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Directions: Write an essay of 160--200 words based on the following drawing. In your essay, you sho...
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Directions:Inthispartyouaretowriteanessayof160—200
Directions: Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwrite
PartB Directions: Youarerequiredtowriteanessayont
Directions:Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwritean
Directions:Writeanessayof160-200wordsbasedonthefo
Directions:Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwritean
Directions: Writeanessayof160-200wordsbasedonthef
Directions: Studythepicturesabovecarefullyandwrit
Directions:Studythepicturesabovecarefullyandwritea
Directions:Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwritean
Directions: Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwrite
Directions:Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwritean
Directions: Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwrite
Directions:Writeanessayof160-200wordsbasedonthefo
Directions: Youarerequiredtowriteanessayoffthetop
Directions:Writeanessayof160-200wordsbasedonthefo
Directions:Studythetwopicturesabovecarefullyandwri
Directions:Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwritean
Directions:Writeanessayof160-200wordsbasedonthefol
Directions:Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwritean
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Sometimeswehavespecificproblemswithourmother;sometimeslifewithhercanjustbehardwork.Iftherearedifficultiesinyour1it’sbesttodealwiththem2rememberthatany3shouldbedone4personorbyletter.Thetelephoneisnotagood5becauseitistooeasy6eithersideto7theconversation. Explaintoher8youfinddifficultinyourrelationshipandthen9somenewarrangementsthatyouthinkwouldestablisha10balancebetweenyou.Sometimeswehold11fromestablishingsuchboundariesbecauseweareafraidthatdoing12impliesweare13her.Weneedtorememberthatbeing14fromourmotherdoesnot15meanthatwenolongerloveher.Iftheconflictis16andyoucannotfindawayto17ityoumightdecidetogiveupyourrelationshipwithyourmotherforawhile.Someofmypatientshad18"trialseparations".The19allowedthingstosimmerdownenabling20. 2
Germany’schimneysweeps—hallowedasbringersofgoodluckwiththeirblacktophatsandcoiled-wirebrushes—areunderattack.LastweektheEuropeanCommission’sdirectoratefortheinternalmarketrevivedproceedingsagainstanantiquatedGermanlawthatprotectssweepsagainstcompetition.Thecountry’schimneysweepsenjoyanear-perfectmonopoly.Germanyisdividedintoaround8000districtseachruledbyitsownmastersweepwhousuallyemploystwomoresweeps.Althoughthisisaprivateenterprisethemaintenanceandinspectionserviceprovidediscompulsoryandpricesaresetbythelocalauthority:sweepscannotstrayoutsidetheirdistrictnorcanhouseholderschangetheirsweepeveniftheyloathehim.Thisrulecutsbothways."TherearesomecustomersIcan’tstandeither"saysoneFrankfurtsweep. Therationaleissimple:chimney-sweepingandrelatedgasandheatingmaintenanceinGermanyaretreatedasamatterofpublicsafety.Annualorsemi-annualvisitsareprescribedkeepingthesweepsbusyallyearround.Forcenturieschimney-sweepsinEuropewereawanderingbreed.Butin1937thechimney-sweeplawwasrevisedbyHeinrichHimmlerthentheactinginteriorminister.HisrolestiedchimneysweepstotheirdistrictsanddecreedthattheyshouldbeGermantoenablehimtousesweepsaslocalspies. Thelawwasupdatedin1969leavingthelocalmonopoliesinplacebutopeninguptheprofessionintheoryatleasttonon-Germans.Butinpracticefewapply.FouryearsagoabravePolequalifiedasamasterinKaiserslauternaccordingtoafellowstudentandthisyearanItaliandidsointheRhinelandPalatinate.ButhelikemostnewlyqualifiedGermanmasterswillspendyearsonawaitinglistbeforehegetshisowndistrict. TheEuropeanCommissionwouldliketoseeacompetitivemarketinwhichpeoplecanchoosetheirownsweepsjustastheychoosebuildersorplumbers.Itfirstopenedinfringementproceedingsin2003andtheGermangovernmentofthetimepromisedtochangethelawbutfailedtodoso.AnddespitethehuffingandpuffingfromBrusselstilegovernmentisstillreluctanttodismantleitsantiquatedsystemonsafetygrounds.Thenumberofdeathsfromcarbon-monoxidepoisoninginGermanyisaroundone-tenththatinFranceorBelgiumclaimstheFrankfurtsweep.SoGermansarelikelytobestockwiththeirneighbourhoodSchornsteinfegers—whethertheycanstandeachotherornot—forsometimetocome. What’sthereasonthatGermany’schimneysweepsareunderattack
Effectivecommunicationisessentialforallorganisations.ItlinkstheactivitiesofthevariouspartsoftheorganisationandensuresthateveryoneisworkingtowardsaCommongoal.Itisalsoextremelyimportantformotivatingemployees.Staffneedtoknowhowtheyaregettingonwhattheyaredoingrightandinwhichareastheycouldimprove.Workingalonecanbeextremelydifficultanditismucheasierifsomeonetakesaninterestandprovidessupport.Employeesneedtounderstandwhytheirjobisimportantandhowitcontributestotheoverallsuccessofthefirm.Personalcommunicationshouldalsoincludetargetsetting.Peopleusuallyrespondwelltogoalsprovidedtheseareagreedbetweenthemanagerandsubordinateandnotimposed. Howeverfirmsoftenhavecommunicationsproblemsthatcanunderminetheirperformance.Inmanycasestheseproblemsoccurbecausemessagesarepassedoninaninappropriateway.Thereareofcourseseveralwaysofconveyinginformationtoothersintheorganisation.Theseincludespeakingtothemdirectlye-mailingtelephoningorsendingamemo.Themostappropriatemethoddependsonwhatexactlyitisyouarecommunicating.Forexampleanythingthatisparticularlysensitiveorconfidentialsuchasanemployee’sappraisalshouldbedoneface-to-face. Oneofthemainproblemsforseniorexecutivesisthattheydonothavethetimeorresourcesneededtocommunicateeffectively.Inlargecompaniesforexampleitisimpossibleforseniormanagerstomeetanddiscussprogresswitheachemployeeindividually.Obviouslythistaskcanbedelegatedbutatthecostofcreatingagapbetweenseniormanagementandstaff.Asaresultmanagersareoftenforcedtouseothermethodsofcommunication.Likememosornoteseveniftheyknowthesearenotnecessarilythemostsuitablemeansofpassingonmessages. Theuseoftechnologysuchase-mailmobilephonesandnetworksystemisspeedingupcommunicationimmensely.Howeverthisdoesnotmeanthatmoreinvestmentintechnologyautomaticallyprovesbeneficialsystemscanbecomeoutdatedoremployeesmaylackappropriatetraining.Therearemanycommunicationstoolsnowavailablebutafirmcannotaffordallofthem.Evenifitcoulditdoesnotactuallyneedthemall.Thepotentialgainsmustbeweighedupagainstthecostsandfirmsshouldrealisethatmorecommunicationdoesnotnecessarilymeanbettercommunication. Asthenumberofpeopleinvolvedinanorganisationincreasetheuseofwrittencommunicationrisesevenfaster.Insteadofaquickconversationtosortsomethingoutnumerousmessagescanbepassedbackwardsandforwards.Thiscanleadtoatremendousamountofpaperworkandisoftenlesseffectivethanfacetofacecommunication.Whenyouareactuallytalkingtosomeoneyoucandiscussthingsuntilyouarehappytheyhaveunderstoodandfeedbackisimmediate.Withwrittenmessageshoweveryouareneverquitesurehowitwillbereceived.Whatyouthinkyouhavesaidandwhattheotherpersonthinksyouhavesaidcanbeverydifferent. Theamountofwritteninformationgeneratedinlargeorganisationstodaycanleadtocommunicationoverload.Somuchinformationisgatheredthatitgetsinthe-wayofmakingdecisions.Takealookattheaveragemanager’sdeskandyouwillseetheproblem—itisoftencoveredinlettersreportsandmemos.Thisoverloadcanleadtoinefficiencies.Forexamplemanagersmaynotbeabletofindtheinformationtheywantwhentheyneedit.Communicationisalsobecomingmoredifficultwiththechangesoccurringinemploymentpatterns.Withmorepeopleworkingpart-timeandworkingfromhomemanagingcommunicationisbecomingincreasinglycomplex. Accordingtothearticlewhatistheeffectofreceivinglargeamountsofwritteninformation
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质believedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriatal纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17longitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"theyconcluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 16
46Arecentphenomenoninpresent-dayscienceandtechnologyistheincreasingtrendtoward"directed"or"programmed"research;i.e.researchwhosescopeandobjectivesarepredeterminedbyprivateorgovernmentorganizationsratherthanresearchersthemselves.Anyscientistworkingforsuchorganizationsandinvestigatinginagivenfieldthereforetendstodosoinaccordancewithaplanorprogramdesignedbeforehand. Atthebeginningofthecenturyhoweverthesituationwasquitedifferent.Atthattimetherewerenoindustrialresearchorganizationsinthemodernsensethelaboratoryunitconsistedofafewscientistsatthemostassistedbyoneortwotechnicians.47Neverthelessthescientistoftenworkingwithinadequateequipmentinunsuitableroomswasfreetochooseanysubjectforinvestigationhelikedsincetherewasnopredeterminedprogramtowhichhehadtoconform. 48Asthecenturydevelopedtheincreasingmagnitudeandcomplexityoftheproblemstobesolvedmadeitimpossibleinmanycasesfortheindividualscientisttodealwiththehugemassofnewdatatechniquesandequipmentthatwererequiredforcarryingoutresearchaccuratelyandefficiently.Theincreasingscaleandscopeoftheexperimentsneededtotestnewhypothesesanddevelopnewtechniquesandindustrialprocessesledtothesettingupofresearchgroupsorteamsusinghighly-complicatedequipmentinelaborately-designedlaboratories.49Owingtothelargesumsofmoneyinvolveditwasthenfeltessentialtodirectthesehumanandmaterialresourcesintospecificchannelswithclearly-definedobjectives.Inthiswayitwasconsideredthatthequickestandmostpracticalresultscouldbeobtained.Thisthenwasprogrammedprogrammaticresearch. Oneoftheeffectsofthisorganizedandstandardizedinvestigationistocausethescientisttobecomeincreasinglyinvolvedinappliedresearchdevelopmentespeciallyinthebranchesofsciencewhichseemmostlikelytohaveindustrialapplications.Privateindustryandevengovernmentdepartmentstendtoconcentrateonimmediateresultsandshowcomparativelylittleinterestinlong-rangeinvestigations.50Inconsequencethereisasteadyshiftofscientistsfromthepuretotheappliedfieldwheretherearemorejobsavailablefrequentlymorehighly-paidandwithbettertechnicalfacilitiesthanjobsconnectedwithpureresearchinauniversity. Owingtotheinterdependencebetweenpureandappliedscienceitiseasytoseethatthissystemifextendedtoofarcarriesconsiderabledangersforthefutureofscience--andnotonlypuresciencebutappliedscienceaswell. 48Asthecenturydevelopedtheincreasingmagnitudeandcomplexityoftheproblemstobesolvedmadeitimpossibleinmanycasesfortheindividualscientisttodealwiththehugemassofnewdatatechniquesandequipmentthatwererequiredforcarryingoutresearchaccuratelyandefficiently.
Glassinoneformoranotherhaslongbeeninnobleservicetohumans.Asoneofthemostwidelyusedofmanufacturedmaterialsandcertainlythemostversatileitcanbeasimposingasatelescopemirrorthewidthofatenniscourtorassmallandsimpleasamarblerollingacrossdirt. 41.______ Theusesofthisadaptablematerialhavebeenbroadeneddramaticallybynewtechnologies:glassfiberoptics—morethaneightmillionmiles—carryingtelephoneandtelevisionsignalsacrossnations;glassceramicsservingasthenoseconesofmissilesandascrownsforteeth;tinyglassbeadstakingradiationdosesinsidethebodytospecificorgans;evenanewtypeofglassfashionedofnuclearwasteinordertodisposeofthatunwantedmaterial. 42.______ Onthehorizonareopticalcomputers.Thesecouldstoreprogramsandprocessinformationbymeansoflight—pulsesfromtinylasers—ratherthanelectrons.Andthepulseswouldtraveloverglassfibersnotcopperwire.Thesemachinescouldfunctionhundredsoftimesfasterthantoday’selectroniccomputersandholdvastlymoreinformation.Todayfiberopticsareusedtoobtainaclearerimageofsmallerandsmallerobjectsthaneverbefore—evenbacterialviruses.Anewgenerationofopticalinstrumentsisemergingthatcanprovidedetailedimagingoftheinnerworkingsofcells.ItisthesurgeinfiberopticuseandinliquidcrystaldisplaysthathassettheU.S.glassindustrya16billiondollarbusinessemployingsome150000workerstobuildingnewplantstomeetdemand. 43.______ Butnotalltheglasstechnologythattouchesourlivesisultra-modem.Considerthesimplelightbulb;attheturnofthecenturymostlightbulbswerehandblownandthecostofonewasequivalenttohalfaday’spayfortheaverageworker.IneffecttheinventionoftheribbonmachinebyCominginthe1920slightedanation.Thepriceofabulbplunged.Smallwonderthatthemachinehasbeencalledoneofthegreatmechanicalachievementsofalltime.Yetitisverysimple:anarrowribbonofmoltenglasstravelsoveramovingbeltofsteelinwhichthereareholes.Theglasssagsthroughtheholesandintowaitingmoulds.Puffsofcompressedairthenshapetheglass.Inthiswaytheenvelopeofalightbulbismadebyasinglemachineattherateof66000anhourascomparedwith1200adayproducedbyateamoffourglassblowers. 44.______ Thesecretoftheversatilityofglassliesinitsinteriorstructure.Althoughitisrigidandthuslikeasolidtheatomsarearrangedinarandomdisorderedfashioncharacteristicofaliquid.Inthemeltingprocesstheatomsintherawmaterialsaredisturbedfromtheirnormalpositioninthemolecularstructure;beforetheycanfindtheirwaybacktocrystallinearrangementstheglasscools.Thisloosenessinmolecularstructuregivesthematerialwhatengineerscalltremendous"formability"whichallowstechnicianstotailorglasstowhatevertheyneed. 45.______ Todayscientistscontinuetoexperimentwithnewglassmixturesandbuildingdesignerstesttheirimaginationswithapplicationsofspecialtypesofglass.ALondonarchitectMikeDaviesseesevenmoredramaticbuildingsusingmolecularchemistry."Glassisthegreatbuildingmaterialofthefuturethe’dynamicskin’"hesaid."Thinkofglassthathasbeentreatedtoreacttoelectriccurrentsgoingthroughitglassthatwillchangefromcleartoopaqueatthepushofabuttonthatgivesyouinstantcurtains." ThinkofhowthetallbuildingsinNewYorkcouldperformasymphonyofcoloursastheglassinthemismadetochangecoloursinstantly.Glassasinstantcurtainsisavailablenowbutthecostisexorbitant.Asfortheglasschangingcoloursinstantlythatmaycometrue.MikeDavies’svisionmayindeedbeonthewaytofulfillment. [A]Whatmakesglasssoadaptable [B]Architecturalexperimentswithglass [C]Glassartgalleriesflourish [D]Excitinginnovationsinfiberoptics [E]Aformerglasstechnology [F]Newusesofglass 42
46HistorytellsusthatinancientBabylonthecradleofourcivilizationthepeopletriedtobuildatowerthatwouldreachtoheaven.ButthetowerbecamethetowerofBabelaccordingtotheOldTestamentwhenthepeopleweresuddenlycausedtospeakdifferentlanguages.InmodernNewYorkCityanewtowerthatoftheUnitedNationsBuildingthrustsitsshiningmassskyward.47ButtherealizationoftheUN’saspirations—andwithitthehopesofthepeoplesoftheworld—isthreatenedbyourcontemporaryBabel:aboutthreethousanddifferentlanguagesarespokenthroughouttheworldtodaywithoutcountingthevariousdialectsthatconfoundcommunicationbetweenpeoplesofthesameland. InChinaforexamplehundredsofdifferentdialectsarespoken;peopleofsomevillageshavetroublepassingthetimeofdaywiththeinhabitantsofthenexttown.InthenewAfricanstateofGhanafivemillionpeoplespeakfiftydifferentdialects.InIndiamorethanonehundredlanguagesarespokenofwhichonlyfourteenarerecognizedasofficial.Toaddtotheconfusionastheoldestablishedempiresarebrokenupandnewstatesareformednewofficialtonguesspringupatanincreasingrate. InaworldmadesmallerbyjettravelmanisstillisolatedfrommanyofhisneighborsbytheBabelbarrierofmultiplyinglanguages.Communicationisblockeddailyinscoresofways.Travelersfinditdifficulttoknowthepeoplesofothernations.Scientistsareoftenunabletoreadandbenefitfromtheworkbeingcarriedonbymenofscienceinothercountries.48Theaimsofinternationaltradeofworldaccordofmeetingsbetweennationsareblockedateveryturn;theworkofscholarstechnologistsandhumanistsishandicapped.EvenintheshiningnewtoweroftheUnitedNationsinNewYorkspeechesanddiscussionshavetobetranslatedandprintedinthefiveofficialUNlanguage—EnglishFrenchSpanishRussianandChinese.ConfusiondelaysuspicionandhardfeelingsaretheproductsofthediplomaticBabel. Thechancesforworldunityarelessenedifintheliteralsenseofthephrasewedonotspeakthesamelanguage.49Westandindireneedofacommontonguealanguagethatwouldcrossnationalbarriersonesimpleenoughtobeuniversallylearnedbytravelersbusinessmengovernmentrepresentativesscholarsandevenbychildrenatschool. Ofcoursethisisn’tanewidea.Justaseveryoneisagainstsinsoeveryoneisforacommonlanguagethatwouldfurthercommunicationbetweennations.50Whatwithonethingandanother—ournaturalstateofdriftashumanbeingsourrivalriesresentmentsandjealousiesasnations—wehaveupuntilnowfailedtotakeanyaction.IproposethatwestopjusttalkingaboutitasMarkTwainsaidoftheweatheranddosomethingaboutit.Wemustmaketheconcertedmassiveeffortittakestoreachagreementontheadoptionofasinglecommonauxiliarytongue. 50Whatwithonethingandanother—ournaturalstateofdriftashumanbeingsourrivalriesresentmentsandjealousiesasnations—wehaveupuntilnowfailedtotakeanyaction.
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质believedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriatal纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17longitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"theyconcluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 12
Directions: A.Studythefollowingcartooncarefullyandwriteanessayinnolessthan200words. B.YouressaymustbewrittenclearlyonANSWERSHEET2. C.Youressayshouldmeettherequirementsbelow: 1Describethecartoon 2deducethepurposeofthedrawerofthepictureand 3giveyourcomments.
46HistorytellsusthatinancientBabylonthecradleofourcivilizationthepeopletriedtobuildatowerthatwouldreachtoheaven.ButthetowerbecamethetowerofBabelaccordingtotheOldTestamentwhenthepeopleweresuddenlycausedtospeakdifferentlanguages.InmodernNewYorkCityanewtowerthatoftheUnitedNationsBuildingthrustsitsshiningmassskyward.47ButtherealizationoftheUN’saspirations—andwithitthehopesofthepeoplesoftheworld—isthreatenedbyourcontemporaryBabel:aboutthreethousanddifferentlanguagesarespokenthroughouttheworldtodaywithoutcountingthevariousdialectsthatconfoundcommunicationbetweenpeoplesofthesameland. InChinaforexamplehundredsofdifferentdialectsarespoken;peopleofsomevillageshavetroublepassingthetimeofdaywiththeinhabitantsofthenexttown.InthenewAfricanstateofGhanafivemillionpeoplespeakfiftydifferentdialects.InIndiamorethanonehundredlanguagesarespokenofwhichonlyfourteenarerecognizedasofficial.Toaddtotheconfusionastheoldestablishedempiresarebrokenupandnewstatesareformednewofficialtonguesspringupatanincreasingrate. InaworldmadesmallerbyjettravelmanisstillisolatedfrommanyofhisneighborsbytheBabelbarrierofmultiplyinglanguages.Communicationisblockeddailyinscoresofways.Travelersfinditdifficulttoknowthepeoplesofothernations.Scientistsareoftenunabletoreadandbenefitfromtheworkbeingcarriedonbymenofscienceinothercountries.48Theaimsofinternationaltradeofworldaccordofmeetingsbetweennationsareblockedateveryturn;theworkofscholarstechnologistsandhumanistsishandicapped.EvenintheshiningnewtoweroftheUnitedNationsinNewYorkspeechesanddiscussionshavetobetranslatedandprintedinthefiveofficialUNlanguage—EnglishFrenchSpanishRussianandChinese.ConfusiondelaysuspicionandhardfeelingsaretheproductsofthediplomaticBabel. Thechancesforworldunityarelessenedifintheliteralsenseofthephrasewedonotspeakthesamelanguage.49Westandindireneedofacommontonguealanguagethatwouldcrossnationalbarriersonesimpleenoughtobeuniversallylearnedbytravelersbusinessmengovernmentrepresentativesscholarsandevenbychildrenatschool. Ofcoursethisisn’tanewidea.Justaseveryoneisagainstsinsoeveryoneisforacommonlanguagethatwouldfurthercommunicationbetweennations.50Whatwithonethingandanother—ournaturalstateofdriftashumanbeingsourrivalriesresentmentsandjealousiesasnations—wehaveupuntilnowfailedtotakeanyaction.IproposethatwestopjusttalkingaboutitasMarkTwainsaidoftheweatheranddosomethingaboutit.Wemustmaketheconcertedmassiveeffortittakestoreachagreementontheadoptionofasinglecommonauxiliarytongue. 46HistorytellsusthatinancientBabylonthecradleofourcivilizationthepeopletriedtobuildatowerthatwouldreachtoheaven.
Inthetwodecadesbetween1910and1930overtenpercentoftheBlackpopulationoftheUnitedStateslefttheSouthwherethemajorityoftheBlackpopulationhadbeenlocatedandmigratedtonorthernstateswiththelargestnumbermovingitisclaimedbetween1916and1918.IthasbeenfrequentlyassumedbutnotprovedthatmostofthemigrantsinwhathascometobecalledtheGreatMigrationcamefromruralareasandweremotivatedbytwoconcurrentfactors:thecollapseofcottonindustryfollowingbollweevilinfestationwhichbeganin1898andincreaseddemandintheNorthforlaborfollowingthecessationofEuropeanimmigrationcausedbytheoutbreakoftheFirstWorldWarin1914.Thisassumptionhasledtotheconclusionthatthemigrants’subsequentlackofeconomicmobilityintheNorthistiedtoruralbackgroundabackgroundthatimpliesunfamiliaritywithurbanlivingandalackofindustrialskills. ButthequestionofwhoactuallylefttheSouthhasneverbeeninvestigatedindetail.AlthoughnumerousinvestigationsdocumentaflightfromruralsouthernareastosoutherncitiespriortotheGreatMigrationnoonehasconsideredwhetherthesamemigrantsthenmovedontonortherncities.In1910over600000BlackworkersortenpercentoftheBlackworkforcereportedthemselvestobeengagedin"manufacturingandmechanicalpursuits"thefederalcensuscategoryroughlyincludingtheentireindustrialsector.TheGreatMigrationcouldeasilyhavebeenmadeupentirelyofthisgroupandtheirfamilies.ItisperhapssurprisingtoarguethatanemployedpopulationcouldbetemptedtomovebutanexplanationliesinthelaborconditionsthenprevalentintheSouth. Aboutthirty-fivepercentoftheurbanBlackpopulationintheSouthwasengagedinskilledtrades.Somewerefromtheoldartisanclassofslavery--blacksmithsmasonscarpenters--whichhadamonopolyofcertaintradesbuttheyweregraduallybeingpushedoutbycompetitionmechanizationandobsolescence.Theremainingsixty-fivepercentmorerecentlyurbanizedworkedinnewlydevelopedindustries--tobaccolumbercoalandironmanufactureandrailroads.WagesintheSouthhoweverwerelowandBlackworkerswereawarethroughlaborrecruitersandtheBlackpressthattheycouldearnmoreevenasunskilledworkersintheNorththantheycouldasartisansintheSouth.AfterthebollweevilinfestationurbanBlackworkersfacedcompetitionfromthecontinuinginfluxofbothBlackandWhiteruralworkerswhoweredriventoundercutthewagesformerlypaidforindustrialjobs.ThusamovenorthwouldbeseenasadvantageoustoagroupthatwasalreadyurbanizedandsteadilyemployedandtheeasyconclusiontyingtheirsubsequenteconomicproblemsintheNorthtotheirruralbackgroundscomesintoquestion. Theprimarypurposeofthetextisto
Inthetwodecadesbetween1910and1930overtenpercentoftheBlackpopulationoftheUnitedStateslefttheSouthwherethemajorityoftheBlackpopulationhadbeenlocatedandmigratedtonorthernstateswiththelargestnumbermovingitisclaimedbetween1916and1918.IthasbeenfrequentlyassumedbutnotprovedthatmostofthemigrantsinwhathascometobecalledtheGreatMigrationcamefromruralareasandweremotivatedbytwoconcurrentfactors:thecollapseofcottonindustryfollowingbollweevilinfestationwhichbeganin1898andincreaseddemandintheNorthforlaborfollowingthecessationofEuropeanimmigrationcausedbytheoutbreakoftheFirstWorldWarin1914.Thisassumptionhasledtotheconclusionthatthemigrants’subsequentlackofeconomicmobilityintheNorthistiedtoruralbackgroundabackgroundthatimpliesunfamiliaritywithurbanlivingandalackofindustrialskills. ButthequestionofwhoactuallylefttheSouthhasneverbeeninvestigatedindetail.AlthoughnumerousinvestigationsdocumentaflightfromruralsouthernareastosoutherncitiespriortotheGreatMigrationnoonehasconsideredwhetherthesamemigrantsthenmovedontonortherncities.In1910over600000BlackworkersortenpercentoftheBlackworkforcereportedthemselvestobeengagedin"manufacturingandmechanicalpursuits"thefederalcensuscategoryroughlyincludingtheentireindustrialsector.TheGreatMigrationcouldeasilyhavebeenmadeupentirelyofthisgroupandtheirfamilies.ItisperhapssurprisingtoarguethatanemployedpopulationcouldbetemptedtomovebutanexplanationliesinthelaborconditionsthenprevalentintheSouth. Aboutthirty-fivepercentoftheurbanBlackpopulationintheSouthwasengagedinskilledtrades.Somewerefromtheoldartisanclassofslavery--blacksmithsmasonscarpenters--whichhadamonopolyofcertaintradesbuttheyweregraduallybeingpushedoutbycompetitionmechanizationandobsolescence.Theremainingsixty-fivepercentmorerecentlyurbanizedworkedinnewlydevelopedindustries--tobaccolumbercoalandironmanufactureandrailroads.WagesintheSouthhoweverwerelowandBlackworkerswereawarethroughlaborrecruitersandtheBlackpressthattheycouldearnmoreevenasunskilledworkersintheNorththantheycouldasartisansintheSouth.AfterthebollweevilinfestationurbanBlackworkersfacedcompetitionfromthecontinuinginfluxofbothBlackandWhiteruralworkerswhoweredriventoundercutthewagesformerlypaidforindustrialjobs.ThusamovenorthwouldbeseenasadvantageoustoagroupthatwasalreadyurbanizedandsteadilyemployedandtheeasyconclusiontyingtheirsubsequenteconomicproblemsintheNorthtotheirruralbackgroundscomesintoquestion. Accordingtothetextwhichofthefollowingistrueofwagesinsoutherncitiesin1910
46Arecentphenomenoninpresent-dayscienceandtechnologyistheincreasingtrendtoward"directed"or"programmed"research;i.e.researchwhosescopeandobjectivesarepredeterminedbyprivateorgovernmentorganizationsratherthanresearchersthemselves.Anyscientistworkingforsuchorganizationsandinvestigatinginagivenfieldthereforetendstodosoinaccordancewithaplanorprogramdesignedbeforehand. Atthebeginningofthecenturyhoweverthesituationwasquitedifferent.Atthattimetherewerenoindustrialresearchorganizationsinthemodernsensethelaboratoryunitconsistedofafewscientistsatthemostassistedbyoneortwotechnicians.47Neverthelessthescientistoftenworkingwithinadequateequipmentinunsuitableroomswasfreetochooseanysubjectforinvestigationhelikedsincetherewasnopredeterminedprogramtowhichhehadtoconform. 48Asthecenturydevelopedtheincreasingmagnitudeandcomplexityoftheproblemstobesolvedmadeitimpossibleinmanycasesfortheindividualscientisttodealwiththehugemassofnewdatatechniquesandequipmentthatwererequiredforcarryingoutresearchaccuratelyandefficiently.Theincreasingscaleandscopeoftheexperimentsneededtotestnewhypothesesanddevelopnewtechniquesandindustrialprocessesledtothesettingupofresearchgroupsorteamsusinghighly-complicatedequipmentinelaborately-designedlaboratories.49Owingtothelargesumsofmoneyinvolveditwasthenfeltessentialtodirectthesehumanandmaterialresourcesintospecificchannelswithclearly-definedobjectives.Inthiswayitwasconsideredthatthequickestandmostpracticalresultscouldbeobtained.Thisthenwasprogrammedprogrammaticresearch. Oneoftheeffectsofthisorganizedandstandardizedinvestigationistocausethescientisttobecomeincreasinglyinvolvedinappliedresearchdevelopmentespeciallyinthebranchesofsciencewhichseemmostlikelytohaveindustrialapplications.Privateindustryandevengovernmentdepartmentstendtoconcentrateonimmediateresultsandshowcomparativelylittleinterestinlong-rangeinvestigations.50Inconsequencethereisasteadyshiftofscientistsfromthepuretotheappliedfieldwheretherearemorejobsavailablefrequentlymorehighly-paidandwithbettertechnicalfacilitiesthanjobsconnectedwithpureresearchinauniversity. Owingtotheinterdependencebetweenpureandappliedscienceitiseasytoseethatthissystemifextendedtoofarcarriesconsiderabledangersforthefutureofscience--andnotonlypuresciencebutappliedscienceaswell. 50Inconsequencethereisasteadyshiftofscientistsfromthepuretotheappliedfieldwheretherearemorejobsavailablefrequentlymorehighly-paidandwithbettertechnicalfacilitiesthanjobsconnectedwithpureresearchinauniversity.
Germany’schimneysweeps—hallowedasbringersofgoodluckwiththeirblacktophatsandcoiled-wirebrushes—areunderattack.LastweektheEuropeanCommission’sdirectoratefortheinternalmarketrevivedproceedingsagainstanantiquatedGermanlawthatprotectssweepsagainstcompetition.Thecountry’schimneysweepsenjoyanear-perfectmonopoly.Germanyisdividedintoaround8000districtseachruledbyitsownmastersweepwhousuallyemploystwomoresweeps.Althoughthisisaprivateenterprisethemaintenanceandinspectionserviceprovidediscompulsoryandpricesaresetbythelocalauthority:sweepscannotstrayoutsidetheirdistrictnorcanhouseholderschangetheirsweepeveniftheyloathehim.Thisrulecutsbothways."TherearesomecustomersIcan’tstandeither"saysoneFrankfurtsweep. Therationaleissimple:chimney-sweepingandrelatedgasandheatingmaintenanceinGermanyaretreatedasamatterofpublicsafety.Annualorsemi-annualvisitsareprescribedkeepingthesweepsbusyallyearround.Forcenturieschimney-sweepsinEuropewereawanderingbreed.Butin1937thechimney-sweeplawwasrevisedbyHeinrichHimmlerthentheactinginteriorminister.HisrolestiedchimneysweepstotheirdistrictsanddecreedthattheyshouldbeGermantoenablehimtousesweepsaslocalspies. Thelawwasupdatedin1969leavingthelocalmonopoliesinplacebutopeninguptheprofessionintheoryatleasttonon-Germans.Butinpracticefewapply.FouryearsagoabravePolequalifiedasamasterinKaiserslauternaccordingtoafellowstudentandthisyearanItaliandidsointheRhinelandPalatinate.ButhelikemostnewlyqualifiedGermanmasterswillspendyearsonawaitinglistbeforehegetshisowndistrict. TheEuropeanCommissionwouldliketoseeacompetitivemarketinwhichpeoplecanchoosetheirownsweepsjustastheychoosebuildersorplumbers.Itfirstopenedinfringementproceedingsin2003andtheGermangovernmentofthetimepromisedtochangethelawbutfailedtodoso.AnddespitethehuffingandpuffingfromBrusselstilegovernmentisstillreluctanttodismantleitsantiquatedsystemonsafetygrounds.Thenumberofdeathsfromcarbon-monoxidepoisoninginGermanyisaroundone-tenththatinFranceorBelgiumclaimstheFrankfurtsweep.SoGermansarelikelytobestockwiththeirneighbourhoodSchornsteinfegers—whethertheycanstandeachotherornot—forsometimetocome. WhichofthefollowingistrueaccordingtoParagraph2
46HistorytellsusthatinancientBabylonthecradleofourcivilizationthepeopletriedtobuildatowerthatwouldreachtoheaven.ButthetowerbecamethetowerofBabelaccordingtotheOldTestamentwhenthepeopleweresuddenlycausedtospeakdifferentlanguages.InmodernNewYorkCityanewtowerthatoftheUnitedNationsBuildingthrustsitsshiningmassskyward.47ButtherealizationoftheUN’saspirations—andwithitthehopesofthepeoplesoftheworld—isthreatenedbyourcontemporaryBabel:aboutthreethousanddifferentlanguagesarespokenthroughouttheworldtodaywithoutcountingthevariousdialectsthatconfoundcommunicationbetweenpeoplesofthesameland. InChinaforexamplehundredsofdifferentdialectsarespoken;peopleofsomevillageshavetroublepassingthetimeofdaywiththeinhabitantsofthenexttown.InthenewAfricanstateofGhanafivemillionpeoplespeakfiftydifferentdialects.InIndiamorethanonehundredlanguagesarespokenofwhichonlyfourteenarerecognizedasofficial.Toaddtotheconfusionastheoldestablishedempiresarebrokenupandnewstatesareformednewofficialtonguesspringupatanincreasingrate. InaworldmadesmallerbyjettravelmanisstillisolatedfrommanyofhisneighborsbytheBabelbarrierofmultiplyinglanguages.Communicationisblockeddailyinscoresofways.Travelersfinditdifficulttoknowthepeoplesofothernations.Scientistsareoftenunabletoreadandbenefitfromtheworkbeingcarriedonbymenofscienceinothercountries.48Theaimsofinternationaltradeofworldaccordofmeetingsbetweennationsareblockedateveryturn;theworkofscholarstechnologistsandhumanistsishandicapped.EvenintheshiningnewtoweroftheUnitedNationsinNewYorkspeechesanddiscussionshavetobetranslatedandprintedinthefiveofficialUNlanguage—EnglishFrenchSpanishRussianandChinese.ConfusiondelaysuspicionandhardfeelingsaretheproductsofthediplomaticBabel. Thechancesforworldunityarelessenedifintheliteralsenseofthephrasewedonotspeakthesamelanguage.49Westandindireneedofacommontonguealanguagethatwouldcrossnationalbarriersonesimpleenoughtobeuniversallylearnedbytravelersbusinessmengovernmentrepresentativesscholarsandevenbychildrenatschool. Ofcoursethisisn’tanewidea.Justaseveryoneisagainstsinsoeveryoneisforacommonlanguagethatwouldfurthercommunicationbetweennations.50Whatwithonethingandanother—ournaturalstateofdriftashumanbeingsourrivalriesresentmentsandjealousiesasnations—wehaveupuntilnowfailedtotakeanyaction.IproposethatwestopjusttalkingaboutitasMarkTwainsaidoftheweatheranddosomethingaboutit.Wemustmaketheconcertedmassiveeffortittakestoreachagreementontheadoptionofasinglecommonauxiliarytongue. 48Theaimsofinternationaltradeofworldaccordofmeetingsbetweennationsareblockedateveryturn;theworkofscholarstechnologistsandhumanistsishandicapped
Effectivecommunicationisessentialforallorganisations.ItlinkstheactivitiesofthevariouspartsoftheorganisationandensuresthateveryoneisworkingtowardsaCommongoal.Itisalsoextremelyimportantformotivatingemployees.Staffneedtoknowhowtheyaregettingonwhattheyaredoingrightandinwhichareastheycouldimprove.Workingalonecanbeextremelydifficultanditismucheasierifsomeonetakesaninterestandprovidessupport.Employeesneedtounderstandwhytheirjobisimportantandhowitcontributestotheoverallsuccessofthefirm.Personalcommunicationshouldalsoincludetargetsetting.Peopleusuallyrespondwelltogoalsprovidedtheseareagreedbetweenthemanagerandsubordinateandnotimposed. Howeverfirmsoftenhavecommunicationsproblemsthatcanunderminetheirperformance.Inmanycasestheseproblemsoccurbecausemessagesarepassedoninaninappropriateway.Thereareofcourseseveralwaysofconveyinginformationtoothersintheorganisation.Theseincludespeakingtothemdirectlye-mailingtelephoningorsendingamemo.Themostappropriatemethoddependsonwhatexactlyitisyouarecommunicating.Forexampleanythingthatisparticularlysensitiveorconfidentialsuchasanemployee’sappraisalshouldbedoneface-to-face. Oneofthemainproblemsforseniorexecutivesisthattheydonothavethetimeorresourcesneededtocommunicateeffectively.Inlargecompaniesforexampleitisimpossibleforseniormanagerstomeetanddiscussprogresswitheachemployeeindividually.Obviouslythistaskcanbedelegatedbutatthecostofcreatingagapbetweenseniormanagementandstaff.Asaresultmanagersareoftenforcedtouseothermethodsofcommunication.Likememosornoteseveniftheyknowthesearenotnecessarilythemostsuitablemeansofpassingonmessages. Theuseoftechnologysuchase-mailmobilephonesandnetworksystemisspeedingupcommunicationimmensely.Howeverthisdoesnotmeanthatmoreinvestmentintechnologyautomaticallyprovesbeneficialsystemscanbecomeoutdatedoremployeesmaylackappropriatetraining.Therearemanycommunicationstoolsnowavailablebutafirmcannotaffordallofthem.Evenifitcoulditdoesnotactuallyneedthemall.Thepotentialgainsmustbeweighedupagainstthecostsandfirmsshouldrealisethatmorecommunicationdoesnotnecessarilymeanbettercommunication. Asthenumberofpeopleinvolvedinanorganisationincreasetheuseofwrittencommunicationrisesevenfaster.Insteadofaquickconversationtosortsomethingoutnumerousmessagescanbepassedbackwardsandforwards.Thiscanleadtoatremendousamountofpaperworkandisoftenlesseffectivethanfacetofacecommunication.Whenyouareactuallytalkingtosomeoneyoucandiscussthingsuntilyouarehappytheyhaveunderstoodandfeedbackisimmediate.Withwrittenmessageshoweveryouareneverquitesurehowitwillbereceived.Whatyouthinkyouhavesaidandwhattheotherpersonthinksyouhavesaidcanbeverydifferent. Theamountofwritteninformationgeneratedinlargeorganisationstodaycanleadtocommunicationoverload.Somuchinformationisgatheredthatitgetsinthe-wayofmakingdecisions.Takealookattheaveragemanager’sdeskandyouwillseetheproblem—itisoftencoveredinlettersreportsandmemos.Thisoverloadcanleadtoinefficiencies.Forexamplemanagersmaynotbeabletofindtheinformationtheywantwhentheyneedit.Communicationisalsobecomingmoredifficultwiththechangesoccurringinemploymentpatterns.Withmorepeopleworkingpart-timeandworkingfromhomemanagingcommunicationisbecomingincreasinglycomplex. Accordingtothewriterthebestwayofachievingeffectivecommunicationisto
Internetadvertisingisbooming.Theindustryhasgonefrom$9.6billioninrevenuein2001to$27billionthisyearaccordingtoPiperJaffrayaninvestmentbank.Anditisstillearlydays.Theinternetaccountsforonly5%oftotalspendingonadvertisingbutthatfigureisexpectedtoreachatleast20%inthenextfewyears.Thesinglelargestcategorywithinthisflourishingindustryaccountingfornearlyhalfofallspendingis"pay-per-click"advertisingwhichisusedbyfirmsbothlargeandsmalltopromotetheirwares. Thebenefitsofthepay-per-clickapproachovertraditionaladvertisingtelevisionradioprintandbillboardsareobvious.Sinceadvertiserspayonlytoreachthesmallsubsetwhoactuallyrespondtoanadvertisementthequalityoftheleadsgeneratedisveryhighandadvertisersarepreparedtopayaccordingly.Theprice:perclickvariesfrom$0.10toasmuchas$30dependingonthekeywordthoughtheaverageisaround$0.50.Googlemademostofits$6.1billioninrevenuelastyearfrompay-per-clickadvertising. Butaspay-per-clickadvertisinghasgrownintoahugeindustryconcernhasmountedoverso-called"clickfraud"--bogusclicksthatdonotcomefromgenuinelyinterestedcustomers.Ittakestwomainforms.Ifyouclickrepeatedlyontheadvertisementsonyourownwebsiteorgetotherpeopleormachinestodosoonyourbehalfyoucangenerateastreamofboguscommissions.Clickfraudcanalsobeusedbyonecompanyagainstanother:clickingonarivalfirm’sadvertisementscansaddleitwithahugebill.Bogusclicksarethoughttoaccountforaround10%ofallclicktrafficthoughnobodyknowsforsure. AfewmonthsagoMr.Grosspioneeredanalternativetothepay-per-clickmodel.InFebruarySnapasearchenginebackedbyMr.Grosslaunched"pay-per-action"PPAanewmodelinwhichadvertiserspayonlyifaclickonanadisfollowedbyanactionsuchasapurchaseoradownload. MightthisputanendtoclickfraudDon’tbetonitsaysMikeZemanatStarcomanadvertisingagency.Payper-actionwillbeanichehepredictssinceconvertingaclickintoanactiondependsonavarietyoffactorssuchastheeaseofuseoftheadvertiser’swebsite.Googleanditspeerswillbereluctanttobesodependentonfactorsoutsidetheircontrol.ButMr.Tobaccowalathinkspay-per-actioncouldbecomearealalternativetopay-per-click.Asbiggercompaniesspendmoreoninternetadvertising;theywilldemandmoreaccountabilityandawiderrangeofoptionshesays.Attheveryleastthatmeansclampingdownonclickfraud;butitalsopresentsanopportunityforentrepreneurstoinventnewmodelsthatarelessvulnerabletoabuse. Thepriceperclickdependsonthekeywordbecause
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质believedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriatal纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17longitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"theyconcluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 20
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质believedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriatal纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17longitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"theyconcluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 8
Directions: A.Studythefollowingpicturecarefullyandwriteanessayofabout160--200words. B.YouressaymustbewrittenclearlyontheANSWERSHEET2. C.Youressayshouldmeettherequirementsbelow: 1Describethedrawing 2interpretitsmeaningand 3pointoutitsimplicationsinourlife.
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质believedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriatal纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17longitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"theyconcluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 10
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质believedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriatal纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17longitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"theyconcluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 2
Glassinoneformoranotherhaslongbeeninnobleservicetohumans.Asoneofthemostwidelyusedofmanufacturedmaterialsandcertainlythemostversatileitcanbeasimposingasatelescopemirrorthewidthofatenniscourtorassmallandsimpleasamarblerollingacrossdirt. 41.______ Theusesofthisadaptablematerialhavebeenbroadeneddramaticallybynewtechnologies:glassfiberoptics—morethaneightmillionmiles—carryingtelephoneandtelevisionsignalsacrossnations;glassceramicsservingasthenoseconesofmissilesandascrownsforteeth;tinyglassbeadstakingradiationdosesinsidethebodytospecificorgans;evenanewtypeofglassfashionedofnuclearwasteinordertodisposeofthatunwantedmaterial. 42.______ Onthehorizonareopticalcomputers.Thesecouldstoreprogramsandprocessinformationbymeansoflight—pulsesfromtinylasers—ratherthanelectrons.Andthepulseswouldtraveloverglassfibersnotcopperwire.Thesemachinescouldfunctionhundredsoftimesfasterthantoday’selectroniccomputersandholdvastlymoreinformation.Todayfiberopticsareusedtoobtainaclearerimageofsmallerandsmallerobjectsthaneverbefore—evenbacterialviruses.Anewgenerationofopticalinstrumentsisemergingthatcanprovidedetailedimagingoftheinnerworkingsofcells.ItisthesurgeinfiberopticuseandinliquidcrystaldisplaysthathassettheU.S.glassindustrya16billiondollarbusinessemployingsome150000workerstobuildingnewplantstomeetdemand. 43.______ Butnotalltheglasstechnologythattouchesourlivesisultra-modem.Considerthesimplelightbulb;attheturnofthecenturymostlightbulbswerehandblownandthecostofonewasequivalenttohalfaday’spayfortheaverageworker.IneffecttheinventionoftheribbonmachinebyCominginthe1920slightedanation.Thepriceofabulbplunged.Smallwonderthatthemachinehasbeencalledoneofthegreatmechanicalachievementsofalltime.Yetitisverysimple:anarrowribbonofmoltenglasstravelsoveramovingbeltofsteelinwhichthereareholes.Theglasssagsthroughtheholesandintowaitingmoulds.Puffsofcompressedairthenshapetheglass.Inthiswaytheenvelopeofalightbulbismadebyasinglemachineattherateof66000anhourascomparedwith1200adayproducedbyateamoffourglassblowers. 44.______ Thesecretoftheversatilityofglassliesinitsinteriorstructure.Althoughitisrigidandthuslikeasolidtheatomsarearrangedinarandomdisorderedfashioncharacteristicofaliquid.Inthemeltingprocesstheatomsintherawmaterialsaredisturbedfromtheirnormalpositioninthemolecularstructure;beforetheycanfindtheirwaybacktocrystallinearrangementstheglasscools.Thisloosenessinmolecularstructuregivesthematerialwhatengineerscalltremendous"formability"whichallowstechnicianstotailorglasstowhatevertheyneed. 45.______ Todayscientistscontinuetoexperimentwithnewglassmixturesandbuildingdesignerstesttheirimaginationswithapplicationsofspecialtypesofglass.ALondonarchitectMikeDaviesseesevenmoredramaticbuildingsusingmolecularchemistry."Glassisthegreatbuildingmaterialofthefuturethe’dynamicskin’"hesaid."Thinkofglassthathasbeentreatedtoreacttoelectriccurrentsgoingthroughitglassthatwillchangefromcleartoopaqueatthepushofabuttonthatgivesyouinstantcurtains." ThinkofhowthetallbuildingsinNewYorkcouldperformasymphonyofcoloursastheglassinthemismadetochangecoloursinstantly.Glassasinstantcurtainsisavailablenowbutthecostisexorbitant.Asfortheglasschangingcoloursinstantlythatmaycometrue.MikeDavies’svisionmayindeedbeonthewaytofulfillment. [A]Whatmakesglasssoadaptable [B]Architecturalexperimentswithglass [C]Glassartgalleriesflourish [D]Excitinginnovationsinfiberoptics [E]Aformerglasstechnology [F]Newusesofglass 44
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质believedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriatal纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17longitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"theyconcluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 4
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质believedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriatal纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17longitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"theyconcluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 18
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质believedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriatal纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17longitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"theyconcluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 6
Germany’schimneysweeps—hallowedasbringersofgoodluckwiththeirblacktophatsandcoiled-wirebrushes—areunderattack.LastweektheEuropeanCommission’sdirectoratefortheinternalmarketrevivedproceedingsagainstanantiquatedGermanlawthatprotectssweepsagainstcompetition.Thecountry’schimneysweepsenjoyanear-perfectmonopoly.Germanyisdividedintoaround8000districtseachruledbyitsownmastersweepwhousuallyemploystwomoresweeps.Althoughthisisaprivateenterprisethemaintenanceandinspectionserviceprovidediscompulsoryandpricesaresetbythelocalauthority:sweepscannotstrayoutsidetheirdistrictnorcanhouseholderschangetheirsweepeveniftheyloathehim.Thisrulecutsbothways."TherearesomecustomersIcan’tstandeither"saysoneFrankfurtsweep. Therationaleissimple:chimney-sweepingandrelatedgasandheatingmaintenanceinGermanyaretreatedasamatterofpublicsafety.Annualorsemi-annualvisitsareprescribedkeepingthesweepsbusyallyearround.Forcenturieschimney-sweepsinEuropewereawanderingbreed.Butin1937thechimney-sweeplawwasrevisedbyHeinrichHimmlerthentheactinginteriorminister.HisrolestiedchimneysweepstotheirdistrictsanddecreedthattheyshouldbeGermantoenablehimtousesweepsaslocalspies. Thelawwasupdatedin1969leavingthelocalmonopoliesinplacebutopeninguptheprofessionintheoryatleasttonon-Germans.Butinpracticefewapply.FouryearsagoabravePolequalifiedasamasterinKaiserslauternaccordingtoafellowstudentandthisyearanItaliandidsointheRhinelandPalatinate.ButhelikemostnewlyqualifiedGermanmasterswillspendyearsonawaitinglistbeforehegetshisowndistrict. TheEuropeanCommissionwouldliketoseeacompetitivemarketinwhichpeoplecanchoosetheirownsweepsjustastheychoosebuildersorplumbers.Itfirstopenedinfringementproceedingsin2003andtheGermangovernmentofthetimepromisedtochangethelawbutfailedtodoso.AnddespitethehuffingandpuffingfromBrusselstilegovernmentisstillreluctanttodismantleitsantiquatedsystemonsafetygrounds.Thenumberofdeathsfromcarbon-monoxidepoisoninginGermanyisaroundone-tenththatinFranceorBelgiumclaimstheFrankfurtsweep.SoGermansarelikelytobestockwiththeirneighbourhoodSchornsteinfegers—whethertheycanstandeachotherornot—forsometimetocome. Whichofthefollowingisthebesttitleofthepassage
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质believedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriatal纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17longitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"theyconcluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 14
Internetadvertisingisbooming.Theindustryhasgonefrom$9.6billioninrevenuein2001to$27billionthisyearaccordingtoPiperJaffrayaninvestmentbank.Anditisstillearlydays.Theinternetaccountsforonly5%oftotalspendingonadvertisingbutthatfigureisexpectedtoreachatleast20%inthenextfewyears.Thesinglelargestcategorywithinthisflourishingindustryaccountingfornearlyhalfofallspendingis"pay-per-click"advertisingwhichisusedbyfirmsbothlargeandsmalltopromotetheirwares. Thebenefitsofthepay-per-clickapproachovertraditionaladvertisingtelevisionradioprintandbillboardsareobvious.Sinceadvertiserspayonlytoreachthesmallsubsetwhoactuallyrespondtoanadvertisementthequalityoftheleadsgeneratedisveryhighandadvertisersarepreparedtopayaccordingly.Theprice:perclickvariesfrom$0.10toasmuchas$30dependingonthekeywordthoughtheaverageisaround$0.50.Googlemademostofits$6.1billioninrevenuelastyearfrompay-per-clickadvertising. Butaspay-per-clickadvertisinghasgrownintoahugeindustryconcernhasmountedoverso-called"clickfraud"--bogusclicksthatdonotcomefromgenuinelyinterestedcustomers.Ittakestwomainforms.Ifyouclickrepeatedlyontheadvertisementsonyourownwebsiteorgetotherpeopleormachinestodosoonyourbehalfyoucangenerateastreamofboguscommissions.Clickfraudcanalsobeusedbyonecompanyagainstanother:clickingonarivalfirm’sadvertisementscansaddleitwithahugebill.Bogusclicksarethoughttoaccountforaround10%ofallclicktrafficthoughnobodyknowsforsure. AfewmonthsagoMr.Grosspioneeredanalternativetothepay-per-clickmodel.InFebruarySnapasearchenginebackedbyMr.Grosslaunched"pay-per-action"PPAanewmodelinwhichadvertiserspayonlyifaclickonanadisfollowedbyanactionsuchasapurchaseoradownload. MightthisputanendtoclickfraudDon’tbetonitsaysMikeZemanatStarcomanadvertisingagency.Payper-actionwillbeanichehepredictssinceconvertingaclickintoanactiondependsonavarietyoffactorssuchastheeaseofuseoftheadvertiser’swebsite.Googleanditspeerswillbereluctanttobesodependentonfactorsoutsidetheircontrol.ButMr.Tobaccowalathinkspay-per-actioncouldbecomearealalternativetopay-per-click.Asbiggercompaniesspendmoreoninternetadvertising;theywilldemandmoreaccountabilityandawiderrangeofoptionshesays.Attheveryleastthatmeansclampingdownonclickfraud;butitalsopresentsanopportunityforentrepreneurstoinventnewmodelsthatarelessvulnerabletoabuse. ThePPAwillbecomemorepopulardueto
Effectivecommunicationisessentialforallorganisations.ItlinkstheactivitiesofthevariouspartsoftheorganisationandensuresthateveryoneisworkingtowardsaCommongoal.Itisalsoextremelyimportantformotivatingemployees.Staffneedtoknowhowtheyaregettingonwhattheyaredoingrightandinwhichareastheycouldimprove.Workingalonecanbeextremelydifficultanditismucheasierifsomeonetakesaninterestandprovidessupport.Employeesneedtounderstandwhytheirjobisimportantandhowitcontributestotheoverallsuccessofthefirm.Personalcommunicationshouldalsoincludetargetsetting.Peopleusuallyrespondwelltogoalsprovidedtheseareagreedbetweenthemanagerandsubordinateandnotimposed. Howeverfirmsoftenhavecommunicationsproblemsthatcanunderminetheirperformance.Inmanycasestheseproblemsoccurbecausemessagesarepassedoninaninappropriateway.Thereareofcourseseveralwaysofconveyinginformationtoothersintheorganisation.Theseincludespeakingtothemdirectlye-mailingtelephoningorsendingamemo.Themostappropriatemethoddependsonwhatexactlyitisyouarecommunicating.Forexampleanythingthatisparticularlysensitiveorconfidentialsuchasanemployee’sappraisalshouldbedoneface-to-face. Oneofthemainproblemsforseniorexecutivesisthattheydonothavethetimeorresourcesneededtocommunicateeffectively.Inlargecompaniesforexampleitisimpossibleforseniormanagerstomeetanddiscussprogresswitheachemployeeindividually.Obviouslythistaskcanbedelegatedbutatthecostofcreatingagapbetweenseniormanagementandstaff.Asaresultmanagersareoftenforcedtouseothermethodsofcommunication.Likememosornoteseveniftheyknowthesearenotnecessarilythemostsuitablemeansofpassingonmessages. Theuseoftechnologysuchase-mailmobilephonesandnetworksystemisspeedingupcommunicationimmensely.Howeverthisdoesnotmeanthatmoreinvestmentintechnologyautomaticallyprovesbeneficialsystemscanbecomeoutdatedoremployeesmaylackappropriatetraining.Therearemanycommunicationstoolsnowavailablebutafirmcannotaffordallofthem.Evenifitcoulditdoesnotactuallyneedthemall.Thepotentialgainsmustbeweighedupagainstthecostsandfirmsshouldrealisethatmorecommunicationdoesnotnecessarilymeanbettercommunication. Asthenumberofpeopleinvolvedinanorganisationincreasetheuseofwrittencommunicationrisesevenfaster.Insteadofaquickconversationtosortsomethingoutnumerousmessagescanbepassedbackwardsandforwards.Thiscanleadtoatremendousamountofpaperworkandisoftenlesseffectivethanfacetofacecommunication.Whenyouareactuallytalkingtosomeoneyoucandiscussthingsuntilyouarehappytheyhaveunderstoodandfeedbackisimmediate.Withwrittenmessageshoweveryouareneverquitesurehowitwillbereceived.Whatyouthinkyouhavesaidandwhattheotherpersonthinksyouhavesaidcanbeverydifferent. Theamountofwritteninformationgeneratedinlargeorganisationstodaycanleadtocommunicationoverload.Somuchinformationisgatheredthatitgetsinthe-wayofmakingdecisions.Takealookattheaveragemanager’sdeskandyouwillseetheproblem—itisoftencoveredinlettersreportsandmemos.Thisoverloadcanleadtoinefficiencies.Forexamplemanagersmaynotbeabletofindtheinformationtheywantwhentheyneedit.Communicationisalsobecomingmoredifficultwiththechangesoccurringinemploymentpatterns.Withmorepeopleworkingpart-timeandworkingfromhomemanagingcommunicationisbecomingincreasinglycomplex. Whatadviceisgivenaboutthecommunicationtoolsmadeavailablebytechnology
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