedatitsmeetingonSundaythatcreditexpansionmustbe"rational"andshould"targetspheresthatwouldpromoteandconsolidatetheexpansionofconsumercredit".FindingwaystogetChineseconsumersspendingshouldbeapriority.UnleashingdomesticdemandhasbeenalongstandinggoalofChinesepolicymakersbutChineseconsumers-withfewoftheirhealth-careorretirementneedsreliablymeteitherbyemployersorthestate-oftenprefertosave. Chinahassustaineddouble-digiteconomicgrowthratesoverthepastfiveyearsbuttheeconomyhasbeenslowingconsiderablyinsomesectors.Theeconomyloggedagrowthrateof11.9%lastyearbutmanyforecastersbelievethatitwilldipbelow10%thisyearwithfourth-quartergrowthdownto6%orevenlower. Growthratesinthatrangemaybetheenvyofrecession-batteredeconomiesbutmarksignsoftroubleforChina.Itisanarticleoffaithamongmanyeconomists-andaviewpubliclystatedearlierthisyearbytheChinesePrimeMinisterWenJiabao-thatChinaneedsagrowthrateofatleast7%toavoidmassiveunemployment.Thecountryhasbeenhurtinrecentmonthsbysofteningexportmarketsdepresseddomesticpropertyvaluesandstockmarketsanddecliningconsumerandinvestorconfidence. AccordingtothetextwhichofthefollowingisNOTthephenomenoncausedbytheeconomicdownturn
Whenanyoneopensacurrentaccountatabankheislendingthebankmoney.Hemay1therepaymentofthemoneyatanytimeeither2cashorbydrawingacheckinfavorofanotherperson.3thebankercustomerrelationshipisthatofdebtorandcreditorwhois4dependingonwhetherthecustomer’saccountis5creditorisoverdrawn.Butin6tothatbasicallysimpleconcept"thebankanditscustomer7alargenumberofobligationstooneanother.Manyoftheseobligationscangive8toproblemsandcomplicationsbutabankcustomerunlikesayabuyerofgoodscannotcomplainthatthelawis9againsthim. Thebankmust10itscustomer’sinstructionsandnotthoseofanyoneelse.11forexampleacustomeropensanaccountheinstructsthebanktodebithisaccountonlyin12ofchecksdrawnbyhimself.Hegivesthebank13ofhissignatureandthereisaveryfirmrulethatthebankhasnorightor14topayoutacustomer’smoney15acheckonwhichitscustomer’ssignaturehasbeen16.Itmakesnodifferencethattheforgerymayhavebeenavery17onethebankmustrecognizeitscustomer’ssignature.Forthisreasonthereisno18tothecustomerinthepractice19bybanksofprintingthecustomer’snameonhischecks.Ifthis20forgeryitisthebankthatwilllosenotthecustomer. 8
Thesimpleactofsurrenderingatelephonenumbertoastoreclerkmayseeminnocuous—somuchsothatmanyconsumersdoitwithnoquestionsasked.Yetthatoneactioncansetinmotionacascadeofsilenteventsasthatdatapointisacquiredanalyzedcategorizedstoredandsoldoverandoveragain.Futureattacksonyourprivacymaycomefromanywherefromanyonewithmoneytopurchasethatphonenumberyousurrendered.Ifyoudoubtthemultipliereffectconsideryoure-mailinbox.Ifit’sloadedwithspamit’sundoubtedlybecauseatsomepointintimeyouunknowinglysurrenderedyoure-mailtothewrongWebsite. DoyouthinkyourtelephonenumberoraddressarehandleddifferentlyAcottageindustryofsmallcompanieswithnamesyou’veprobablyneverheardof—likeAcxiomorMerlin—buyandsellyourpersonalinformationthewayothercommoditieslikecornorcattlefuturesarebartered.Youmaythinkyourcellphoneisunlistedbutifyou’veeverorderedapizzaitmightnotbe.Merlinisoneofmanycommercialdatabrokersthatadvertisessaleofunlistedphonenumberscompiledfromvarioussources—includingpizzadeliverycompanies.Theseunintendedunpredictableconsequencesthatflowfromsimpleactionsmakeprivacyissuesdifficulttograspandgrapplewith. Inalargersenseprivacyalsoisoftencastasataleof"BigBrother"—thegovernmentiswatchingyouorabigcorporationiswatchingyou.Butprivacyissuesdon’tnecessarilyinvolvelargefacelessinstitutions:Aspousetakesacasualglanceatherhusband’sBlackberryaco-workerlooksate-mailoveryourshoulderorafriendglancesatacellphonetextmessagefromthenextseatonthebus.Whileverylittleofthisisnewstoanyone—peoplearenowwellawaretherearevideocamerasandInternetcookieseverywhere—thereisabundantevidencethatpeoplelivetheirlivesignorantofthemonitoringassumingamythicallevelofprivacy.Peoplewritee-mailsandtypeinstantmessagestheyneverexpectanyonetosee.JustaskMarkFoleyorevenBillGateswhosee-mailswereacornerstoneoftheJusticeDepartment’santitrustcaseagainstMicrosoft. AndpollsandstudieshaverepeatedlyshownthatAmericansareindifferenttoprivacyconcerns.Thegeneraldefenseforsuchindifferenceissummedupasinglephrase:"Ihavenothingtohide."Ifyouhavenothingtohidewhyshouldn’tthegovernmentbeabletopeekatyourphonerecordsyourwifeseeyoure-mailoracompanysendyoujunkmailIt’sapowerfulargumentonethatprivacyadvocatesspendconsiderabletimediscussingandstrategizingover. Itishardtodenyhoweverthatpeoplebehavedifferentwhenthey’rebeingwatched.AnditisalsoimpossibletodenythatAmericansarenowbeingwatchedmorethanatanytimeinhistory. TothepopularsayingIhavenothingtohidetheauthor’sresponseisoneof
Whenanyoneopensacurrentaccountatabankheislendingthebankmoney.Hemay1therepaymentofthemoneyatanytimeeither2cashorbydrawingacheckinfavorofanotherperson.3thebankercustomerrelationshipisthatofdebtorandcreditorwhois4dependingonwhetherthecustomer’saccountis5creditorisoverdrawn.Butin6tothatbasicallysimpleconcept"thebankanditscustomer7alargenumberofobligationstooneanother.Manyoftheseobligationscangive8toproblemsandcomplicationsbutabankcustomerunlikesayabuyerofgoodscannotcomplainthatthelawis9againsthim. Thebankmust10itscustomer’sinstructionsandnotthoseofanyoneelse.11forexampleacustomeropensanaccountheinstructsthebanktodebithisaccountonlyin12ofchecksdrawnbyhimself.Hegivesthebank13ofhissignatureandthereisaveryfirmrulethatthebankhasnorightor14topayoutacustomer’smoney15acheckonwhichitscustomer’ssignaturehasbeen16.Itmakesnodifferencethattheforgerymayhavebeenavery17onethebankmustrecognizeitscustomer’ssignature.Forthisreasonthereisno18tothecustomerinthepractice19bybanksofprintingthecustomer’snameonhischecks.Ifthis20forgeryitisthebankthatwilllosenotthecustomer. 2
IncreasinglyhistoriansareblamingdiseasesimportedfromtheOldWorldforthegreatdisparitybetweenthenativepopulationofAmericain1492--newestimatesofwhichjumpashighas100millionorapproximatelyone-sixthofthehumanraceatthattime--andthefewmillionfull-bloodedNativeAmericansaliveattheendofthenineteenthcentury.Thereisnodoubtthatchronicdiseasewasanimportantfactorinthesharpdeclineanditishighlyprobablethatthegreatestkillerwasepidemicdiseaseespeciallyasmanifestedinvirgin-soilepidemics. Virgin-soilepidemicsarethoseinwhichthepopulationsatriskhavehadnopreviouscontactwiththediseasesthatstrikethemandarethereforeimmunologicallyalmostdefenseless.Thatvirgin-soilepidemicswereimportantinAmericanhistoryisstronglyindicatedbyevidencethatanumberofdangerousmaladies--smallpoxmeaslesmalariayellowfeverandundoubtedlyseveralmore--wereunknowninthepre-ColumbianNewWorld.TheeffectsoftheirsuddenintroductionaredemonstratedintheearlychroniclesofAmericawhichcontainreportsofhorribleepidemicsandsteeppopulationdeclinesconfirmedinmanycasesbyquantitativeanalyzesofSpanishtributerecordsandothersources.TheevidenceprovidedbythedocumentsofBritishandFrenchcoloniesisnotasdefinitivebecausetheconquerorsofthoseareasdidnotestablishpermanentsettlementsandbegantokeepcontinuousrecordsuntiltheseventeenthcenturybywhichtimetheworstepidemicshadprobablyalreadytakenplace.FurthermoretheBritishtendedtodrivethenativepopulationsawayratherthantoenslavethemastheSpaniardsdid;sothattheepidemicsofBritishAmericaoccurredbeyondtherangeofcolonists’directobservation. EvensothesurvivingrecordsofNorthAmericadocontainreferencestodeadlyepidemicsamongthenativepopulation.In1616--1619anepidemicpossiblyofpneumonicplaguesweptcoastalNewEnglandkillingasmanyasnineoutoften.Duringthe1630’ssmallpoxthediseasemostfataltotheNativeAmericanpeopleeliminatedhalfthepopulationoftheHuronandIroquoisconfederations.Inthe1820’sfeverruinedthepeopleoftheColumbiaRiverareakillingeightoutoftenofthem. UnfortunatelythedocumentationoftheseandotherepidemicsisslightandfrequentlyunreliableanditisnecessarytosupplementwhatlittlewedeknowwithevidencefromrecentepidemicsamongNativeAmericans.Forexamplein1952anoutbreakofmeaslesamongtheNativeAmericaninhabitantsofUngavaBayQuebecaffected99percentofthepopulationandkilled7percenteventhoughsomehadthebenefitofmodernmedicine.Casessuchasthisdemonstratethatevendiseasesthatarenotnormallyfatalcanhavedestroyingconsequenceswhentheystrikeanimmunologicallydefenselesscommunity. Notes:disparity差距virgin-soil处女地malady疾病chronicle编年史tribute贡品pneumonicplague肺鼠疫confederation同盟smallpox天花measles麻疹 Accordingtothetextvirgin-soilepidemicscanbedistinguishedfromothercatastrophicoutbreaksofdiseaseinthatvirgin-soilepidemics
Whenanyoneopensacurrentaccountatabankheislendingthebankmoney.Hemay1therepaymentofthemoneyatanytimeeither2cashorbydrawingacheckinfavorofanotherperson.3thebankercustomerrelationshipisthatofdebtorandcreditorwhois4dependingonwhetherthecustomer’saccountis5creditorisoverdrawn.Butin6tothatbasicallysimpleconcept"thebankanditscustomer7alargenumberofobligationstooneanother.Manyoftheseobligationscangive8toproblemsandcomplicationsbutabankcustomerunlikesayabuyerofgoodscannotcomplainthatthelawis9againsthim. Thebankmust10itscustomer’sinstructionsandnotthoseofanyoneelse.11forexampleacustomeropensanaccountheinstructsthebanktodebithisaccountonlyin12ofchecksdrawnbyhimself.Hegivesthebank13ofhissignatureandthereisaveryfirmrulethatthebankhasnorightor14topayoutacustomer’smoney15acheckonwhichitscustomer’ssignaturehasbeen16.Itmakesnodifferencethattheforgerymayhavebeenavery17onethebankmustrecognizeitscustomer’ssignature.Forthisreasonthereisno18tothecustomerinthepractice19bybanksofprintingthecustomer’snameonhischecks.Ifthis20forgeryitisthebankthatwilllosenotthecustomer. 12
Whenanyoneopensacurrentaccountatabankheislendingthebankmoney.Hemay1therepaymentofthemoneyatanytimeeither2cashorbydrawingacheckinfavorofanotherperson.3thebankercustomerrelationshipisthatofdebtorandcreditorwhois4dependingonwhetherthecustomer’saccountis5creditorisoverdrawn.Butin6tothatbasicallysimpleconcept"thebankanditscustomer7alargenumberofobligationstooneanother.Manyoftheseobligationscangive8toproblemsandcomplicationsbutabankcustomerunlikesayabuyerofgoodscannotcomplainthatthelawis9againsthim. Thebankmust10itscustomer’sinstructionsandnotthoseofanyoneelse.11forexampleacustomeropensanaccountheinstructsthebanktodebithisaccountonlyin12ofchecksdrawnbyhimself.Hegivesthebank13ofhissignatureandthereisaveryfirmrulethatthebankhasnorightor14topayoutacustomer’smoney15acheckonwhichitscustomer’ssignaturehasbeen16.Itmakesnodifferencethattheforgerymayhavebeenavery17onethebankmustrecognizeitscustomer’ssignature.Forthisreasonthereisno18tothecustomerinthepractice19bybanksofprintingthecustomer’snameonhischecks.Ifthis20forgeryitisthebankthatwilllosenotthecustomer. 6
Toproducetheupheaval激变intheUnitedStatesthatchangedandmodernizedthedomainofhighereducationfromthemid-1860stothemid-1880sthreeprimarycausesinteracted.The1ofahalf-dozenleadersineducationprovidedthepersonalforcethatwasneeded.2anoutcry呐喊forafreshermorepracticalandmoreadvancedkindofinstruction3amongthealumni校友andfriendsofnearlyalloftheoldcollegesandgrewintoamovementthatoverrode压倒all4opposition.Theaggressive"YoungYale"movementappeareddemandingpartialalumnicontrolamore5spiritandabroadercourseofstudy.ThegraduatesofHarvardCollegesimultaneously6torelievethecollege’spovertyanddemandnew7.EducationwaspushingtowardhigherstandardsintheEastby8offchurchleadershipeverywhereandintheWestbyfindingawiderrangeofstudiesandanew9ofpublicduty. Theold-styleclassicaleducationreceiveditsmostcrushing10inthecitadel城堡ofHarvardCollege11Dr.CharlesEliotayoungcaptainofthirty-fivesonofaformertreasurerofHarvardledthe12forces.FiverevolutionaryadvancesweremadeduringthefirstyearsofDr.Eliot’s13Theyweretheelevationandamplificationofentrancerequirementstheenlargementofthe14andthedevelopmentofthe15systemtherecognitionofgraduatestudyintheliberalartstheraisingofprofessionaltraininginlawmedicineandengineeringtoapostgraduatelevelandthefostering培养ofgreater16instudentlife.Standardofadmissionweresharplyadvancedin1872—1877.17theappointmentofaclean院长totakechargeofstudentaffairsandawisehandlingof18theundergraduateswereledtoregardthemselvesmoreasyounggentlemenand19asyounganimals.Onenewcourseofstudyafteranotherwas20—sciencemusicthehistoryofthefineartsadvancedSpanishpoliticaleconomyphysicsandinternationallaw. 6
ThehistoryofresponsestotheworkoftheartistSandroBotticelli1444～1510suggeststhatwidespreadappreciationbycriticsisarelativelyrecentphenomenon.Writingin1550VasariexpressedanuneasewithBotticelli’sworkadmittingthattheartistfittedawkwardlyintohisevolutionaryschemeofthehistoryofart.OverthenexttwocenturiesacademicarthistoriansdefamedBotticelliinfavorofhisfellowsFlorentineMichelangelo.Evenwhenanti-academicarthistoriansoftheearlynineteenthcenturyrejectedmanyofthestandardsofevaluationadoptedbytheirpredecessorsBotticelli’sworkremainedoutsideofacceptedtastepleasingneitheramateurobserversnorconnoisseurs.Manyofhisbestpaintingshoweverremainedhiddenawayinobscurechurchesandprivatehomes. TheprimaryreasonforBotticelli’sunpopularityisnotdifficulttounderstand:mostobserversupuntilthemidnineteenthcenturydidnotconsiderhimtobenoteworthybecausehisworkforthemostpartdidnotseemtotheseobserverstoexhibitthetraditionalcharacteristicsoffifteenth-centuryFlorentineart.ForexampleBotticellirarelyemployedthetechniqueofstrictperspectiveandunlikeMichelangeloneverusedchiaroscuro. AnotherreasonforBotticelli’sunpopularitymayhavebeenthathisattitudetowardthestyleofclassicalartwasverydifferentfromthatofhiscontemporaries.Althoughhewasthoroughlyexposedtoclassicalartheshowedlittleinterestinborrowingfromtheclassicalstyle.Indeeditisparadoxicalthatapainteroflarge-scaleclassicalsubjectsadoptedastylethatwasonlyslightlysimilartothatofclassicalart. InanycasewhenviewersbegantoexaminemorecloselytherelationshipofBotticelli’sworktothetraditionoffifteenth-centuryFlorentinearthis’reputationbegantogrow.AnalysesandassessmentsofBotticellimadebetween1850and1870bytheartistsofthePreRaphaelitemovementaswellasbythewriterPateralthoughheunfortunatelybasedhisassessmentonanincorrectanalysisofBotticelli’spersonalityinspiredanewappreciationofBotticellithroughouttheEnglish-speakingworld.YetBotticelli’sworkespeciallytheSistinefrescoesdidnotgenerateworldwideattentionuntilitwasfinallysubjectedtoacomprehensiveandscrupulousanalysisbyHomein1908.Homerightlydemonstratedthatthefrescoessharedimportantfeatureswithpaintingsbyotherfifteenth-centuryFlorentinesfeaturessuchasskillfulrepresentationofanatomicalproportionsandofthehumanfigureinmotion.HoweverHomearguedthatBotticellididnottreatthesequalitiesasendsinthemselves--ratherthatheemphasizedcleardepletionofastoryauniqueachievementandonethatmadethetraditionalFlorentinequalitieslesscentral.BecauseofHome’semphasiscrucialtoanystudyofartthetwentiethcenturyhascometoappreciateBottieelli’sachievements. Wecanlearnfromthetextthatartcriticshaveahistoryof
Thesimpleactofsurrenderingatelephonenumbertoastoreclerkmayseeminnocuous—somuchsothatmanyconsumersdoitwithnoquestionsasked.Yetthatoneactioncansetinmotionacascadeofsilenteventsasthatdatapointisacquiredanalyzedcategorizedstoredandsoldoverandoveragain.Futureattacksonyourprivacymaycomefromanywherefromanyonewithmoneytopurchasethatphonenumberyousurrendered.Ifyoudoubtthemultipliereffectconsideryoure-mailinbox.Ifit’sloadedwithspamit’sundoubtedlybecauseatsomepointintimeyouunknowinglysurrenderedyoure-mailtothewrongWebsite. DoyouthinkyourtelephonenumberoraddressarehandleddifferentlyAcottageindustryofsmallcompanieswithnamesyou’veprobablyneverheardof—likeAcxiomorMerlin—buyandsellyourpersonalinformationthewayothercommoditieslikecornorcattlefuturesarebartered.Youmaythinkyourcellphoneisunlistedbutifyou’veeverorderedapizzaitmightnotbe.Merlinisoneofmanycommercialdatabrokersthatadvertisessaleofunlistedphonenumberscompiledfromvarioussources—includingpizzadeliverycompanies.Theseunintendedunpredictableconsequencesthatflowfromsimpleactionsmakeprivacyissuesdifficulttograspandgrapplewith. Inalargersenseprivacyalsoisoftencastasataleof"BigBrother"—thegovernmentiswatchingyouorabigcorporationiswatchingyou.Butprivacyissuesdon’tnecessarilyinvolvelargefacelessinstitutions:Aspousetakesacasualglanceatherhusband’sBlackberryaco-workerlooksate-mailoveryourshoulderorafriendglancesatacellphonetextmessagefromthenextseatonthebus.Whileverylittleofthisisnewstoanyone—peoplearenowwellawaretherearevideocamerasandInternetcookieseverywhere—thereisabundantevidencethatpeoplelivetheirlivesignorantofthemonitoringassumingamythicallevelofprivacy.Peoplewritee-mailsandtypeinstantmessagestheyneverexpectanyonetosee.JustaskMarkFoleyorevenBillGateswhosee-mailswereacornerstoneoftheJusticeDepartment’santitrustcaseagainstMicrosoft. AndpollsandstudieshaverepeatedlyshownthatAmericansareindifferenttoprivacyconcerns.Thegeneraldefenseforsuchindifferenceissummedupasinglephrase:"Ihavenothingtohide."Ifyouhavenothingtohidewhyshouldn’tthegovernmentbeabletopeekatyourphonerecordsyourwifeseeyoure-mailoracompanysendyoujunkmailIt’sapowerfulargumentonethatprivacyadvocatesspendconsiderabletimediscussingandstrategizingover. Itishardtodenyhoweverthatpeoplebehavedifferentwhenthey’rebeingwatched.AnditisalsoimpossibletodenythatAmericansarenowbeingwatchedmorethanatanytimeinhistory. CompanieslikeAcxiomorMerlin
Toproducetheupheaval激变intheUnitedStatesthatchangedandmodernizedthedomainofhighereducationfromthemid-1860stothemid-1880sthreeprimarycausesinteracted.The1ofahalf-dozenleadersineducationprovidedthepersonalforcethatwasneeded.2anoutcry呐喊forafreshermorepracticalandmoreadvancedkindofinstruction3amongthealumni校友andfriendsofnearlyalloftheoldcollegesandgrewintoamovementthatoverrode压倒all4opposition.Theaggressive"YoungYale"movementappeareddemandingpartialalumnicontrolamore5spiritandabroadercourseofstudy.ThegraduatesofHarvardCollegesimultaneously6torelievethecollege’spovertyanddemandnew7.EducationwaspushingtowardhigherstandardsintheEastby8offchurchleadershipeverywhereandintheWestbyfindingawiderrangeofstudiesandanew9ofpublicduty. Theold-styleclassicaleducationreceiveditsmostcrushing10inthecitadel城堡ofHarvardCollege11Dr.CharlesEliotayoungcaptainofthirty-fivesonofaformertreasurerofHarvardledthe12forces.FiverevolutionaryadvancesweremadeduringthefirstyearsofDr.Eliot’s13Theyweretheelevationandamplificationofentrancerequirementstheenlargementofthe14andthedevelopmentofthe15systemtherecognitionofgraduatestudyintheliberalartstheraisingofprofessionaltraininginlawmedicineandengineeringtoapostgraduatelevelandthefostering培养ofgreater16instudentlife.Standardofadmissionweresharplyadvancedin1872—1877.17theappointmentofaclean院长totakechargeofstudentaffairsandawisehandlingof18theundergraduateswereledtoregardthemselvesmoreasyounggentlemenand19asyounganimals.Onenewcourseofstudyafteranotherwas20—sciencemusicthehistoryofthefineartsadvancedSpanishpoliticaleconomyphysicsandinternationallaw. 8
ThehistoryofresponsestotheworkoftheartistSandroBotticelli1444～1510suggeststhatwidespreadappreciationbycriticsisarelativelyrecentphenomenon.Writingin1550VasariexpressedanuneasewithBotticelli’sworkadmittingthattheartistfittedawkwardlyintohisevolutionaryschemeofthehistoryofart.OverthenexttwocenturiesacademicarthistoriansdefamedBotticelliinfavorofhisfellowsFlorentineMichelangelo.Evenwhenanti-academicarthistoriansoftheearlynineteenthcenturyrejectedmanyofthestandardsofevaluationadoptedbytheirpredecessorsBotticelli’sworkremainedoutsideofacceptedtastepleasingneitheramateurobserversnorconnoisseurs.Manyofhisbestpaintingshoweverremainedhiddenawayinobscurechurchesandprivatehomes. TheprimaryreasonforBotticelli’sunpopularityisnotdifficulttounderstand:mostobserversupuntilthemidnineteenthcenturydidnotconsiderhimtobenoteworthybecausehisworkforthemostpartdidnotseemtotheseobserverstoexhibitthetraditionalcharacteristicsoffifteenth-centuryFlorentineart.ForexampleBotticellirarelyemployedthetechniqueofstrictperspectiveandunlikeMichelangeloneverusedchiaroscuro. AnotherreasonforBotticelli’sunpopularitymayhavebeenthathisattitudetowardthestyleofclassicalartwasverydifferentfromthatofhiscontemporaries.Althoughhewasthoroughlyexposedtoclassicalartheshowedlittleinterestinborrowingfromtheclassicalstyle.Indeeditisparadoxicalthatapainteroflarge-scaleclassicalsubjectsadoptedastylethatwasonlyslightlysimilartothatofclassicalart. InanycasewhenviewersbegantoexaminemorecloselytherelationshipofBotticelli’sworktothetraditionoffifteenth-centuryFlorentinearthis’reputationbegantogrow.AnalysesandassessmentsofBotticellimadebetween1850and1870bytheartistsofthePreRaphaelitemovementaswellasbythewriterPateralthoughheunfortunatelybasedhisassessmentonanincorrectanalysisofBotticelli’spersonalityinspiredanewappreciationofBotticellithroughouttheEnglish-speakingworld.YetBotticelli’sworkespeciallytheSistinefrescoesdidnotgenerateworldwideattentionuntilitwasfinallysubjectedtoacomprehensiveandscrupulousanalysisbyHomein1908.Homerightlydemonstratedthatthefrescoessharedimportantfeatureswithpaintingsbyotherfifteenth-centuryFlorentinesfeaturessuchasskillfulrepresentationofanatomicalproportionsandofthehumanfigureinmotion.HoweverHomearguedthatBotticellididnottreatthesequalitiesasendsinthemselves--ratherthatheemphasizedcleardepletionofastoryauniqueachievementandonethatmadethetraditionalFlorentinequalitieslesscentral.BecauseofHome’semphasiscrucialtoanystudyofartthetwentiethcenturyhascometoappreciateBottieelli’sachievements. ThewordconnoisseursParagraph1mostprobablymeans
Whenanyoneopensacurrentaccountatabankheislendingthebankmoney.Hemay1therepaymentofthemoneyatanytimeeither2cashorbydrawingacheckinfavorofanotherperson.3thebankercustomerrelationshipisthatofdebtorandcreditorwhois4dependingonwhetherthecustomer’saccountis5creditorisoverdrawn.Butin6tothatbasicallysimpleconcept"thebankanditscustomer7alargenumberofobligationstooneanother.Manyoftheseobligationscangive8toproblemsandcomplicationsbutabankcustomerunlikesayabuyerofgoodscannotcomplainthatthelawis9againsthim. Thebankmust10itscustomer’sinstructionsandnotthoseofanyoneelse.11forexampleacustomeropensanaccountheinstructsthebanktodebithisaccountonlyin12ofchecksdrawnbyhimself.Hegivesthebank13ofhissignatureandthereisaveryfirmrulethatthebankhasnorightor14topayoutacustomer’smoney15acheckonwhichitscustomer’ssignaturehasbeen16.Itmakesnodifferencethattheforgerymayhavebeenavery17onethebankmustrecognizeitscustomer’ssignature.Forthisreasonthereisno18tothecustomerinthepractice19bybanksofprintingthecustomer’snameonhischecks.Ifthis20forgeryitisthebankthatwilllosenotthecustomer. 4
Whenanyoneopensacurrentaccountatabankheislendingthebankmoney.Hemay1therepaymentofthemoneyatanytimeeither2cashorbydrawingacheckinfavorofanotherperson.3thebankercustomerrelationshipisthatofdebtorandcreditorwhois4dependingonwhetherthecustomer’saccountis5creditorisoverdrawn.Butin6tothatbasicallysimpleconcept"thebankanditscustomer7alargenumberofobligationstooneanother.Manyoftheseobligationscangive8toproblemsandcomplicationsbutabankcustomerunlikesayabuyerofgoodscannotcomplainthatthelawis9againsthim. Thebankmust10itscustomer’sinstructionsandnotthoseofanyoneelse.11forexampleacustomeropensanaccountheinstructsthebanktodebithisaccountonlyin12ofchecksdrawnbyhimself.Hegivesthebank13ofhissignatureandthereisaveryfirmrulethatthebankhasnorightor14topayoutacustomer’smoney15acheckonwhichitscustomer’ssignaturehasbeen16.Itmakesnodifferencethattheforgerymayhavebeenavery17onethebankmustrecognizeitscustomer’ssignature.Forthisreasonthereisno18tothecustomerinthepractice19bybanksofprintingthecustomer’snameonhischecks.Ifthis20forgeryitisthebankthatwilllosenotthecustomer. 10
Whenanyoneopensacurrentaccountatabankheislendingthebankmoney.Hemay1therepaymentofthemoneyatanytimeeither2cashorbydrawingacheckinfavorofanotherperson.3thebankercustomerrelationshipisthatofdebtorandcreditorwhois4dependingonwhetherthecustomer’saccountis5creditorisoverdrawn.Butin6tothatbasicallysimpleconcept"thebankanditscustomer7alargenumberofobligationstooneanother.Manyoftheseobligationscangive8toproblemsandcomplicationsbutabankcustomerunlikesayabuyerofgoodscannotcomplainthatthelawis9againsthim. Thebankmust10itscustomer’sinstructionsandnotthoseofanyoneelse.11forexampleacustomeropensanaccountheinstructsthebanktodebithisaccountonlyin12ofchecksdrawnbyhimself.Hegivesthebank13ofhissignatureandthereisaveryfirmrulethatthebankhasnorightor14topayoutacustomer’smoney15acheckonwhichitscustomer’ssignaturehasbeen16.Itmakesnodifferencethattheforgerymayhavebeenavery17onethebankmustrecognizeitscustomer’ssignature.Forthisreasonthereisno18tothecustomerinthepractice19bybanksofprintingthecustomer’snameonhischecks.Ifthis20forgeryitisthebankthatwilllosenotthecustomer. 20
[A]RefuseGimmicks [B]BeWaryofPriceLevels [C]SayNotoUselessThings [D]NeverPayListPrice [E]StanduptoTemptations [F]Switch—orThreatento [G]Don’tBuyonImpulse InrecentyearsthebasicmarketprinciplesofcompetitionandchoicehaveexpandedintonewaspectsofAmericanlife.Consumersnowfaceabewilderingarrayofoptionsforairtravelphoneservicemedicalcareevenpostalservice.CarbuyerscanshopontheInternetforthebestpriceatanydealershipintheirarea.Insomepartsofthecountryhomeownerscanpurchaseelectricityfromamenuofcompanies.Allthischoicetranslatesintounprecedentedconsumerpower. Oneofthepersistentmythsofcapitalistcultureisthatbusinesspeoplelovecompetition.Theydon’t.Theyspendtheirwakinghoursplottingwaystoavoiditandkeeppriceshigh.Thesedaystheyuseinformationtechnologiesthatgivethemintricatedataonindividualshoppersandthenpresentmultiplepricestogeteachconsumertocoughupthemaximumheiswillingtopay.Theairlineshavemasteredthisgameofferingmanylevelsoffares. SohowcanyoumakethemostofyournewpowerasaconsumerHerearerulestohelpyoufindyourway. 41.______ IntheNewEconomycompetitionissostrongthatfewerstoresandservicesareimmunetopricepressuresosharpenyourbargainingskills.Askretailerstomatchpricesyou’veseenontheInternet.Askatthecheckoutcounterifthereareanycouponsordiscountsyoucanuse.Askhotelclerksiftherearebetterratesavailable.You’llbesurprisedhowoftentheanswerisyes. 42.______ Ascompetitionheatsupandpushespricesdownbusinessesscrambletoboosttheirprofitsbyheapingonextras:rustproofingyourcarservicecontractsonyourapplianceprepaidgasolineforyourrentalcar.Thesestuntsaredevisedtomakeyoupaymoreatthelastminuteandprobablyaren’tagooddeal. 43.______ Theinformationhighwayisatwo-waystreet.Asaconsumeryoucangetmoredata.ButwhileyouareroamingtheWebbusinessesarestudyingyourhabitsandvulnerabilities. HaveaweaknessforchocolatesDon’tbesurprisedifAmazon.Comofferstosellyouaboxwhileyou’rebrowsingforbooks.They’reusingawrinkleonthelast-minutemarketingpitchperfectedbyMcDonald’s:“Wouldyoulikefrieswiththat”Theployworksremarkablywell. 44.______ Versioningisatacticusedbybusinessestoseparatestatus-consciousconsumersfromthebargain-hungryones—sincetheformermeanbiggerprofitmargins.“Deluxe”and“platinum”arecodewordsusedtoenticestatusseekerstoopentheirwallets. Addathirdpricelevelandthepursesofevenbargain-hungryshopperscanbepriedopen.Researchshowsthatmanyconsumerswhomightpickthelower-pricedoptionwhengivenjusttwochoiceswillchoosethemedium-pricedalternativeifgiventhree.“Consumerstrytoavoidextremeoptions”writeCarlShapiroandHalR.VarianintheirbookInformationRules. Consumersin.theNewEconomyfacemoredemandsontheirtimeandattentionthaneverbeforesothey’reinclinedtomakethemostfamiliarchoice.Considerthis:ithadbeenadecadeandahalfsincethebreakupofAT＆Tyetitisstillbyfarthelargestlong-distanceprovider—evenwhileotherphonecompaniesoffer$50worthoffreeserviceforswitching.Morethaneveritpaystochangeservicesandbrands. Ifyoudon’twantthehasslesofswitchingrememberthatbusinessesareeagertohangontoconsumers.Thenexttimeyougetatemptingofferfromacredit-cardissueroraphonecompanycallyourcurrentproviderandaskthemtomatchthedeal.You’llbepleasedtofindhowoftenthey’llagree. 44
46Forcenturiesthesmokingoftobaccoincigarettescigarsandpipeshasproducedcontroversyoverpossiblehealthhazardsbutonlysincethe1950’shassufficientscientificevidenceaccumulatedtomakepossibleathoroughevaluationofthehealthrisk. Scientificinvestigationoftherelationshipofsmokingandhealthgainedimpetusafterthebeginningofthe20thcenturythenanincreaseinlungcancerwasnoted.Astheuseoftobaccoincreasedstudiesimproved.47Althoughsomegapsinknowledgestillexisttheinformationnowavailableissufficienttopermitmakingsoundjudgmentsbasedontheconverginglinesofevidence. 48Investigatorshavedirectedtheirprincipalconsiderationtocigarettesmokingbecausethehealthconsequencesattributedtoitfarexceedthoseduetosmokingcigarsandpipes.Thewidespreadpopularityofcigarettesiscomparativelyrecentinman’suseoftobacco.Thesmokingpatternbegantochangeatthebeginningofthe20thcentury.Sincethencigaretteshavesteadilybecomemorepopularthancigarsandpipes.49IntheUnitedStates.percapitacigaretteconsumption—calculatedforallpersons15yearsofageandolderregardlessofwhethertheysmoked—rosefrom49peryearin1900to3888in1960.Percapitaconsumptionofcigarspipetobaccoandchewingtobaccodeclinedsharplyinthesameperiod.Datapresentedin1966indicatedasharpreductionincigarettesmokingintheUnitedStatesformenundertheageof55withthetrendcontinuingto1970. Furtherincreaseincigaretteconsumptionforwomenofallageswasreportedin1966andnofurtherincreasewasnoted1966and1970.Howeverin1970overallpercapitacigaretteconsumptionrose. By1962theRoyalCollegeofPhysiciansofLondonreported:"Cigarettesmokingisacauseoflungcancerandbronchitisandvariousotherlesscommondiseases.Itdelayshealingofgastricandduodenalulcers."Somescientistshoweverexpresseddissentingopinions. ThemostwidelypublicizedreportintheUnitedStateswasissuedin1964bytheSurgeonGeneral’sAdvisoryCommitteeonSmokingandHealth.50Theprincipaljudgmentinthecommittee’s150000-wordreportwas:"CigarettesmokingisahealthhazardofsufficientimportanceintheUnitedStatestowarrantappropriateremedialaction."Thesmokersofpipesandcigarswerefoundtoincurlesshealthrisk.Howevertheincidenceofcancerandheartdiseaseamongthemwasfoundtobegreaterthanamongnonsmokers. 48Investigatorshavedirectedtheirprincipalconsiderationtocigarettesmokingbecausethehealthconsequencesattributedtoitfarexceedthoseduetosmokingcigarsandpipes
Whenanyoneopensacurrentaccountatabankheislendingthebankmoney.Hemay1therepaymentofthemoneyatanytimeeither2cashorbydrawingacheckinfavorofanotherperson.3thebankercustomerrelationshipisthatofdebtorandcreditorwhois4dependingonwhetherthecustomer’saccountis5creditorisoverdrawn.Butin6tothatbasicallysimpleconcept"thebankanditscustomer7alargenumberofobligationstooneanother.Manyoftheseobligationscangive8toproblemsandcomplicationsbutabankcustomerunlikesayabuyerofgoodscannotcomplainthatthelawis9againsthim. Thebankmust10itscustomer’sinstructionsandnotthoseofanyoneelse.11forexampleacustomeropensanaccountheinstructsthebanktodebithisaccountonlyin12ofchecksdrawnbyhimself.Hegivesthebank13ofhissignatureandthereisaveryfirmrulethatthebankhasnorightor14topayoutacustomer’smoney15acheckonwhichitscustomer’ssignaturehasbeen16.Itmakesnodifferencethattheforgerymayhavebeenavery17onethebankmustrecognizeitscustomer’ssignature.Forthisreasonthereisno18tothecustomerinthepractice19bybanksofprintingthecustomer’snameonhischecks.Ifthis20forgeryitisthebankthatwilllosenotthecustomer. 16
Whenanyoneopensacurrentaccountatabankheislendingthebankmoney.Hemay1therepaymentofthemoneyatanytimeeither2cashorbydrawingacheckinfavorofanotherperson.3thebankercustomerrelationshipisthatofdebtorandcreditorwhois4dependingonwhetherthecustomer’saccountis5creditorisoverdrawn.Butin6tothatbasicallysimpleconcept"thebankanditscustomer7alargenumberofobligationstooneanother.Manyoftheseobligationscangive8toproblemsandcomplicationsbutabankcustomerunlikesayabuyerofgoodscannotcomplainthatthelawis9againsthim. Thebankmust10itscustomer’sinstructionsandnotthoseofanyoneelse.11forexampleacustomeropensanaccountheinstructsthebanktodebithisaccountonlyin12ofchecksdrawnbyhimself.Hegivesthebank13ofhissignatureandthereisaveryfirmrulethatthebankhasnorightor14topayoutacustomer’smoney15acheckonwhichitscustomer’ssignaturehasbeen16.Itmakesnodifferencethattheforgerymayhavebeenavery17onethebankmustrecognizeitscustomer’ssignature.Forthisreasonthereisno18tothecustomerinthepractice19bybanksofprintingthecustomer’snameonhischecks.Ifthis20forgeryitisthebankthatwilllosenotthecustomer. 18
WithoneeyeturnedtowardskeepingitsowneconomyontrackandtheothertrainedfearfullyontheimpactoftheglobaleconomicdownturnChinahasannouncedafourtrillionyuan$586billionstimuluspackagethelargestinthecountry’shistory. UnveiledbyChina’sStateCouncilontheeveningofSundayNovember9ththetwo-yearspendinginitiativewillinjectfundsintotensectorsincludinghealthcareeducationlow-incomehousingenvironmentalprotectionschemestopromotetechnologicalinnovationandtransportandotherinfrastructureprojects.ThegovernmentalsosaysthatsomeofthespendingwillbedirectedtoreconstructioneffortsinareasbatteredbynaturaldisasterssuchasSichuanprovincewhichwasdevastatedbyamassiveearthquakeinMay. "Overthepasttwomonthstheglobalfinancialcrisishasbeenintensifyingdaily"theStateCouncilsaidinastatement."Inexpandinginvestmentwemustbefastandheavy-handed."Newsofthestimuluspackagehasbeenwelcomedbyglobalinvestors.AsianandEuropeanstockmarketsroseonMondaywithAmericanmarketsalsoclimbing.China’sdecisivemoveislikelytopleaseforeigngovernmentswhicharenowgrapplingwiththeglobaldownturn.ItcomesafewdaysbeforetheChinesepresidentisscheduledtoattendaglobaleconomicsummitinWashingtonD.C.andadayafterHuJintaohadspokenbyphonetotheAmericanpresident-electBarackObamaabouttheglobaleconomiccrisisandotherissues. China’sgovernmenthassofarprovidedfewdetailsofwhenthemoneywillbespentorhowitwillbedivided.Officialsdosaythatfourthquarterinvestmentforthisyearwilltotal400billionyuanincluding20billionyuanbroughtforwardfromnextyear’scentralgovernmentbudget.Iffullyrealisedthetwo-yearspendingspreewouldamounttoabout16%ofChina’sannualgrossdomesticproduct. Thenewlyannouncedmeasuresalsoincludealooseningofcreditpoliciesandtaxcuts.Theplancallsforreformsinthecountry’svalue-addedtaxregimethatwouldsaveindustry120billionyuanaccordingtoanestimatebythegovernment.Creditceilingsforcommercialbanksaretobeabolishedinthehopeofchannellingmorecapitaltosmallenterprisesruralareasandunspecified"priorityprojects". ThegovernmentisconcernedaboutthepotentialforfrivolousorspeculativeinvestmentssotheStateCouncilalsodecreedatitsmeetingonSundaythatcreditexpansionmustbe"rational"andshould"targetspheresthatwouldpromoteandconsolidatetheexpansionofconsumercredit".FindingwaystogetChineseconsumersspendingshouldbeapriority.UnleashingdomesticdemandhasbeenalongstandinggoalofChinesepolicymakersbutChineseconsumers-withfewoftheirhealth-careorretirementneedsreliablymeteitherbyemployersorthestate-oftenprefertosave. Chinahassustaineddouble-digiteconomicgrowthratesoverthepastfiveyearsbuttheeconomyhasbeenslowingconsiderablyinsomesectors.Theeconomyloggedagrowthrateof11.9%lastyearbutmanyforecastersbelievethatitwilldipbelow10%thisyearwithfourth-quartergrowthdownto6%orevenlower. Growthratesinthatrangemaybetheenvyofrecession-batteredeconomiesbutmarksignsoftroubleforChina.Itisanarticleoffaithamongmanyeconomists-andaviewpubliclystatedearlierthisyearbytheChinesePrimeMinisterWenJiabao-thatChinaneedsagrowthrateofatleast7%toavoidmassiveunemployment.Thecountryhasbeenhurtinrecentmonthsbysofteningexportmarketsdepresseddomesticpropertyvaluesandstockmarketsanddecliningconsumerandinvestorconfidence. AccordingtothesecondparagraphwhichofthefollowingisNOTwithinthescopeofthefirsttwoyears’stimuluspackage
IncreasinglyhistoriansareblamingdiseasesimportedfromtheOldWorldforthegreatdisparitybetweenthenativepopulationofAmericain1492--newestimatesofwhichjumpashighas100millionorapproximatelyone-sixthofthehumanraceatthattime--andthefewmillionfull-bloodedNativeAmericansaliveattheendofthenineteenthcentury.Thereisnodoubtthatchronicdiseasewasanimportantfactorinthesharpdeclineanditishighlyprobablethatthegreatestkillerwasepidemicdiseaseespeciallyasmanifestedinvirgin-soilepidemics. Virgin-soilepidemicsarethoseinwhichthepopulationsatriskhavehadnopreviouscontactwiththediseasesthatstrikethemandarethereforeimmunologicallyalmostdefenseless.Thatvirgin-soilepidemicswereimportantinAmericanhistoryisstronglyindicatedbyevidencethatanumberofdangerousmaladies--smallpoxmeaslesmalariayellowfeverandundoubtedlyseveralmore--wereunknowninthepre-ColumbianNewWorld.TheeffectsoftheirsuddenintroductionaredemonstratedintheearlychroniclesofAmericawhichcontainreportsofhorribleepidemicsandsteeppopulationdeclinesconfirmedinmanycasesbyquantitativeanalyzesofSpanishtributerecordsandothersources.TheevidenceprovidedbythedocumentsofBritishandFrenchcoloniesisnotasdefinitivebecausetheconquerorsofthoseareasdidnotestablishpermanentsettlementsandbegantokeepcontinuousrecordsuntiltheseventeenthcenturybywhichtimetheworstepidemicshadprobablyalreadytakenplace.FurthermoretheBritishtendedtodrivethenativepopulationsawayratherthantoenslavethemastheSpaniardsdid;sothattheepidemicsofBritishAmericaoccurredbeyondtherangeofcolonists’directobservation. EvensothesurvivingrecordsofNorthAmericadocontainreferencestodeadlyepidemicsamongthenativepopulation.In1616--1619anepidemicpossiblyofpneumonicplaguesweptcoastalNewEnglandkillingasmanyasnineoutoften.Duringthe1630’ssmallpoxthediseasemostfataltotheNativeAmericanpeopleeliminatedhalfthepopulationoftheHuronandIroquoisconfederations.Inthe1820’sfeverruinedthepeopleoftheColumbiaRiverareakillingeightoutoftenofthem. UnfortunatelythedocumentationoftheseandotherepidemicsisslightandfrequentlyunreliableanditisnecessarytosupplementwhatlittlewedeknowwithevidencefromrecentepidemicsamongNativeAmericans.Forexamplein1952anoutbreakofmeaslesamongtheNativeAmericaninhabitantsofUngavaBayQuebecaffected99percentofthepopulationandkilled7percenteventhoughsomehadthebenefitofmodernmedicine.Casessuchasthisdemonstratethatevendiseasesthatarenotnormallyfatalcanhavedestroyingconsequenceswhentheystrikeanimmunologicallydefenselesscommunity. Notes:disparity差距virgin-soil处女地malady疾病chronicle编年史tribute贡品pneumonicplague肺鼠疫confederation同盟smallpox天花measles麻疹 ItcanbeinferredfromthetextabouttheNativeAmericaninhabitantsofUngavaBaythatthey
Whenanyoneopensacurrentaccountatabankheislendingthebankmoney.Hemay1therepaymentofthemoneyatanytimeeither2cashorbydrawingacheckinfavorofanotherperson.3thebankercustomerrelationshipisthatofdebtorandcreditorwhois4dependingonwhetherthecustomer’saccountis5creditorisoverdrawn.Butin6tothatbasicallysimpleconcept"thebankanditscustomer7alargenumberofobligationstooneanother.Manyoftheseobligationscangive8toproblemsandcomplicationsbutabankcustomerunlikesayabuyerofgoodscannotcomplainthatthelawis9againsthim. Thebankmust10itscustomer’sinstructionsandnotthoseofanyoneelse.11forexampleacustomeropensanaccountheinstructsthebanktodebithisaccountonlyin12ofchecksdrawnbyhimself.Hegivesthebank13ofhissignatureandthereisaveryfirmrulethatthebankhasnorightor14topayoutacustomer’smoney15acheckonwhichitscustomer’ssignaturehasbeen16.Itmakesnodifferencethattheforgerymayhavebeenavery17onethebankmustrecognizeitscustomer’ssignature.Forthisreasonthereisno18tothecustomerinthepractice19bybanksofprintingthecustomer’snameonhischecks.Ifthis20forgeryitisthebankthatwilllosenotthecustomer. 14
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