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To produce the upheaval (激变) in the United States that changed and modernized the domain of highe...
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在刺激变量中对反应时间影响比较大的因素有等
割裂事物发展的前进性与曲折性的统一会导致
循环论
诡辩论
激变论
直线论
因变量又叫
反应变量
原因变量
条件变量
刺激变量
除自变量以外其他一切对实验有干扰的变量称为
自变量
无关变量
刺激变量
反应变量
通常由主试者给予不同的指示语造成的自变量属于
刺激变量
环境变量
被试特点自变量
额外变量
处于生理上的激变期的学生是
小学生
初中生
高中生
大学生
刺激变量
批重的在个不同特征的区间是激变区缓变区微变区
刺激变温结实性菌类子实体分化的因素是和
炉料批重的特征曲线分为以下区间
激变区
缓变区
微变区
不变区
批重的三个不同的特征区间是激变区缓变区微变区
只承认量变而否认质变就会导致
庸俗进化论
诡辩论
激变论
均衡论
托尔斯泰世界观激变指的是他从转到立场上来
关于戏剧性的学说包括激变说情境说
激变变星发生光变的本质是什么
怎样理解渐变和激变的交叉
疲劳焦虑饥饿动机等自变量属于
刺激变量
环境变量
被试固有的特性
暂时的被试变量
当无关刺激变成条件刺激条件反射就建立起来了
在刺激变化时所产生的最小感觉差异称为
感受性
绝对感觉阈限
差别感觉阈限
最小可觉差
日常操作中批重应选择在
激变区
微变区
缓变区
无所谓
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Sometimeswehavespecificproblemswithourmother;sometimeslifewithhercanjustbehardwork.Iftherearedifficultiesinyour1it’sbesttodealwiththem2rememberthatany3shouldbedone4personorbyletter.Thetelephoneisnotagood5becauseitistooeasy6eithersideto7theconversation. Explaintoher8youfinddifficultinyourrelationshipandthen9somenewarrangementsthatyouthinkwouldestablisha10balancebetweenyou.Sometimeswehold11fromestablishingsuchboundariesbecauseweareafraidthatdoing12impliesweare13her.Weneedtorememberthatbeing14fromourmotherdoesnot15meanthatwenolongerloveher.Iftheconflictis16andyoucannotfindawayto17ityoumightdecidetogiveupyourrelationshipwithyourmotherforawhile.Someofmypatientshad18"trialseparations".The19allowedthingstosimmerdownenabling20. 2
Germany’schimneysweeps—hallowedasbringersofgoodluckwiththeirblacktophatsandcoiled-wirebrushes—areunderattack.LastweektheEuropeanCommission’sdirectoratefortheinternalmarketrevivedproceedingsagainstanantiquatedGermanlawthatprotectssweepsagainstcompetition.Thecountry’schimneysweepsenjoyanear-perfectmonopoly.Germanyisdividedintoaround8000districtseachruledbyitsownmastersweepwhousuallyemploystwomoresweeps.Althoughthisisaprivateenterprisethemaintenanceandinspectionserviceprovidediscompulsoryandpricesaresetbythelocalauthority:sweepscannotstrayoutsidetheirdistrictnorcanhouseholderschangetheirsweepeveniftheyloathehim.Thisrulecutsbothways."TherearesomecustomersIcan’tstandeither"saysoneFrankfurtsweep. Therationaleissimple:chimney-sweepingandrelatedgasandheatingmaintenanceinGermanyaretreatedasamatterofpublicsafety.Annualorsemi-annualvisitsareprescribedkeepingthesweepsbusyallyearround.Forcenturieschimney-sweepsinEuropewereawanderingbreed.Butin1937thechimney-sweeplawwasrevisedbyHeinrichHimmlerthentheactinginteriorminister.HisrolestiedchimneysweepstotheirdistrictsanddecreedthattheyshouldbeGermantoenablehimtousesweepsaslocalspies. Thelawwasupdatedin1969leavingthelocalmonopoliesinplacebutopeninguptheprofessionintheoryatleasttonon-Germans.Butinpracticefewapply.FouryearsagoabravePolequalifiedasamasterinKaiserslauternaccordingtoafellowstudentandthisyearanItaliandidsointheRhinelandPalatinate.ButhelikemostnewlyqualifiedGermanmasterswillspendyearsonawaitinglistbeforehegetshisowndistrict. TheEuropeanCommissionwouldliketoseeacompetitivemarketinwhichpeoplecanchoosetheirownsweepsjustastheychoosebuildersorplumbers.Itfirstopenedinfringementproceedingsin2003andtheGermangovernmentofthetimepromisedtochangethelawbutfailedtodoso.AnddespitethehuffingandpuffingfromBrusselstilegovernmentisstillreluctanttodismantleitsantiquatedsystemonsafetygrounds.Thenumberofdeathsfromcarbon-monoxidepoisoninginGermanyisaroundone-tenththatinFranceorBelgiumclaimstheFrankfurtsweep.SoGermansarelikelytobestockwiththeirneighbourhoodSchornsteinfegers—whethertheycanstandeachotherornot—forsometimetocome. What’sthereasonthatGermany’schimneysweepsareunderattack
Effectivecommunicationisessentialforallorganisations.ItlinkstheactivitiesofthevariouspartsoftheorganisationandensuresthateveryoneisworkingtowardsaCommongoal.Itisalsoextremelyimportantformotivatingemployees.Staffneedtoknowhowtheyaregettingonwhattheyaredoingrightandinwhichareastheycouldimprove.Workingalonecanbeextremelydifficultanditismucheasierifsomeonetakesaninterestandprovidessupport.Employeesneedtounderstandwhytheirjobisimportantandhowitcontributestotheoverallsuccessofthefirm.Personalcommunicationshouldalsoincludetargetsetting.Peopleusuallyrespondwelltogoalsprovidedtheseareagreedbetweenthemanagerandsubordinateandnotimposed. Howeverfirmsoftenhavecommunicationsproblemsthatcanunderminetheirperformance.Inmanycasestheseproblemsoccurbecausemessagesarepassedoninaninappropriateway.Thereareofcourseseveralwaysofconveyinginformationtoothersintheorganisation.Theseincludespeakingtothemdirectlye-mailingtelephoningorsendingamemo.Themostappropriatemethoddependsonwhatexactlyitisyouarecommunicating.Forexampleanythingthatisparticularlysensitiveorconfidentialsuchasanemployee’sappraisalshouldbedoneface-to-face. Oneofthemainproblemsforseniorexecutivesisthattheydonothavethetimeorresourcesneededtocommunicateeffectively.Inlargecompaniesforexampleitisimpossibleforseniormanagerstomeetanddiscussprogresswitheachemployeeindividually.Obviouslythistaskcanbedelegatedbutatthecostofcreatingagapbetweenseniormanagementandstaff.Asaresultmanagersareoftenforcedtouseothermethodsofcommunication.Likememosornoteseveniftheyknowthesearenotnecessarilythemostsuitablemeansofpassingonmessages. Theuseoftechnologysuchase-mailmobilephonesandnetworksystemisspeedingupcommunicationimmensely.Howeverthisdoesnotmeanthatmoreinvestmentintechnologyautomaticallyprovesbeneficialsystemscanbecomeoutdatedoremployeesmaylackappropriatetraining.Therearemanycommunicationstoolsnowavailablebutafirmcannotaffordallofthem.Evenifitcoulditdoesnotactuallyneedthemall.Thepotentialgainsmustbeweighedupagainstthecostsandfirmsshouldrealisethatmorecommunicationdoesnotnecessarilymeanbettercommunication. Asthenumberofpeopleinvolvedinanorganisationincreasetheuseofwrittencommunicationrisesevenfaster.Insteadofaquickconversationtosortsomethingoutnumerousmessagescanbepassedbackwardsandforwards.Thiscanleadtoatremendousamountofpaperworkandisoftenlesseffectivethanfacetofacecommunication.Whenyouareactuallytalkingtosomeoneyoucandiscussthingsuntilyouarehappytheyhaveunderstoodandfeedbackisimmediate.Withwrittenmessageshoweveryouareneverquitesurehowitwillbereceived.Whatyouthinkyouhavesaidandwhattheotherpersonthinksyouhavesaidcanbeverydifferent. Theamountofwritteninformationgeneratedinlargeorganisationstodaycanleadtocommunicationoverload.Somuchinformationisgatheredthatitgetsinthe-wayofmakingdecisions.Takealookattheaveragemanager’sdeskandyouwillseetheproblem—itisoftencoveredinlettersreportsandmemos.Thisoverloadcanleadtoinefficiencies.Forexamplemanagersmaynotbeabletofindtheinformationtheywantwhentheyneedit.Communicationisalsobecomingmoredifficultwiththechangesoccurringinemploymentpatterns.Withmorepeopleworkingpart-timeandworkingfromhomemanagingcommunicationisbecomingincreasinglycomplex. Accordingtothearticlewhatistheeffectofreceivinglargeamountsofwritteninformation
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质believedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriatal纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17longitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"theyconcluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 16
Glassinoneformoranotherhaslongbeeninnobleservicetohumans.Asoneofthemostwidelyusedofmanufacturedmaterialsandcertainlythemostversatileitcanbeasimposingasatelescopemirrorthewidthofatenniscourtorassmallandsimpleasamarblerollingacrossdirt. 41.______ Theusesofthisadaptablematerialhavebeenbroadeneddramaticallybynewtechnologies:glassfiberoptics—morethaneightmillionmiles—carryingtelephoneandtelevisionsignalsacrossnations;glassceramicsservingasthenoseconesofmissilesandascrownsforteeth;tinyglassbeadstakingradiationdosesinsidethebodytospecificorgans;evenanewtypeofglassfashionedofnuclearwasteinordertodisposeofthatunwantedmaterial. 42.______ Onthehorizonareopticalcomputers.Thesecouldstoreprogramsandprocessinformationbymeansoflight—pulsesfromtinylasers—ratherthanelectrons.Andthepulseswouldtraveloverglassfibersnotcopperwire.Thesemachinescouldfunctionhundredsoftimesfasterthantoday’selectroniccomputersandholdvastlymoreinformation.Todayfiberopticsareusedtoobtainaclearerimageofsmallerandsmallerobjectsthaneverbefore—evenbacterialviruses.Anewgenerationofopticalinstrumentsisemergingthatcanprovidedetailedimagingoftheinnerworkingsofcells.ItisthesurgeinfiberopticuseandinliquidcrystaldisplaysthathassettheU.S.glassindustrya16billiondollarbusinessemployingsome150000workerstobuildingnewplantstomeetdemand. 43.______ Butnotalltheglasstechnologythattouchesourlivesisultra-modem.Considerthesimplelightbulb;attheturnofthecenturymostlightbulbswerehandblownandthecostofonewasequivalenttohalfaday’spayfortheaverageworker.IneffecttheinventionoftheribbonmachinebyCominginthe1920slightedanation.Thepriceofabulbplunged.Smallwonderthatthemachinehasbeencalledoneofthegreatmechanicalachievementsofalltime.Yetitisverysimple:anarrowribbonofmoltenglasstravelsoveramovingbeltofsteelinwhichthereareholes.Theglasssagsthroughtheholesandintowaitingmoulds.Puffsofcompressedairthenshapetheglass.Inthiswaytheenvelopeofalightbulbismadebyasinglemachineattherateof66000anhourascomparedwith1200adayproducedbyateamoffourglassblowers. 44.______ Thesecretoftheversatilityofglassliesinitsinteriorstructure.Althoughitisrigidandthuslikeasolidtheatomsarearrangedinarandomdisorderedfashioncharacteristicofaliquid.Inthemeltingprocesstheatomsintherawmaterialsaredisturbedfromtheirnormalpositioninthemolecularstructure;beforetheycanfindtheirwaybacktocrystallinearrangementstheglasscools.Thisloosenessinmolecularstructuregivesthematerialwhatengineerscalltremendous"formability"whichallowstechnicianstotailorglasstowhatevertheyneed. 45.______ Todayscientistscontinuetoexperimentwithnewglassmixturesandbuildingdesignerstesttheirimaginationswithapplicationsofspecialtypesofglass.ALondonarchitectMikeDaviesseesevenmoredramaticbuildingsusingmolecularchemistry."Glassisthegreatbuildingmaterialofthefuturethe’dynamicskin’"hesaid."Thinkofglassthathasbeentreatedtoreacttoelectriccurrentsgoingthroughitglassthatwillchangefromcleartoopaqueatthepushofabuttonthatgivesyouinstantcurtains." ThinkofhowthetallbuildingsinNewYorkcouldperformasymphonyofcoloursastheglassinthemismadetochangecoloursinstantly.Glassasinstantcurtainsisavailablenowbutthecostisexorbitant.Asfortheglasschangingcoloursinstantlythatmaycometrue.MikeDavies’svisionmayindeedbeonthewaytofulfillment. [A]Whatmakesglasssoadaptable [B]Architecturalexperimentswithglass [C]Glassartgalleriesflourish [D]Excitinginnovationsinfiberoptics [E]Aformerglasstechnology [F]Newusesofglass 42
Sometimeswehavespecificproblemswithourmother;sometimeslifewithhercanjustbehardwork.Iftherearedifficultiesinyour1it’sbesttodealwiththem2rememberthatany3shouldbedone4personorbyletter.Thetelephoneisnotagood5becauseitistooeasy6eithersideto7theconversation. Explaintoher8youfinddifficultinyourrelationshipandthen9somenewarrangementsthatyouthinkwouldestablisha10balancebetweenyou.Sometimeswehold11fromestablishingsuchboundariesbecauseweareafraidthatdoing12impliesweare13her.Weneedtorememberthatbeing14fromourmotherdoesnot15meanthatwenolongerloveher.Iftheconflictis16andyoucannotfindawayto17ityoumightdecidetogiveupyourrelationshipwithyourmotherforawhile.Someofmypatientshad18"trialseparations".The19allowedthingstosimmerdownenabling20. 8
46HistorytellsusthatinancientBabylonthecradleofourcivilizationthepeopletriedtobuildatowerthatwouldreachtoheaven.ButthetowerbecamethetowerofBabelaccordingtotheOldTestamentwhenthepeopleweresuddenlycausedtospeakdifferentlanguages.InmodernNewYorkCityanewtowerthatoftheUnitedNationsBuildingthrustsitsshiningmassskyward.47ButtherealizationoftheUN’saspirations—andwithitthehopesofthepeoplesoftheworld—isthreatenedbyourcontemporaryBabel:aboutthreethousanddifferentlanguagesarespokenthroughouttheworldtodaywithoutcountingthevariousdialectsthatconfoundcommunicationbetweenpeoplesofthesameland. InChinaforexamplehundredsofdifferentdialectsarespoken;peopleofsomevillageshavetroublepassingthetimeofdaywiththeinhabitantsofthenexttown.InthenewAfricanstateofGhanafivemillionpeoplespeakfiftydifferentdialects.InIndiamorethanonehundredlanguagesarespokenofwhichonlyfourteenarerecognizedasofficial.Toaddtotheconfusionastheoldestablishedempiresarebrokenupandnewstatesareformednewofficialtonguesspringupatanincreasingrate. InaworldmadesmallerbyjettravelmanisstillisolatedfrommanyofhisneighborsbytheBabelbarrierofmultiplyinglanguages.Communicationisblockeddailyinscoresofways.Travelersfinditdifficulttoknowthepeoplesofothernations.Scientistsareoftenunabletoreadandbenefitfromtheworkbeingcarriedonbymenofscienceinothercountries.48Theaimsofinternationaltradeofworldaccordofmeetingsbetweennationsareblockedateveryturn;theworkofscholarstechnologistsandhumanistsishandicapped.EvenintheshiningnewtoweroftheUnitedNationsinNewYorkspeechesanddiscussionshavetobetranslatedandprintedinthefiveofficialUNlanguage—EnglishFrenchSpanishRussianandChinese.ConfusiondelaysuspicionandhardfeelingsaretheproductsofthediplomaticBabel. Thechancesforworldunityarelessenedifintheliteralsenseofthephrasewedonotspeakthesamelanguage.49Westandindireneedofacommontonguealanguagethatwouldcrossnationalbarriersonesimpleenoughtobeuniversallylearnedbytravelersbusinessmengovernmentrepresentativesscholarsandevenbychildrenatschool. Ofcoursethisisn’tanewidea.Justaseveryoneisagainstsinsoeveryoneisforacommonlanguagethatwouldfurthercommunicationbetweennations.50Whatwithonethingandanother—ournaturalstateofdriftashumanbeingsourrivalriesresentmentsandjealousiesasnations—wehaveupuntilnowfailedtotakeanyaction.IproposethatwestopjusttalkingaboutitasMarkTwainsaidoftheweatheranddosomethingaboutit.Wemustmaketheconcertedmassiveeffortittakestoreachagreementontheadoptionofasinglecommonauxiliarytongue. 50Whatwithonethingandanother—ournaturalstateofdriftashumanbeingsourrivalriesresentmentsandjealousiesasnations—wehaveupuntilnowfailedtotakeanyaction.
Sometimeswehavespecificproblemswithourmother;sometimeslifewithhercanjustbehardwork.Iftherearedifficultiesinyour1it’sbesttodealwiththem2rememberthatany3shouldbedone4personorbyletter.Thetelephoneisnotagood5becauseitistooeasy6eithersideto7theconversation. Explaintoher8youfinddifficultinyourrelationshipandthen9somenewarrangementsthatyouthinkwouldestablisha10balancebetweenyou.Sometimeswehold11fromestablishingsuchboundariesbecauseweareafraidthatdoing12impliesweare13her.Weneedtorememberthatbeing14fromourmotherdoesnot15meanthatwenolongerloveher.Iftheconflictis16andyoucannotfindawayto17ityoumightdecidetogiveupyourrelationshipwithyourmotherforawhile.Someofmypatientshad18"trialseparations".The19allowedthingstosimmerdownenabling20. 6
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质believedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriatal纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17longitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"theyconcluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 12
46HistorytellsusthatinancientBabylonthecradleofourcivilizationthepeopletriedtobuildatowerthatwouldreachtoheaven.ButthetowerbecamethetowerofBabelaccordingtotheOldTestamentwhenthepeopleweresuddenlycausedtospeakdifferentlanguages.InmodernNewYorkCityanewtowerthatoftheUnitedNationsBuildingthrustsitsshiningmassskyward.47ButtherealizationoftheUN’saspirations—andwithitthehopesofthepeoplesoftheworld—isthreatenedbyourcontemporaryBabel:aboutthreethousanddifferentlanguagesarespokenthroughouttheworldtodaywithoutcountingthevariousdialectsthatconfoundcommunicationbetweenpeoplesofthesameland. InChinaforexamplehundredsofdifferentdialectsarespoken;peopleofsomevillageshavetroublepassingthetimeofdaywiththeinhabitantsofthenexttown.InthenewAfricanstateofGhanafivemillionpeoplespeakfiftydifferentdialects.InIndiamorethanonehundredlanguagesarespokenofwhichonlyfourteenarerecognizedasofficial.Toaddtotheconfusionastheoldestablishedempiresarebrokenupandnewstatesareformednewofficialtonguesspringupatanincreasingrate. InaworldmadesmallerbyjettravelmanisstillisolatedfrommanyofhisneighborsbytheBabelbarrierofmultiplyinglanguages.Communicationisblockeddailyinscoresofways.Travelersfinditdifficulttoknowthepeoplesofothernations.Scientistsareoftenunabletoreadandbenefitfromtheworkbeingcarriedonbymenofscienceinothercountries.48Theaimsofinternationaltradeofworldaccordofmeetingsbetweennationsareblockedateveryturn;theworkofscholarstechnologistsandhumanistsishandicapped.EvenintheshiningnewtoweroftheUnitedNationsinNewYorkspeechesanddiscussionshavetobetranslatedandprintedinthefiveofficialUNlanguage—EnglishFrenchSpanishRussianandChinese.ConfusiondelaysuspicionandhardfeelingsaretheproductsofthediplomaticBabel. Thechancesforworldunityarelessenedifintheliteralsenseofthephrasewedonotspeakthesamelanguage.49Westandindireneedofacommontonguealanguagethatwouldcrossnationalbarriersonesimpleenoughtobeuniversallylearnedbytravelersbusinessmengovernmentrepresentativesscholarsandevenbychildrenatschool. Ofcoursethisisn’tanewidea.Justaseveryoneisagainstsinsoeveryoneisforacommonlanguagethatwouldfurthercommunicationbetweennations.50Whatwithonethingandanother—ournaturalstateofdriftashumanbeingsourrivalriesresentmentsandjealousiesasnations—wehaveupuntilnowfailedtotakeanyaction.IproposethatwestopjusttalkingaboutitasMarkTwainsaidoftheweatheranddosomethingaboutit.Wemustmaketheconcertedmassiveeffortittakestoreachagreementontheadoptionofasinglecommonauxiliarytongue. 46HistorytellsusthatinancientBabylonthecradleofourcivilizationthepeopletriedtobuildatowerthatwouldreachtoheaven.
Inthetwodecadesbetween1910and1930overtenpercentoftheBlackpopulationoftheUnitedStateslefttheSouthwherethemajorityoftheBlackpopulationhadbeenlocatedandmigratedtonorthernstateswiththelargestnumbermovingitisclaimedbetween1916and1918.IthasbeenfrequentlyassumedbutnotprovedthatmostofthemigrantsinwhathascometobecalledtheGreatMigrationcamefromruralareasandweremotivatedbytwoconcurrentfactors:thecollapseofcottonindustryfollowingbollweevilinfestationwhichbeganin1898andincreaseddemandintheNorthforlaborfollowingthecessationofEuropeanimmigrationcausedbytheoutbreakoftheFirstWorldWarin1914.Thisassumptionhasledtotheconclusionthatthemigrants’subsequentlackofeconomicmobilityintheNorthistiedtoruralbackgroundabackgroundthatimpliesunfamiliaritywithurbanlivingandalackofindustrialskills. ButthequestionofwhoactuallylefttheSouthhasneverbeeninvestigatedindetail.AlthoughnumerousinvestigationsdocumentaflightfromruralsouthernareastosoutherncitiespriortotheGreatMigrationnoonehasconsideredwhetherthesamemigrantsthenmovedontonortherncities.In1910over600000BlackworkersortenpercentoftheBlackworkforcereportedthemselvestobeengagedin"manufacturingandmechanicalpursuits"thefederalcensuscategoryroughlyincludingtheentireindustrialsector.TheGreatMigrationcouldeasilyhavebeenmadeupentirelyofthisgroupandtheirfamilies.ItisperhapssurprisingtoarguethatanemployedpopulationcouldbetemptedtomovebutanexplanationliesinthelaborconditionsthenprevalentintheSouth. Aboutthirty-fivepercentoftheurbanBlackpopulationintheSouthwasengagedinskilledtrades.Somewerefromtheoldartisanclassofslavery--blacksmithsmasonscarpenters--whichhadamonopolyofcertaintradesbuttheyweregraduallybeingpushedoutbycompetitionmechanizationandobsolescence.Theremainingsixty-fivepercentmorerecentlyurbanizedworkedinnewlydevelopedindustries--tobaccolumbercoalandironmanufactureandrailroads.WagesintheSouthhoweverwerelowandBlackworkerswereawarethroughlaborrecruitersandtheBlackpressthattheycouldearnmoreevenasunskilledworkersintheNorththantheycouldasartisansintheSouth.AfterthebollweevilinfestationurbanBlackworkersfacedcompetitionfromthecontinuinginfluxofbothBlackandWhiteruralworkerswhoweredriventoundercutthewagesformerlypaidforindustrialjobs.ThusamovenorthwouldbeseenasadvantageoustoagroupthatwasalreadyurbanizedandsteadilyemployedandtheeasyconclusiontyingtheirsubsequenteconomicproblemsintheNorthtotheirruralbackgroundscomesintoquestion. Theprimarypurposeofthetextisto
Inthetwodecadesbetween1910and1930overtenpercentoftheBlackpopulationoftheUnitedStateslefttheSouthwherethemajorityoftheBlackpopulationhadbeenlocatedandmigratedtonorthernstateswiththelargestnumbermovingitisclaimedbetween1916and1918.IthasbeenfrequentlyassumedbutnotprovedthatmostofthemigrantsinwhathascometobecalledtheGreatMigrationcamefromruralareasandweremotivatedbytwoconcurrentfactors:thecollapseofcottonindustryfollowingbollweevilinfestationwhichbeganin1898andincreaseddemandintheNorthforlaborfollowingthecessationofEuropeanimmigrationcausedbytheoutbreakoftheFirstWorldWarin1914.Thisassumptionhasledtotheconclusionthatthemigrants’subsequentlackofeconomicmobilityintheNorthistiedtoruralbackgroundabackgroundthatimpliesunfamiliaritywithurbanlivingandalackofindustrialskills. ButthequestionofwhoactuallylefttheSouthhasneverbeeninvestigatedindetail.AlthoughnumerousinvestigationsdocumentaflightfromruralsouthernareastosoutherncitiespriortotheGreatMigrationnoonehasconsideredwhetherthesamemigrantsthenmovedontonortherncities.In1910over600000BlackworkersortenpercentoftheBlackworkforcereportedthemselvestobeengagedin"manufacturingandmechanicalpursuits"thefederalcensuscategoryroughlyincludingtheentireindustrialsector.TheGreatMigrationcouldeasilyhavebeenmadeupentirelyofthisgroupandtheirfamilies.ItisperhapssurprisingtoarguethatanemployedpopulationcouldbetemptedtomovebutanexplanationliesinthelaborconditionsthenprevalentintheSouth. Aboutthirty-fivepercentoftheurbanBlackpopulationintheSouthwasengagedinskilledtrades.Somewerefromtheoldartisanclassofslavery--blacksmithsmasonscarpenters--whichhadamonopolyofcertaintradesbuttheyweregraduallybeingpushedoutbycompetitionmechanizationandobsolescence.Theremainingsixty-fivepercentmorerecentlyurbanizedworkedinnewlydevelopedindustries--tobaccolumbercoalandironmanufactureandrailroads.WagesintheSouthhoweverwerelowandBlackworkerswereawarethroughlaborrecruitersandtheBlackpressthattheycouldearnmoreevenasunskilledworkersintheNorththantheycouldasartisansintheSouth.AfterthebollweevilinfestationurbanBlackworkersfacedcompetitionfromthecontinuinginfluxofbothBlackandWhiteruralworkerswhoweredriventoundercutthewagesformerlypaidforindustrialjobs.ThusamovenorthwouldbeseenasadvantageoustoagroupthatwasalreadyurbanizedandsteadilyemployedandtheeasyconclusiontyingtheirsubsequenteconomicproblemsintheNorthtotheirruralbackgroundscomesintoquestion. Accordingtothetextwhichofthefollowingistrueofwagesinsoutherncitiesin1910
Germany’schimneysweeps—hallowedasbringersofgoodluckwiththeirblacktophatsandcoiled-wirebrushes—areunderattack.LastweektheEuropeanCommission’sdirectoratefortheinternalmarketrevivedproceedingsagainstanantiquatedGermanlawthatprotectssweepsagainstcompetition.Thecountry’schimneysweepsenjoyanear-perfectmonopoly.Germanyisdividedintoaround8000districtseachruledbyitsownmastersweepwhousuallyemploystwomoresweeps.Althoughthisisaprivateenterprisethemaintenanceandinspectionserviceprovidediscompulsoryandpricesaresetbythelocalauthority:sweepscannotstrayoutsidetheirdistrictnorcanhouseholderschangetheirsweepeveniftheyloathehim.Thisrulecutsbothways."TherearesomecustomersIcan’tstandeither"saysoneFrankfurtsweep. Therationaleissimple:chimney-sweepingandrelatedgasandheatingmaintenanceinGermanyaretreatedasamatterofpublicsafety.Annualorsemi-annualvisitsareprescribedkeepingthesweepsbusyallyearround.Forcenturieschimney-sweepsinEuropewereawanderingbreed.Butin1937thechimney-sweeplawwasrevisedbyHeinrichHimmlerthentheactinginteriorminister.HisrolestiedchimneysweepstotheirdistrictsanddecreedthattheyshouldbeGermantoenablehimtousesweepsaslocalspies. Thelawwasupdatedin1969leavingthelocalmonopoliesinplacebutopeninguptheprofessionintheoryatleasttonon-Germans.Butinpracticefewapply.FouryearsagoabravePolequalifiedasamasterinKaiserslauternaccordingtoafellowstudentandthisyearanItaliandidsointheRhinelandPalatinate.ButhelikemostnewlyqualifiedGermanmasterswillspendyearsonawaitinglistbeforehegetshisowndistrict. TheEuropeanCommissionwouldliketoseeacompetitivemarketinwhichpeoplecanchoosetheirownsweepsjustastheychoosebuildersorplumbers.Itfirstopenedinfringementproceedingsin2003andtheGermangovernmentofthetimepromisedtochangethelawbutfailedtodoso.AnddespitethehuffingandpuffingfromBrusselstilegovernmentisstillreluctanttodismantleitsantiquatedsystemonsafetygrounds.Thenumberofdeathsfromcarbon-monoxidepoisoninginGermanyisaroundone-tenththatinFranceorBelgiumclaimstheFrankfurtsweep.SoGermansarelikelytobestockwiththeirneighbourhoodSchornsteinfegers—whethertheycanstandeachotherornot—forsometimetocome. WhichofthefollowingistrueaccordingtoParagraph2
46HistorytellsusthatinancientBabylonthecradleofourcivilizationthepeopletriedtobuildatowerthatwouldreachtoheaven.ButthetowerbecamethetowerofBabelaccordingtotheOldTestamentwhenthepeopleweresuddenlycausedtospeakdifferentlanguages.InmodernNewYorkCityanewtowerthatoftheUnitedNationsBuildingthrustsitsshiningmassskyward.47ButtherealizationoftheUN’saspirations—andwithitthehopesofthepeoplesoftheworld—isthreatenedbyourcontemporaryBabel:aboutthreethousanddifferentlanguagesarespokenthroughouttheworldtodaywithoutcountingthevariousdialectsthatconfoundcommunicationbetweenpeoplesofthesameland. InChinaforexamplehundredsofdifferentdialectsarespoken;peopleofsomevillageshavetroublepassingthetimeofdaywiththeinhabitantsofthenexttown.InthenewAfricanstateofGhanafivemillionpeoplespeakfiftydifferentdialects.InIndiamorethanonehundredlanguagesarespokenofwhichonlyfourteenarerecognizedasofficial.Toaddtotheconfusionastheoldestablishedempiresarebrokenupandnewstatesareformednewofficialtonguesspringupatanincreasingrate. InaworldmadesmallerbyjettravelmanisstillisolatedfrommanyofhisneighborsbytheBabelbarrierofmultiplyinglanguages.Communicationisblockeddailyinscoresofways.Travelersfinditdifficulttoknowthepeoplesofothernations.Scientistsareoftenunabletoreadandbenefitfromtheworkbeingcarriedonbymenofscienceinothercountries.48Theaimsofinternationaltradeofworldaccordofmeetingsbetweennationsareblockedateveryturn;theworkofscholarstechnologistsandhumanistsishandicapped.EvenintheshiningnewtoweroftheUnitedNationsinNewYorkspeechesanddiscussionshavetobetranslatedandprintedinthefiveofficialUNlanguage—EnglishFrenchSpanishRussianandChinese.ConfusiondelaysuspicionandhardfeelingsaretheproductsofthediplomaticBabel. Thechancesforworldunityarelessenedifintheliteralsenseofthephrasewedonotspeakthesamelanguage.49Westandindireneedofacommontonguealanguagethatwouldcrossnationalbarriersonesimpleenoughtobeuniversallylearnedbytravelersbusinessmengovernmentrepresentativesscholarsandevenbychildrenatschool. Ofcoursethisisn’tanewidea.Justaseveryoneisagainstsinsoeveryoneisforacommonlanguagethatwouldfurthercommunicationbetweennations.50Whatwithonethingandanother—ournaturalstateofdriftashumanbeingsourrivalriesresentmentsandjealousiesasnations—wehaveupuntilnowfailedtotakeanyaction.IproposethatwestopjusttalkingaboutitasMarkTwainsaidoftheweatheranddosomethingaboutit.Wemustmaketheconcertedmassiveeffortittakestoreachagreementontheadoptionofasinglecommonauxiliarytongue. 48Theaimsofinternationaltradeofworldaccordofmeetingsbetweennationsareblockedateveryturn;theworkofscholarstechnologistsandhumanistsishandicapped
Effectivecommunicationisessentialforallorganisations.ItlinkstheactivitiesofthevariouspartsoftheorganisationandensuresthateveryoneisworkingtowardsaCommongoal.Itisalsoextremelyimportantformotivatingemployees.Staffneedtoknowhowtheyaregettingonwhattheyaredoingrightandinwhichareastheycouldimprove.Workingalonecanbeextremelydifficultanditismucheasierifsomeonetakesaninterestandprovidessupport.Employeesneedtounderstandwhytheirjobisimportantandhowitcontributestotheoverallsuccessofthefirm.Personalcommunicationshouldalsoincludetargetsetting.Peopleusuallyrespondwelltogoalsprovidedtheseareagreedbetweenthemanagerandsubordinateandnotimposed. Howeverfirmsoftenhavecommunicationsproblemsthatcanunderminetheirperformance.Inmanycasestheseproblemsoccurbecausemessagesarepassedoninaninappropriateway.Thereareofcourseseveralwaysofconveyinginformationtoothersintheorganisation.Theseincludespeakingtothemdirectlye-mailingtelephoningorsendingamemo.Themostappropriatemethoddependsonwhatexactlyitisyouarecommunicating.Forexampleanythingthatisparticularlysensitiveorconfidentialsuchasanemployee’sappraisalshouldbedoneface-to-face. Oneofthemainproblemsforseniorexecutivesisthattheydonothavethetimeorresourcesneededtocommunicateeffectively.Inlargecompaniesforexampleitisimpossibleforseniormanagerstomeetanddiscussprogresswitheachemployeeindividually.Obviouslythistaskcanbedelegatedbutatthecostofcreatingagapbetweenseniormanagementandstaff.Asaresultmanagersareoftenforcedtouseothermethodsofcommunication.Likememosornoteseveniftheyknowthesearenotnecessarilythemostsuitablemeansofpassingonmessages. Theuseoftechnologysuchase-mailmobilephonesandnetworksystemisspeedingupcommunicationimmensely.Howeverthisdoesnotmeanthatmoreinvestmentintechnologyautomaticallyprovesbeneficialsystemscanbecomeoutdatedoremployeesmaylackappropriatetraining.Therearemanycommunicationstoolsnowavailablebutafirmcannotaffordallofthem.Evenifitcoulditdoesnotactuallyneedthemall.Thepotentialgainsmustbeweighedupagainstthecostsandfirmsshouldrealisethatmorecommunicationdoesnotnecessarilymeanbettercommunication. Asthenumberofpeopleinvolvedinanorganisationincreasetheuseofwrittencommunicationrisesevenfaster.Insteadofaquickconversationtosortsomethingoutnumerousmessagescanbepassedbackwardsandforwards.Thiscanleadtoatremendousamountofpaperworkandisoftenlesseffectivethanfacetofacecommunication.Whenyouareactuallytalkingtosomeoneyoucandiscussthingsuntilyouarehappytheyhaveunderstoodandfeedbackisimmediate.Withwrittenmessageshoweveryouareneverquitesurehowitwillbereceived.Whatyouthinkyouhavesaidandwhattheotherpersonthinksyouhavesaidcanbeverydifferent. Theamountofwritteninformationgeneratedinlargeorganisationstodaycanleadtocommunicationoverload.Somuchinformationisgatheredthatitgetsinthe-wayofmakingdecisions.Takealookattheaveragemanager’sdeskandyouwillseetheproblem—itisoftencoveredinlettersreportsandmemos.Thisoverloadcanleadtoinefficiencies.Forexamplemanagersmaynotbeabletofindtheinformationtheywantwhentheyneedit.Communicationisalsobecomingmoredifficultwiththechangesoccurringinemploymentpatterns.Withmorepeopleworkingpart-timeandworkingfromhomemanagingcommunicationisbecomingincreasinglycomplex. Accordingtothewriterthebestwayofachievingeffectivecommunicationisto
Internetadvertisingisbooming.Theindustryhasgonefrom$9.6billioninrevenuein2001to$27billionthisyearaccordingtoPiperJaffrayaninvestmentbank.Anditisstillearlydays.Theinternetaccountsforonly5%oftotalspendingonadvertisingbutthatfigureisexpectedtoreachatleast20%inthenextfewyears.Thesinglelargestcategorywithinthisflourishingindustryaccountingfornearlyhalfofallspendingis"pay-per-click"advertisingwhichisusedbyfirmsbothlargeandsmalltopromotetheirwares. Thebenefitsofthepay-per-clickapproachovertraditionaladvertisingtelevisionradioprintandbillboardsareobvious.Sinceadvertiserspayonlytoreachthesmallsubsetwhoactuallyrespondtoanadvertisementthequalityoftheleadsgeneratedisveryhighandadvertisersarepreparedtopayaccordingly.Theprice:perclickvariesfrom$0.10toasmuchas$30dependingonthekeywordthoughtheaverageisaround$0.50.Googlemademostofits$6.1billioninrevenuelastyearfrompay-per-clickadvertising. Butaspay-per-clickadvertisinghasgrownintoahugeindustryconcernhasmountedoverso-called"clickfraud"--bogusclicksthatdonotcomefromgenuinelyinterestedcustomers.Ittakestwomainforms.Ifyouclickrepeatedlyontheadvertisementsonyourownwebsiteorgetotherpeopleormachinestodosoonyourbehalfyoucangenerateastreamofboguscommissions.Clickfraudcanalsobeusedbyonecompanyagainstanother:clickingonarivalfirm’sadvertisementscansaddleitwithahugebill.Bogusclicksarethoughttoaccountforaround10%ofallclicktrafficthoughnobodyknowsforsure. AfewmonthsagoMr.Grosspioneeredanalternativetothepay-per-clickmodel.InFebruarySnapasearchenginebackedbyMr.Grosslaunched"pay-per-action"PPAanewmodelinwhichadvertiserspayonlyifaclickonanadisfollowedbyanactionsuchasapurchaseoradownload. MightthisputanendtoclickfraudDon’tbetonitsaysMikeZemanatStarcomanadvertisingagency.Payper-actionwillbeanichehepredictssinceconvertingaclickintoanactiondependsonavarietyoffactorssuchastheeaseofuseoftheadvertiser’swebsite.Googleanditspeerswillbereluctanttobesodependentonfactorsoutsidetheircontrol.ButMr.Tobaccowalathinkspay-per-actioncouldbecomearealalternativetopay-per-click.Asbiggercompaniesspendmoreoninternetadvertising;theywilldemandmoreaccountabilityandawiderrangeofoptionshesays.Attheveryleastthatmeansclampingdownonclickfraud;butitalsopresentsanopportunityforentrepreneurstoinventnewmodelsthatarelessvulnerabletoabuse. Thepriceperclickdependsonthekeywordbecause
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质believedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriatal纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17longitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"theyconcluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 20
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质believedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriatal纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17longitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"theyconcluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 8
Directions: A.Studythefollowingpicturecarefullyandwriteanessayofabout160--200words. B.YouressaymustbewrittenclearlyontheANSWERSHEET2. C.Youressayshouldmeettherequirementsbelow: 1Describethedrawing 2interpretitsmeaningand 3pointoutitsimplicationsinourlife.
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质believedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriatal纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17longitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"theyconcluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 10
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质believedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriatal纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17longitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"theyconcluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 2
Glassinoneformoranotherhaslongbeeninnobleservicetohumans.Asoneofthemostwidelyusedofmanufacturedmaterialsandcertainlythemostversatileitcanbeasimposingasatelescopemirrorthewidthofatenniscourtorassmallandsimpleasamarblerollingacrossdirt. 41.______ Theusesofthisadaptablematerialhavebeenbroadeneddramaticallybynewtechnologies:glassfiberoptics—morethaneightmillionmiles—carryingtelephoneandtelevisionsignalsacrossnations;glassceramicsservingasthenoseconesofmissilesandascrownsforteeth;tinyglassbeadstakingradiationdosesinsidethebodytospecificorgans;evenanewtypeofglassfashionedofnuclearwasteinordertodisposeofthatunwantedmaterial. 42.______ Onthehorizonareopticalcomputers.Thesecouldstoreprogramsandprocessinformationbymeansoflight—pulsesfromtinylasers—ratherthanelectrons.Andthepulseswouldtraveloverglassfibersnotcopperwire.Thesemachinescouldfunctionhundredsoftimesfasterthantoday’selectroniccomputersandholdvastlymoreinformation.Todayfiberopticsareusedtoobtainaclearerimageofsmallerandsmallerobjectsthaneverbefore—evenbacterialviruses.Anewgenerationofopticalinstrumentsisemergingthatcanprovidedetailedimagingoftheinnerworkingsofcells.ItisthesurgeinfiberopticuseandinliquidcrystaldisplaysthathassettheU.S.glassindustrya16billiondollarbusinessemployingsome150000workerstobuildingnewplantstomeetdemand. 43.______ Butnotalltheglasstechnologythattouchesourlivesisultra-modem.Considerthesimplelightbulb;attheturnofthecenturymostlightbulbswerehandblownandthecostofonewasequivalenttohalfaday’spayfortheaverageworker.IneffecttheinventionoftheribbonmachinebyCominginthe1920slightedanation.Thepriceofabulbplunged.Smallwonderthatthemachinehasbeencalledoneofthegreatmechanicalachievementsofalltime.Yetitisverysimple:anarrowribbonofmoltenglasstravelsoveramovingbeltofsteelinwhichthereareholes.Theglasssagsthroughtheholesandintowaitingmoulds.Puffsofcompressedairthenshapetheglass.Inthiswaytheenvelopeofalightbulbismadebyasinglemachineattherateof66000anhourascomparedwith1200adayproducedbyateamoffourglassblowers. 44.______ Thesecretoftheversatilityofglassliesinitsinteriorstructure.Althoughitisrigidandthuslikeasolidtheatomsarearrangedinarandomdisorderedfashioncharacteristicofaliquid.Inthemeltingprocesstheatomsintherawmaterialsaredisturbedfromtheirnormalpositioninthemolecularstructure;beforetheycanfindtheirwaybacktocrystallinearrangementstheglasscools.Thisloosenessinmolecularstructuregivesthematerialwhatengineerscalltremendous"formability"whichallowstechnicianstotailorglasstowhatevertheyneed. 45.______ Todayscientistscontinuetoexperimentwithnewglassmixturesandbuildingdesignerstesttheirimaginationswithapplicationsofspecialtypesofglass.ALondonarchitectMikeDaviesseesevenmoredramaticbuildingsusingmolecularchemistry."Glassisthegreatbuildingmaterialofthefuturethe’dynamicskin’"hesaid."Thinkofglassthathasbeentreatedtoreacttoelectriccurrentsgoingthroughitglassthatwillchangefromcleartoopaqueatthepushofabuttonthatgivesyouinstantcurtains." ThinkofhowthetallbuildingsinNewYorkcouldperformasymphonyofcoloursastheglassinthemismadetochangecoloursinstantly.Glassasinstantcurtainsisavailablenowbutthecostisexorbitant.Asfortheglasschangingcoloursinstantlythatmaycometrue.MikeDavies’svisionmayindeedbeonthewaytofulfillment. [A]Whatmakesglasssoadaptable [B]Architecturalexperimentswithglass [C]Glassartgalleriesflourish [D]Excitinginnovationsinfiberoptics [E]Aformerglasstechnology [F]Newusesofglass 44
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质believedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriatal纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17longitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"theyconcluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 4
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质believedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriatal纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17longitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"theyconcluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 18
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质believedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriatal纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17longitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"theyconcluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 6
Germany’schimneysweeps—hallowedasbringersofgoodluckwiththeirblacktophatsandcoiled-wirebrushes—areunderattack.LastweektheEuropeanCommission’sdirectoratefortheinternalmarketrevivedproceedingsagainstanantiquatedGermanlawthatprotectssweepsagainstcompetition.Thecountry’schimneysweepsenjoyanear-perfectmonopoly.Germanyisdividedintoaround8000districtseachruledbyitsownmastersweepwhousuallyemploystwomoresweeps.Althoughthisisaprivateenterprisethemaintenanceandinspectionserviceprovidediscompulsoryandpricesaresetbythelocalauthority:sweepscannotstrayoutsidetheirdistrictnorcanhouseholderschangetheirsweepeveniftheyloathehim.Thisrulecutsbothways."TherearesomecustomersIcan’tstandeither"saysoneFrankfurtsweep. Therationaleissimple:chimney-sweepingandrelatedgasandheatingmaintenanceinGermanyaretreatedasamatterofpublicsafety.Annualorsemi-annualvisitsareprescribedkeepingthesweepsbusyallyearround.Forcenturieschimney-sweepsinEuropewereawanderingbreed.Butin1937thechimney-sweeplawwasrevisedbyHeinrichHimmlerthentheactinginteriorminister.HisrolestiedchimneysweepstotheirdistrictsanddecreedthattheyshouldbeGermantoenablehimtousesweepsaslocalspies. Thelawwasupdatedin1969leavingthelocalmonopoliesinplacebutopeninguptheprofessionintheoryatleasttonon-Germans.Butinpracticefewapply.FouryearsagoabravePolequalifiedasamasterinKaiserslauternaccordingtoafellowstudentandthisyearanItaliandidsointheRhinelandPalatinate.ButhelikemostnewlyqualifiedGermanmasterswillspendyearsonawaitinglistbeforehegetshisowndistrict. TheEuropeanCommissionwouldliketoseeacompetitivemarketinwhichpeoplecanchoosetheirownsweepsjustastheychoosebuildersorplumbers.Itfirstopenedinfringementproceedingsin2003andtheGermangovernmentofthetimepromisedtochangethelawbutfailedtodoso.AnddespitethehuffingandpuffingfromBrusselstilegovernmentisstillreluctanttodismantleitsantiquatedsystemonsafetygrounds.Thenumberofdeathsfromcarbon-monoxidepoisoninginGermanyisaroundone-tenththatinFranceorBelgiumclaimstheFrankfurtsweep.SoGermansarelikelytobestockwiththeirneighbourhoodSchornsteinfegers—whethertheycanstandeachotherornot—forsometimetocome. Whichofthefollowingisthebesttitleofthepassage
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质believedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriatal纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17longitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"theyconcluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 14
Internetadvertisingisbooming.Theindustryhasgonefrom$9.6billioninrevenuein2001to$27billionthisyearaccordingtoPiperJaffrayaninvestmentbank.Anditisstillearlydays.Theinternetaccountsforonly5%oftotalspendingonadvertisingbutthatfigureisexpectedtoreachatleast20%inthenextfewyears.Thesinglelargestcategorywithinthisflourishingindustryaccountingfornearlyhalfofallspendingis"pay-per-click"advertisingwhichisusedbyfirmsbothlargeandsmalltopromotetheirwares. Thebenefitsofthepay-per-clickapproachovertraditionaladvertisingtelevisionradioprintandbillboardsareobvious.Sinceadvertiserspayonlytoreachthesmallsubsetwhoactuallyrespondtoanadvertisementthequalityoftheleadsgeneratedisveryhighandadvertisersarepreparedtopayaccordingly.Theprice:perclickvariesfrom$0.10toasmuchas$30dependingonthekeywordthoughtheaverageisaround$0.50.Googlemademostofits$6.1billioninrevenuelastyearfrompay-per-clickadvertising. Butaspay-per-clickadvertisinghasgrownintoahugeindustryconcernhasmountedoverso-called"clickfraud"--bogusclicksthatdonotcomefromgenuinelyinterestedcustomers.Ittakestwomainforms.Ifyouclickrepeatedlyontheadvertisementsonyourownwebsiteorgetotherpeopleormachinestodosoonyourbehalfyoucangenerateastreamofboguscommissions.Clickfraudcanalsobeusedbyonecompanyagainstanother:clickingonarivalfirm’sadvertisementscansaddleitwithahugebill.Bogusclicksarethoughttoaccountforaround10%ofallclicktrafficthoughnobodyknowsforsure. AfewmonthsagoMr.Grosspioneeredanalternativetothepay-per-clickmodel.InFebruarySnapasearchenginebackedbyMr.Grosslaunched"pay-per-action"PPAanewmodelinwhichadvertiserspayonlyifaclickonanadisfollowedbyanactionsuchasapurchaseoradownload. MightthisputanendtoclickfraudDon’tbetonitsaysMikeZemanatStarcomanadvertisingagency.Payper-actionwillbeanichehepredictssinceconvertingaclickintoanactiondependsonavarietyoffactorssuchastheeaseofuseoftheadvertiser’swebsite.Googleanditspeerswillbereluctanttobesodependentonfactorsoutsidetheircontrol.ButMr.Tobaccowalathinkspay-per-actioncouldbecomearealalternativetopay-per-click.Asbiggercompaniesspendmoreoninternetadvertising;theywilldemandmoreaccountabilityandawiderrangeofoptionshesays.Attheveryleastthatmeansclampingdownonclickfraud;butitalsopresentsanopportunityforentrepreneurstoinventnewmodelsthatarelessvulnerabletoabuse. ThePPAwillbecomemorepopulardueto
Effectivecommunicationisessentialforallorganisations.ItlinkstheactivitiesofthevariouspartsoftheorganisationandensuresthateveryoneisworkingtowardsaCommongoal.Itisalsoextremelyimportantformotivatingemployees.Staffneedtoknowhowtheyaregettingonwhattheyaredoingrightandinwhichareastheycouldimprove.Workingalonecanbeextremelydifficultanditismucheasierifsomeonetakesaninterestandprovidessupport.Employeesneedtounderstandwhytheirjobisimportantandhowitcontributestotheoverallsuccessofthefirm.Personalcommunicationshouldalsoincludetargetsetting.Peopleusuallyrespondwelltogoalsprovidedtheseareagreedbetweenthemanagerandsubordinateandnotimposed. Howeverfirmsoftenhavecommunicationsproblemsthatcanunderminetheirperformance.Inmanycasestheseproblemsoccurbecausemessagesarepassedoninaninappropriateway.Thereareofcourseseveralwaysofconveyinginformationtoothersintheorganisation.Theseincludespeakingtothemdirectlye-mailingtelephoningorsendingamemo.Themostappropriatemethoddependsonwhatexactlyitisyouarecommunicating.Forexampleanythingthatisparticularlysensitiveorconfidentialsuchasanemployee’sappraisalshouldbedoneface-to-face. Oneofthemainproblemsforseniorexecutivesisthattheydonothavethetimeorresourcesneededtocommunicateeffectively.Inlargecompaniesforexampleitisimpossibleforseniormanagerstomeetanddiscussprogresswitheachemployeeindividually.Obviouslythistaskcanbedelegatedbutatthecostofcreatingagapbetweenseniormanagementandstaff.Asaresultmanagersareoftenforcedtouseothermethodsofcommunication.Likememosornoteseveniftheyknowthesearenotnecessarilythemostsuitablemeansofpassingonmessages. Theuseoftechnologysuchase-mailmobilephonesandnetworksystemisspeedingupcommunicationimmensely.Howeverthisdoesnotmeanthatmoreinvestmentintechnologyautomaticallyprovesbeneficialsystemscanbecomeoutdatedoremployeesmaylackappropriatetraining.Therearemanycommunicationstoolsnowavailablebutafirmcannotaffordallofthem.Evenifitcoulditdoesnotactuallyneedthemall.Thepotentialgainsmustbeweighedupagainstthecostsandfirmsshouldrealisethatmorecommunicationdoesnotnecessarilymeanbettercommunication. Asthenumberofpeopleinvolvedinanorganisationincreasetheuseofwrittencommunicationrisesevenfaster.Insteadofaquickconversationtosortsomethingoutnumerousmessagescanbepassedbackwardsandforwards.Thiscanleadtoatremendousamountofpaperworkandisoftenlesseffectivethanfacetofacecommunication.Whenyouareactuallytalkingtosomeoneyoucandiscussthingsuntilyouarehappytheyhaveunderstoodandfeedbackisimmediate.Withwrittenmessageshoweveryouareneverquitesurehowitwillbereceived.Whatyouthinkyouhavesaidandwhattheotherpersonthinksyouhavesaidcanbeverydifferent. Theamountofwritteninformationgeneratedinlargeorganisationstodaycanleadtocommunicationoverload.Somuchinformationisgatheredthatitgetsinthe-wayofmakingdecisions.Takealookattheaveragemanager’sdeskandyouwillseetheproblem—itisoftencoveredinlettersreportsandmemos.Thisoverloadcanleadtoinefficiencies.Forexamplemanagersmaynotbeabletofindtheinformationtheywantwhentheyneedit.Communicationisalsobecomingmoredifficultwiththechangesoccurringinemploymentpatterns.Withmorepeopleworkingpart-timeandworkingfromhomemanagingcommunicationisbecomingincreasinglycomplex. Whatadviceisgivenaboutthecommunicationtoolsmadeavailablebytechnology
Sometimeswehavespecificproblemswithourmother;sometimeslifewithhercanjustbehardwork.Iftherearedifficultiesinyour1it’sbesttodealwiththem2rememberthatany3shouldbedone4personorbyletter.Thetelephoneisnotagood5becauseitistooeasy6eithersideto7theconversation. Explaintoher8youfinddifficultinyourrelationshipandthen9somenewarrangementsthatyouthinkwouldestablisha10balancebetweenyou.Sometimeswehold11fromestablishingsuchboundariesbecauseweareafraidthatdoing12impliesweare13her.Weneedtorememberthatbeing14fromourmotherdoesnot15meanthatwenolongerloveher.Iftheconflictis16andyoucannotfindawayto17ityoumightdecidetogiveupyourrelationshipwithyourmotherforawhile.Someofmypatientshad18"trialseparations".The19allowedthingstosimmerdownenabling20. 4
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