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{{*HTML*}}ANewCitizenshipTest1?LastweekasampleofthenewUScitizenship公民身份examwasreleasedbytheUSCitizenshipandImmigrationServicesUS-CIS.Itwillbetriedoutin10citiesearlynextyeartoreplacethecurrenttestin2008.InsteadofaskinghowmanystripestheUSflaghasasthecurrenttestdoesthenewoneaskswhythereare13stripes.Insteadofhavingtonamethebranchesofgovernmentanapplicantisaskedtoexplainwhytherearethree.2?ThegoalistomakeitmoremeaningfulexplainsEmilioGonzalezdirectoroftheUS-CIS.ImmigrantswhopassitareexpectedtohaveabetterunderstandingandrespectforUScivic公民的valuesGonzalezsays.3?TheUSisn’ttheonlycountrydealingwithcitizenshipteststhataimtogetasharedcommitmentfromimmigrantsfortheiradoptedcountry’svalues.Inrecentyearsinadditiontotheusualrequirementoflanguage/workskillsandeconomicstatusseveralEuropeancountrieshaveadoptedcitizenshiptests.BritainintroducedanewcitizenshiptestlastNovember.InMarchanewDutchlawtookeffectrequiringallwould-beimmigrantstotakeacitizenshiptest.Itinvolvedwatchingavideoshowingnude裸体的womenbathingatbeachesandgay同性恋的menkissinginpublic.Theaimwastoensurethatnewcomerswillbecomfortablewiththecountry’sliberalsocialmores风俗.4?Europehasbeenknownforwelcomingimmigrantsfordecades.Buttodaythefactisthatsomeimmigrantsarekeptapartfromlocalcitizensbycultureandtheybecomehostiletoeachother.PromotingintegrationhasbecomeamajorconcernforEuropeancountriesaftertheriotinginMuslimghettoes少数民族聚居区inFranceandthekillingofDutchpublicfiguresbyreligiousextremists.5?Officialsbelievethataperson’sattachmenttoacountrycanbetestedbyhisorherknowledgeofthecountry.Howeversomecriticssaythatthechangescandolittletohelppeopleassimilate同化themselves.Immigrationisaculturewartoday.Isgivinganewtesttherightwaytolessentheaccusationsinthatfight?saysAliNooranioftheMassachusettsImmigrantandRefugeeAdvocacyCoalition难民辩护联盟.{{*HTML*}}Atoknowalotmoreaboutthecountry??Btowatchavideo??Ctohelpimmigrantsacceptthenewculture??DtomarryAmericancitizens??Etodolow-skilljobs??Ftoanswer??27.Thequestionsinthenewcitizenshiptestaremoredifficult______.
{{*HTML*}}ANewCitizenshipTest1?LastweekasampleofthenewUScitizenship公民身份examwasreleasedbytheUSCitizenshipandImmigrationServicesUS-CIS.Itwillbetriedoutin10citiesearlynextyeartoreplacethecurrenttestin2008.InsteadofaskinghowmanystripestheUSflaghasasthecurrenttestdoesthenewoneaskswhythereare13stripes.Insteadofhavingtonamethebranchesofgovernmentanapplicantisaskedtoexplainwhytherearethree.2?ThegoalistomakeitmoremeaningfulexplainsEmilioGonzalezdirectoroftheUS-CIS.ImmigrantswhopassitareexpectedtohaveabetterunderstandingandrespectforUScivic公民的valuesGonzalezsays.3?TheUSisn’ttheonlycountrydealingwithcitizenshipteststhataimtogetasharedcommitmentfromimmigrantsfortheiradoptedcountry’svalues.Inrecentyearsinadditiontotheusualrequirementoflanguage/workskillsandeconomicstatusseveralEuropeancountrieshaveadoptedcitizenshiptests.BritainintroducedanewcitizenshiptestlastNovember.InMarchanewDutchlawtookeffectrequiringallwould-beimmigrantstotakeacitizenshiptest.Itinvolvedwatchingavideoshowingnude裸体的womenbathingatbeachesandgay同性恋的menkissinginpublic.Theaimwastoensurethatnewcomerswillbecomfortablewiththecountry’sliberalsocialmores风俗.4?Europehasbeenknownforwelcomingimmigrantsfordecades.Buttodaythefactisthatsomeimmigrantsarekeptapartfromlocalcitizensbycultureandtheybecomehostiletoeachother.PromotingintegrationhasbecomeamajorconcernforEuropeancountriesaftertheriotinginMuslimghettoes少数民族聚居区inFranceandthekillingofDutchpublicfiguresbyreligiousextremists.5?Officialsbelievethataperson’sattachmenttoacountrycanbetestedbyhisorherknowledgeofthecountry.Howeversomecriticssaythatthechangescandolittletohelppeopleassimilate同化themselves.Immigrationisaculturewartoday.Isgivinganewtesttherightwaytolessentheaccusationsinthatfight?saysAliNooranioftheMassachusettsImmigrantandRefugeeAdvocacyCoalition难民辩护联盟.{{*HTML*}}APreparationfortakingacitizenshiptest??BCitizenshiptestsinEuropeancountries??CImportanceofpromotingintegration??DNecessitytoknowthebranchesofgovernment??EDifferentviewsonthenewcitizenshiptest??FGoalofthenewcitizenshiptest??23.Paragraph2______
1.MaleandFemalePilotsCauseAccidentsDifferentlyMalepilotsflyinggeneralaviatingprivateaircraftintheUnitedStatesaremorelikelytocrashduetoinattentionorflaweddecision-makingwhilefemalepilotsaremorelikelytocrashfrommishandlingtheaircraft.ThesearetheresultsofastudybyresearchersattheJohnsHopkinsUniversityBloombergSchoolofPublicHealth.Thestudyidentifiesthedifferencesbetweenmaleandfemalepilotsintermsofcircumstancesofthecrashandthetypeofpilotserrorinvolved.Crashesofgeneralaviationaircraftaccountfor85percentofallaviationdeathsintheUnitedStates.ThecrashrateformalepilotsasformotorvehicledriversexceedsthatofcrashesoffemalepilotsexplainsSusanP.Baker.MPHprofessorofhealthpolicyandmanagementattheBloombergSchoolofPublicHealth.Becausepilotyouthandinexperienceareestablishedcontributorstoaviationcrasheswefocusedononlymaturepilotstodeterminethegenderdifferencesinthereasonsforthecrash.Theresearchersextracteddataforthisstudyfromalargeresearchprojectonpilotagingandflightsafety.Thedataweregatheredfromgeneralaviationcrashesofairplanesandhelicoptersbetween1983and1997involving144femalepilotsand267realepilotsaged40-63.Femalepilotswerematchedwithmalepilotsina1:2ratiobyageclassesofmedicalandpilotcertificatesstateorareaofcrashandyearofcrash.Thenthecircumstancesofthecrashesandthepiloterrorinvolvedwerecategorizedandcodedwithoutknowledgeofpilotgender.Theresearchersfoundthatlossofcontrolonlandingortakeoffwasthemostcommoncircumstanceforbothsexesleadingto59percentoffemalepilots’crashesand36percentofmales.Experiencingmechanicalfailurerunningoutoffuelandlandingtheplanewiththelandinggearupwereamongthefactorsmorelikelywithmaleswhilestalling失速wasmorelikelywithfemales.Themajorityofthecrashes-95percentforfemalesand88percentformales-involvedatleastonetypeofpiloterror.Mishandlingaircraftkineticswasthemostcommonerrorforbothsexesbutwasmorecommonamongfemalesaccountingfor81percentofthecrashesthanmalesaccountingfor48percent.Maleshoweverappearedmorelikelytobeguiltyofpoordecision-makingrisk-takingandinattentivenessexamplesofwhichincludemisjudgingweatherandvisibilityorflyinganaircraftwithaknowndefect.Femalesthoughmorelikelytomishandleorlosecontroloftheaircraftweregenerallymorecarefulthantheirmalecounterparts.Bothmaleandfemalepilotsflyinggeneralaviatingprivateaircraftareundergreatstress.
TheWhiteHouse Wegetupearlythismorningand51alongwalkafterbreakfast.Wewalkedthroughthebusinesssectionofthecity.Itoldyouyesterdaythatthecitywaslarger52Ithoughtitwouldbe.53thebusinesssectionissmallerthanIthoughtitwouldbe.Isupposethat’s54Washingtonisaspecialkindofcity.55thepeopleinWashingtonworkforthegovernment.About9:30wewenttotheWhiteHouse.It’s56tothepublicfrom10till12andtherewasalonglineofpeoplewaitingtogetin.Wedidn’thavetowaitverylongbecausethelinemoved57quickly. TheWhiteHouseisreallywhite.Itispaintedeveryyear.Anditseemsverywhitebecauseit’sgotbeautifullawnsallaroundit58manytreesandshrubs.Thegrounds59aboutfoursquareblocks.Imeanthey’reabouttwoblockslong60eachside.Thepart61thePresidentlivesandworksisnotopentothepublic.Butthepartwesawwasbeautiful.Wewentthroughfiveofthemainrooms.Oneofthemwasthelibraryonthegroundfloor.Onthenextfloortherearethreeroomsnamed62thecolorsthatare.usedinthem:theRedRoomtheBlueRoomandtheGreenRoom. Thewallsarecoveredwithsilk63.Thereare64oldfurniturefromthetime65theWhiteHousewasfirstbuilt.Andeverywheretherearepaintingsandstatuesofformerpresidentsandotherfamouspeoplefromhistory. 64.
{{*HTML*}}IKnowJustHowYouFeel??Doyoufeelsad?Happy?Angry?Youmaythinkthatthewayyoushowtheseemotionsisunique.Wellthinkagain.EventheexpressionofthemostpersonalfeelingscanbeclassifiedaccordingtoMindReadinggameaDVDdisplayingeverypossiblehumanemotion.Itdemonstrates412distinctwaysinwhichwefeelthefirstvisualdictionaryofthehumanheart.??Attemptstoclassifyexpressionsbeganinthemid-1800swhenDarwindividedtheemotionsintosixtypes-angerfearsadnessdisgustsurpriseandenjoyment.?46?.EveryotherfeelingwasthoughttoderivefromDarwin’ssmallgroup.Morecomplexexpressionsofemotionswereprobablylearnedandthereforemorespecifictoeachculture.Butnowitisbelievedthatmanymorefacialexpressionsaresharedworldwide.?47?.TheMindReadingDVDisasystematicvisualrecordoftheseexpressions.??TheprojectwasconceivedbyaCambridgeprofessorasanaidforpeoplewithautism孤独whohavedifficultybothreadingandexpressingemotions.Butitquicklybecameapparentthatithadbroaderuses.Actorsandteachersforexampleneedtounderstandawiderangeofexpressions.Theprofessorandhisresearchteamfirsthadtodefineanemotion?48?.Usingthisdefinition1512emotiontermswereidentifiedanddiscussed.Thislistwaseventuallyreducedto412fromafraidtowanting.??OncetheseemotionsweredefinedandclassifiedaDVDseemedtheclearestandmostefficientwaytodisplaythem.InMindReadingeachexpressionisactedoutbysixdifferentactorsinthreeseconds.?49?.Theexplanationforthisissimple:wemayfinditdifficulttodescribeemotionsusingwordsbutweinstantlyrecognizeonewhenweseeitonsomeone’sface.ItwasreallyclearwhentheactorshadgotitrightsaysCathyColliswhodirectedtheDVDAlthoughtheyweregivensomedirectionsaysMsCollistheactorswerenottoldwhichfacialmusclestheyshouldmove.?50?.Forexamplewhensomeonefeelcontemptyoucan’tsayforcertainthattheireyebrowsalwaysgodown.??SomeonewhohastriedtoestablishsuchrulesistheAmericanProfessorPaulEkmanwhohasbuiltadatabaseofhowthefacemovesforeveryemotion.Thefacecanmake43distinctmusclemovementscalledactionunits.Thesecanbecombinedintomorethan10000visiblefacialshapes.Ekmanhaswrittenoutapatternoffacialmuscularmovementstorepresenteachemotion.??A.Hesaidthatthisexpressionoffeelingisuniversalandrecognizablebyanyonefromanyculture.??B.Anyothermethodofshowingthe412emotionswouldhavebeenfarlesseffective.??C.Researchhasalsobeendonetofindoutwhichareaofbrainreadtheemotionalexpressions.??D.Theseparticularmusclesaredifficulttocontrolandfewpeoplecandoit.??E.TheydecidedthatitwasamentalstatethatcouldbeprecededbyIfeel?helooksorshesounds.??F.Wethoughtoftryingtodescribeeachemotionbutitwouldhavebeenalmostimpossibletomakeclearrulesofthis.
Thepolicemanwrotedownalltheparticularsoftheaccident.
1.MaleandFemalePilotsCauseAccidentsDifferentlyMalepilotsflyinggeneralaviatingprivateaircraftintheUnitedStatesaremorelikelytocrashduetoinattentionorflaweddecision-makingwhilefemalepilotsaremorelikelytocrashfrommishandlingtheaircraft.ThesearetheresultsofastudybyresearchersattheJohnsHopkinsUniversityBloombergSchoolofPublicHealth.Thestudyidentifiesthedifferencesbetweenmaleandfemalepilotsintermsofcircumstancesofthecrashandthetypeofpilotserrorinvolved.Crashesofgeneralaviationaircraftaccountfor85percentofallaviationdeathsintheUnitedStates.ThecrashrateformalepilotsasformotorvehicledriversexceedsthatofcrashesoffemalepilotsexplainsSusanP.Baker.MPHprofessorofhealthpolicyandmanagementattheBloombergSchoolofPublicHealth.Becausepilotyouthandinexperienceareestablishedcontributorstoaviationcrasheswefocusedononlymaturepilotstodeterminethegenderdifferencesinthereasonsforthecrash.Theresearchersextracteddataforthisstudyfromalargeresearchprojectonpilotagingandflightsafety.Thedataweregatheredfromgeneralaviationcrashesofairplanesandhelicoptersbetween1983and1997involving144femalepilotsand267realepilotsaged40-63.Femalepilotswerematchedwithmalepilotsina1:2ratiobyageclassesofmedicalandpilotcertificatesstateorareaofcrashandyearofcrash.Thenthecircumstancesofthecrashesandthepiloterrorinvolvedwerecategorizedandcodedwithoutknowledgeofpilotgender.Theresearchersfoundthatlossofcontrolonlandingortakeoffwasthemostcommoncircumstanceforbothsexesleadingto59percentoffemalepilots’crashesand36percentofmales.Experiencingmechanicalfailurerunningoutoffuelandlandingtheplanewiththelandinggearupwereamongthefactorsmorelikelywithmaleswhilestalling失速wasmorelikelywithfemales.Themajorityofthecrashes-95percentforfemalesand88percentformales-involvedatleastonetypeofpiloterror.Mishandlingaircraftkineticswasthemostcommonerrorforbothsexesbutwasmorecommonamongfemalesaccountingfor81percentofthecrashesthanmalesaccountingfor48percent.Maleshoweverappearedmorelikelytobeguiltyofpoordecision-makingrisk-takingandinattentivenessexamplesofwhichincludemisjudgingweatherandvisibilityorflyinganaircraftwithaknowndefect.Femalesthoughmorelikelytomishandleorlosecontroloftheaircraftweregenerallymorecarefulthantheirmalecounterparts.Themajorityofthecrashesareduetobadweatherconditions.
Thelatestcensusisencouraging.
SomeThingsWeKnowaboutLanguageManythingsaboutlanguageareamysteryandmanywillalwaysremainso.Butsomethingswedoknow.Firstweknowthatallhumanbeingshavealanguageofsomesort.Thereisnoraceofmenanywhereonearthsobackwardthatithasnolanguagenosetofspeechsoundsbywhichthepeoplecommunicatewithoneanother.Furthermoreinhistoricaltimestherehasneverbeenaraceofmenwithoutalanguage.Secondthereisnosuchthingasaprimitivelanguage.Therearemanypeoplewhoseculturesareundevelopedwhoareaswesayuncivilizedbutthelanguagestheyspeakarenotprimitive.Inallknownlanguageswecanseecomplexitiesthatmusthavebeentensofthousandsofyearsindeveloping.Thishasnotalwaysbeenwellunderstood;indeedthedirectcontraryhasoftenbeenstated.PopularideasofthelanguageoftheAmericanIndianswillillustrate.ManypeoplehavesupposedthattheIndianscommunicatedinaveryprimitivesystemofnoises.Studyhasprovedthistobenonsense.ThereareorwerehundredsofAmericanIndianlanguagesandallofthemturnouttobeverycomplicatedandveryold.TheyarecertainlydifferentfromthelanguagesthatmostofusarefamiliarwithbuttheyarenomoreprimitivethanEnglishandGreek.Athirdthingweknowaboutlanguageisthatalllanguagesareperfectlyadequate.Thatiseachoneisaperfectmeansofexpressingthecultureofthepeoplewhospeakthelanguage.Finallyweknowthatlanguagechanges.Itisnaturalandnormalforlanguagetochange;theonlylanguageswhichdonotchangearethedeadones.Thisiseasytounderstandifwelookbackwardintime.Changegoesoninallaspectsoflanguage.Grammaticalfeatureschangeasdospeechsoundsandchangesinvocabularyaresometimesveryextensiveandmayoccurveryrapidly.Vocabularyistheleaststablepartofanylanguage.Accordingtotheauthorlanguagechangesaremostlikelytooccurin______.
OntheNetFriendsComeandGoTalkingof... Theyoungwomanwasvisibly51andclearlywantedtogetsomethingoffherchest. "What’sup"I52 "I’vejustbeendefriended"shesaid. Now"defriended"isaword53!amnotfamiliar.!havebeenbefriended54andbefriended--manypeoplesincearrivinginBeijing.Butdefriended Itturns55thisisanewwordcreatedbytheInteract-savvyyoungergenerationspecificallyinrelationtotheworldwidesocialnetworkingphenomenonFacebook. Thosewhojoincaninvitefriendstobecomemembersofthesite56.Theycanthensharephotographs"chat"swapmessagesandobservationsandperformahostofothermutuallyaccessibleapplications. I’veseensomepeople’ssites57hundredsoffriendsallmomentsawaydownafiberopticcableprovidingtheyareloggedontotheircomputersorhookeduptoahigh-speccellphone Itcreatesthepossibilityof"befriending"anyoneintheworldwhohasonlineaccess.CurrentlyFacebookhas150millionusers.Thatmeansthere’salotof"friends"outthere. The58isthatyoucanbe"defriended"--youcanbedeniedaccesstotheFacebooksitesomeonewhohadpreviouslyinvitedtobehisorherfriend.Andyoucandoitwithoutthepotentialforinstantrecrimination. Whereonceintheschoolplaygroundonchildmighthavepetulantlyshouted59another"I’mnotgoingtobeyourfriedanymore"thesamehurtandlossoffacecanbeperformedremotelywiththechickofabutton. A60aspectof"defriending"isthatunlikewithotherapplicationssuchasthe"whatareyouthinkingabout"postingadigitaldepositoryoftheoftendire61dullanddesperatenomessageissentoutalertingyouoryourcontactsaboutthechangemstatus.Youonlyfindoutyouhave62whenyoutrytovisita"friend’s"siteandyoufindyoucannolongergetinthedelayofthediscoveryisalltoooftendoublyhurtful.Justasbombsaredispatchedimpersonally63anunseenenemyinmodemwarfare64relationshipsareblownoutofthewindowwiththesamecallousdisregardwithouttheriskofanyface-to-facecomeback.Onesecondyouarcthere65youaredeleted. 52.
{{*HTML*}}Icebergs??1?Icebergsareamongnature’smostspectacular壮观的creationsandyetmostpeoplehaveneverseenone.Avagueairofmysteryenvelopsthem.Theycomeintobeing—somewhere—infarawayfrigidwatersamidthunderousnoiseandsplashingturbulencewhichinmostcasenoonehearsorsees.Theyexistonlyashorttimeandthenslowlywasteaway消融justasunnoticed.??2?Objectsofsheerest最纯粹的beautytheyhavebeencalled.Appearinginanendlessvarietyofshapestheymaybedazzlinglywhiteortheymaybeglassybluegreenorpurpletintedfaintlyorindarkerhues.Theyaregracefulstatelyinspiring—incalmsunlightseas.??3?Buttheyarealsocalledfrighteninganddangerousandthattheyare—inthenightinthefogandinstorms.Eveninclearweatheroneiswisetostayasafedistanceawayfromthem.Mostoftheirbulkishiddenbelowthewatersotheirunderwaterpartsmayextendoutfarbeyondthevisibletop.Alsotheymayrolloverunexpectedlychurningthewatersaroundthem.??4?Icebergsarepartsofglaciersthatbreakoffdriftintothewaterfloataboutawhileandfinallymelt.Icebergsafloattodayaremadeofsnowflakesthathavefallenoverlongagesoftime.Theyembodysnowsthatdrifteddownhundredsormanythousandsorinsomecasesmaybeamillionyearsago.Thesnowsfellinpolarregionsandoncoldmountainswheretheymeltedonlyalittleornotatallandsocollectedtogreatdepthsovertheyearsandcenturies.Aseachyear’ssnowaccumulationlayonthesurfaceevaporationandmeltingcausedthesnowflakesslowlytolosetheirfeatherypointsandbecometinygrainsofice.Whennewsnowfellontopoftheoldittooturnedtoicygrains.Soblanketsofsnowandicegrainsmountedlayeruponlayerandwereofsuchgreatthicknessthattheweightoftheupperlayerscompressedthelowerones.Withtimeandpressurefromabovethemanysmallicegrainsjoinedandchangedtolargercrystalsandeventuallythedeepercrystalsmergedintoasolidmassofice.A．FormationofIcebergB．IcebergIsBeautifulC．ColorofIcebergD．IcebergIsDangerousE.IcebergIsMysteriousF.ClassificationofIcebergParagraph3______
Whatweretheeffectsofthedecisionshemade
DriventoDistractionJoeCoyneslidesintothedriver’sseatstartsupthecarandheadstotown.TheemptystretchofinterstategiveswaytourbancongestionandCoynehitsthebrakesasapedestriansuddenlycrossesthestreetinfrontofhim.Butevenifhehadn’tstoppedintimethewomanwouldhavebeensafe.Sheisn’treal.Neitheristhetown.AndCoyneisn’treallydriving.CoyneisdemonstratingacomputerizeddrivingsimulatorthatishelpingresearchersatOldDominionUniversityODUexaminehowin-vehicleguidancesystemsaffectthepersonbehindthewheel.Theresearcherswanttoknowifsuchsystemswhichgiveaudibleorwrittendirectionsaretoodistracting—orwhetheranydistractionsareoffsetbythebenefitsdriversgetfromhavinghelpfindingtheirwayinunfamiliarlocations.We’relookingattheperformanceandmentalworkloadofdriverssaidCarylBaldwintheassistantpsychologyprofessorleadingtheresearchwhichinvolvesmeasuringdrivers’reactiontimeandbrainactivityastheyrespondtoauditoryandvisualCues.Theresearchersjustcompletedastudyofthementalworkloadinvolvedindrivingthroughdifferentkindsofenvironmentsandheavyvs.lighttraffic.Preliminaryresultsshowthataspeoplegetintomorechallengingdrivingsituationstheydon’thaveanyextramentalenergytorespondtosomethingelseintheenvironmentBaldwinsaid.Butthetradeoffscouldbeworthitshesaid.Thenextstepistotestdifferentwaysofgivingdriversnavigationalinformationandhowthosemethodschangethedrivers’mentalworkload.Isitbestiftheyseeapicture...thatshowstheirpositionamapkindofdisplayBaldwinsaid.IsitbestiftheyhearitNavigationalsystemsnowonthemarketgivepoint-by-pointdirectionsthatfollowaprescribedroute.They’reveryunforgivingBaldwinsaid.Ifyoumissaturntheycanalmostseemtogetangry.Thatstyleofdirectionsalsocanbefrustratingforpeoplewhoprefermoregeneralinstructions.ButsuchbroaddirectionscanconfusedriverswhopreferroutedirectionsBaldwinsaid.Perhapsmanufacturersshouldallowdriverstochoosethestyleofdirectionstheywantormodifysystemstopresentsomeinformationinawaythatmakessense10forpeoplewhopreferthesurveystyleshesaid.Interestinglyotherresearchhasshownthatabout60percentofmenpreferthesurveystylewhile60percentwomenprefertheroutestyleBaldwinsaid.Thisexplainstheclassiclittlethingofwhymendon’tliketostopandaskfordirectionsandwomendoBaldwinadded.Whichstatementistrueofthedescriptioninthefirsttwoparagraphs
{{*HTML*}}ANewCitizenshipTest1?LastweekasampleofthenewUScitizenship公民身份examwasreleasedbytheUSCitizenshipandImmigrationServicesUS-CIS.Itwillbetriedoutin10citiesearlynextyeartoreplacethecurrenttestin2008.InsteadofaskinghowmanystripestheUSflaghasasthecurrenttestdoesthenewoneaskswhythereare13stripes.Insteadofhavingtonamethebranchesofgovernmentanapplicantisaskedtoexplainwhytherearethree.2?ThegoalistomakeitmoremeaningfulexplainsEmilioGonzalezdirectoroftheUS-CIS.ImmigrantswhopassitareexpectedtohaveabetterunderstandingandrespectforUScivic公民的valuesGonzalezsays.3?TheUSisn’ttheonlycountrydealingwithcitizenshipteststhataimtogetasharedcommitmentfromimmigrantsfortheiradoptedcountry’svalues.Inrecentyearsinadditiontotheusualrequirementoflanguage/workskillsandeconomicstatusseveralEuropeancountrieshaveadoptedcitizenshiptests.BritainintroducedanewcitizenshiptestlastNovember.InMarchanewDutchlawtookeffectrequiringallwould-beimmigrantstotakeacitizenshiptest.Itinvolvedwatchingavideoshowingnude裸体的womenbathingatbeachesandgay同性恋的menkissinginpublic.Theaimwastoensurethatnewcomerswillbecomfortablewiththecountry’sliberalsocialmores风俗.4?Europehasbeenknownforwelcomingimmigrantsfordecades.Buttodaythefactisthatsomeimmigrantsarekeptapartfromlocalcitizensbycultureandtheybecomehostiletoeachother.PromotingintegrationhasbecomeamajorconcernforEuropeancountriesaftertheriotinginMuslimghettoes少数民族聚居区inFranceandthekillingofDutchpublicfiguresbyreligiousextremists.5?Officialsbelievethataperson’sattachmenttoacountrycanbetestedbyhisorherknowledgeofthecountry.Howeversomecriticssaythatthechangescandolittletohelppeopleassimilate同化themselves.Immigrationisaculturewartoday.Isgivinganewtesttherightwaytolessentheaccusationsinthatfight?saysAliNooranioftheMassachusettsImmigrantandRefugeeAdvocacyCoalition难民辩护联盟.Paragraph4______
DriventoDistractionJoeCoyneslidesintothedriver’sseatstartsupthecarandheadstotown.TheemptystretchofinterstategiveswaytourbancongestionandCoynehitsthebrakesasapedestriansuddenlycrossesthestreetinfrontofhim.Butevenifhehadn’tstoppedintimethewomanwouldhavebeensafe.Sheisn’treal.Neitheristhetown.AndCoyneisn’treallydriving.CoyneisdemonstratingacomputerizeddrivingsimulatorthatishelpingresearchersatOldDominionUniversityODUexaminehowin-vehicleguidancesystemsaffectthepersonbehindthewheel.Theresearcherswanttoknowifsuchsystemswhichgiveaudibleorwrittendirectionsaretoodistracting—orwhetheranydistractionsareoffsetbythebenefitsdriversgetfromhavinghelpfindingtheirwayinunfamiliarlocations.We’relookingattheperformanceandmentalworkloadofdriverssaidCarylBaldwintheassistantpsychologyprofessorleadingtheresearchwhichinvolvesmeasuringdrivers’reactiontimeandbrainactivityastheyrespondtoauditoryandvisualCues.Theresearchersjustcompletedastudyofthementalworkloadinvolvedindrivingthroughdifferentkindsofenvironmentsandheavyvs.lighttraffic.Preliminaryresultsshowthataspeoplegetintomorechallengingdrivingsituationstheydon’thaveanyextramentalenergytorespondtosomethingelseintheenvironmentBaldwinsaid.Butthetradeoffscouldbeworthitshesaid.Thenextstepistotestdifferentwaysofgivingdriversnavigationalinformationandhowthosemethodschangethedrivers’mentalworkload.Isitbestiftheyseeapicture...thatshowstheirpositionamapkindofdisplayBaldwinsaid.IsitbestiftheyhearitNavigationalsystemsnowonthemarketgivepoint-by-pointdirectionsthatfollowaprescribedroute.They’reveryunforgivingBaldwinsaid.Ifyoumissaturntheycanalmostseemtogetangry.Thatstyleofdirectionsalsocanbefrustratingforpeoplewhoprefermoregeneralinstructions.ButsuchbroaddirectionscanconfusedriverswhopreferroutedirectionsBaldwinsaid.Perhapsmanufacturersshouldallowdriverstochoosethestyleofdirectionstheywantormodifysystemstopresentsomeinformationinawaythatmakessense10forpeoplewhopreferthesurveystyleshesaid.Interestinglyotherresearchhasshownthatabout60percentofmenpreferthesurveystylewhile60percentwomenprefertheroutestyleBaldwinsaid.Thisexplainstheclassiclittlethingofwhymendon’tliketostopandaskfordirectionsandwomendoBaldwinadded.Whatkindofdirectionsdomenandwomenprefer
{{*HTML*}}IKnowJustHowYouFeel??Doyoufeelsad?Happy?Angry?Youmaythinkthatthewayyoushowtheseemotionsisunique.Wellthinkagain.EventheexpressionofthemostpersonalfeelingscanbeclassifiedaccordingtoMindReadinggameaDVDdisplayingeverypossiblehumanemotion.Itdemonstrates412distinctwaysinwhichwefeelthefirstvisualdictionaryofthehumanheart.??Attemptstoclassifyexpressionsbeganinthemid-1800swhenDarwindividedtheemotionsintosixtypes-angerfearsadnessdisgustsurpriseandenjoyment.?46?.EveryotherfeelingwasthoughttoderivefromDarwin’ssmallgroup.Morecomplexexpressionsofemotionswereprobablylearnedandthereforemorespecifictoeachculture.Butnowitisbelievedthatmanymorefacialexpressionsaresharedworldwide.?47?.TheMindReadingDVDisasystematicvisualrecordoftheseexpressions.??TheprojectwasconceivedbyaCambridgeprofessorasanaidforpeoplewithautism孤独whohavedifficultybothreadingandexpressingemotions.Butitquicklybecameapparentthatithadbroaderuses.Actorsandteachersforexampleneedtounderstandawiderangeofexpressions.Theprofessorandhisresearchteamfirsthadtodefineanemotion?48?.Usingthisdefinition1512emotiontermswereidentifiedanddiscussed.Thislistwaseventuallyreducedto412fromafraidtowanting.??OncetheseemotionsweredefinedandclassifiedaDVDseemedtheclearestandmostefficientwaytodisplaythem.InMindReadingeachexpressionisactedoutbysixdifferentactorsinthreeseconds.?49?.Theexplanationforthisissimple:wemayfinditdifficulttodescribeemotionsusingwordsbutweinstantlyrecognizeonewhenweseeitonsomeone’sface.ItwasreallyclearwhentheactorshadgotitrightsaysCathyColliswhodirectedtheDVDAlthoughtheyweregivensomedirectionsaysMsCollistheactorswerenottoldwhichfacialmusclestheyshouldmove.?50?.Forexamplewhensomeonefeelcontemptyoucan’tsayforcertainthattheireyebrowsalwaysgodown.??SomeonewhohastriedtoestablishsuchrulesistheAmericanProfessorPaulEkmanwhohasbuiltadatabaseofhowthefacemovesforeveryemotion.Thefacecanmake43distinctmusclemovementscalledactionunits.Thesecanbecombinedintomorethan10000visiblefacialshapes.Ekmanhaswrittenoutapatternoffacialmuscularmovementstorepresenteachemotion.??A.Hesaidthatthisexpressionoffeelingisuniversalandrecognizablebyanyonefromanyculture.??B.Anyothermethodofshowingthe412emotionswouldhavebeenfarlesseffective.??C.Researchhasalsobeendonetofindoutwhichareaofbrainreadtheemotionalexpressions.??D.Theseparticularmusclesaredifficulttocontrolandfewpeoplecandoit.??E.TheydecidedthatitwasamentalstatethatcouldbeprecededbyIfeel?helooksorshesounds.??F.Wethoughtoftryingtodescribeeachemotionbutitwouldhavebeenalmostimpossibletomakeclearrulesofthis.
Themostcrucialproblemanyeconomicsystemfacesishowtouseitsscarceresources.
SomeThingsWeKnowaboutLanguageManythingsaboutlanguageareamysteryandmanywillalwaysremainso.Butsomethingswedoknow.Firstweknowthatallhumanbeingshavealanguageofsomesort.Thereisnoraceofmenanywhereonearthsobackwardthatithasnolanguagenosetofspeechsoundsbywhichthepeoplecommunicatewithoneanother.Furthermoreinhistoricaltimestherehasneverbeenaraceofmenwithoutalanguage.Secondthereisnosuchthingasaprimitivelanguage.Therearemanypeoplewhoseculturesareundevelopedwhoareaswesayuncivilizedbutthelanguagestheyspeakarenotprimitive.Inallknownlanguageswecanseecomplexitiesthatmusthavebeentensofthousandsofyearsindeveloping.Thishasnotalwaysbeenwellunderstood;indeedthedirectcontraryhasoftenbeenstated.PopularideasofthelanguageoftheAmericanIndianswillillustrate.ManypeoplehavesupposedthattheIndianscommunicatedinaveryprimitivesystemofnoises.Studyhasprovedthistobenonsense.ThereareorwerehundredsofAmericanIndianlanguagesandallofthemturnouttobeverycomplicatedandveryold.TheyarecertainlydifferentfromthelanguagesthatmostofusarefamiliarwithbuttheyarenomoreprimitivethanEnglishandGreek.Athirdthingweknowaboutlanguageisthatalllanguagesareperfectlyadequate.Thatiseachoneisaperfectmeansofexpressingthecultureofthepeoplewhospeakthelanguage.Finallyweknowthatlanguagechanges.Itisnaturalandnormalforlanguagetochange;theonlylanguageswhichdonotchangearethedeadones.Thisiseasytounderstandifwelookbackwardintime.Changegoesoninallaspectsoflanguage.Grammaticalfeatureschangeasdospeechsoundsandchangesinvocabularyaresometimesveryextensiveandmayoccurveryrapidly.Vocabularyistheleaststablepartofanylanguage.TheauthorhasusedAmericanIndianlanguageasanexampletoshowthattheyare______.
AncientEgyptBroughtdownbyFamineEvenancientEgypt’smightypyramid金字塔builderswerepowerlessinthefaceofthefamine饥荒thathelpedbringdowntheircivilizationaround2180B．C..NowevidencecollectedfrommuddepositedbytheRiverNilesuggeststhatashiftinclimatethousandsofkilometerstothesouthwasultimatelytoblameandthesameorworsecouldhappentoday.TheancientEgyptiansdependedontheNile’sannualfloodstoirrigatetheircrops.ButanychangeinclimatethatpushedtheAfricanmonsoons季风southwardsoutofEthiopiawouldhavereducedthesefloods.DecliningrainsintheEthiopianhighlandswouldhavemeantfewerplantstostabilizethesoil.WhenraindidfallitwouldhavewashedlargeamountsofsoilintotheBlueNileandintoEgyptalongwithsediment沉积fromtheWhiteNile.BlueNilemudhasadifferentisotope同位素signaturefromthatofthewhiteNilesobyanalyzingisotopedifferencesinmuddepositedintheNileDeltaMichaelKromofLeedsUniversityworkedoutwhatproportionofsedimentcamefromeachbranchoftheriver.KromreasonsthatduringperiodsofdroughttheamountofBlueNilemudintheriverwouldberelativelyhigh.Hefoundthatoneoftheseperiodsfrom4500to4200yearsagoimmediatelycamebeforethefalloftheEgypt’soldKingdom.TheweakenedwaterswouldhavebeendisasterfortheEgyptians.Changesthataffectfoodsupplydon’thavetobeverylargetohavearipple波浪effectinsocieties.saysBillRyanoftheLamontDohertyEarthObservatoryinNewYork.SimilareventstodaycouldbeevenmoredevastatingsaysteammemberDanielStanleyascientistfromtheSmithsonianInstitutioninWashingtonD.C..AnythinghumansdotoshifttheclimatebeltswouldhaveanevenworseeffectalongtheNilesystemtodaybecausethepopulationshaveincreaseddramatically./AccordingtoKromtheEgypt’soldKingdomfell______
Swimmingwillbebannedinthislake.
{{*HTML*}}IKnowJustHowYouFeel??Doyoufeelsad?Happy?Angry?Youmaythinkthatthewayyoushowtheseemotionsisunique.Wellthinkagain.EventheexpressionofthemostpersonalfeelingscanbeclassifiedaccordingtoMindReadinggameaDVDdisplayingeverypossiblehumanemotion.Itdemonstrates412distinctwaysinwhichwefeelthefirstvisualdictionaryofthehumanheart.??Attemptstoclassifyexpressionsbeganinthemid-1800swhenDarwindividedtheemotionsintosixtypes-angerfearsadnessdisgustsurpriseandenjoyment.?46?.EveryotherfeelingwasthoughttoderivefromDarwin’ssmallgroup.Morecomplexexpressionsofemotionswereprobablylearnedandthereforemorespecifictoeachculture.Butnowitisbelievedthatmanymorefacialexpressionsaresharedworldwide.?47?.TheMindReadingDVDisasystematicvisualrecordoftheseexpressions.??TheprojectwasconceivedbyaCambridgeprofessorasanaidforpeoplewithautism孤独whohavedifficultybothreadingandexpressingemotions.Butitquicklybecameapparentthatithadbroaderuses.Actorsandteachersforexampleneedtounderstandawiderangeofexpressions.Theprofessorandhisresearchteamfirsthadtodefineanemotion?48?.Usingthisdefinition1512emotiontermswereidentifiedanddiscussed.Thislistwaseventuallyreducedto412fromafraidtowanting.??OncetheseemotionsweredefinedandclassifiedaDVDseemedtheclearestandmostefficientwaytodisplaythem.InMindReadingeachexpressionisactedoutbysixdifferentactorsinthreeseconds.?49?.Theexplanationforthisissimple:wemayfinditdifficulttodescribeemotionsusingwordsbutweinstantlyrecognizeonewhenweseeitonsomeone’sface.ItwasreallyclearwhentheactorshadgotitrightsaysCathyColliswhodirectedtheDVDAlthoughtheyweregivensomedirectionsaysMsCollistheactorswerenottoldwhichfacialmusclestheyshouldmove.?50?.Forexamplewhensomeonefeelcontemptyoucan’tsayforcertainthattheireyebrowsalwaysgodown.??SomeonewhohastriedtoestablishsuchrulesistheAmericanProfessorPaulEkmanwhohasbuiltadatabaseofhowthefacemovesforeveryemotion.Thefacecanmake43distinctmusclemovementscalledactionunits.Thesecanbecombinedintomorethan10000visiblefacialshapes.Ekmanhaswrittenoutapatternoffacialmuscularmovementstorepresenteachemotion.??A.Hesaidthatthisexpressionoffeelingisuniversalandrecognizablebyanyonefromanyculture.??B.Anyothermethodofshowingthe412emotionswouldhavebeenfarlesseffective.??C.Researchhasalsobeendonetofindoutwhichareaofbrainreadtheemotionalexpressions.??D.Theseparticularmusclesaredifficulttocontrolandfewpeoplecandoit.??E.TheydecidedthatitwasamentalstatethatcouldbeprecededbyIfeel?helooksorshesounds.??F.Wethoughtoftryingtodescribeeachemotionbutitwouldhavebeenalmostimpossibletomakeclearrulesofthis.
{{*HTML*}}ANewCitizenshipTest1?LastweekasampleofthenewUScitizenship公民身份examwasreleasedbytheUSCitizenshipandImmigrationServicesUS-CIS.Itwillbetriedoutin10citiesearlynextyeartoreplacethecurrenttestin2008.InsteadofaskinghowmanystripestheUSflaghasasthecurrenttestdoesthenewoneaskswhythereare13stripes.Insteadofhavingtonamethebranchesofgovernmentanapplicantisaskedtoexplainwhytherearethree.2?ThegoalistomakeitmoremeaningfulexplainsEmilioGonzalezdirectoroftheUS-CIS.ImmigrantswhopassitareexpectedtohaveabetterunderstandingandrespectforUScivic公民的valuesGonzalezsays.3?TheUSisn’ttheonlycountrydealingwithcitizenshipteststhataimtogetasharedcommitmentfromimmigrantsfortheiradoptedcountry’svalues.Inrecentyearsinadditiontotheusualrequirementoflanguage/workskillsandeconomicstatusseveralEuropeancountrieshaveadoptedcitizenshiptests.BritainintroducedanewcitizenshiptestlastNovember.InMarchanewDutchlawtookeffectrequiringallwould-beimmigrantstotakeacitizenshiptest.Itinvolvedwatchingavideoshowingnude裸体的womenbathingatbeachesandgay同性恋的menkissinginpublic.Theaimwastoensurethatnewcomerswillbecomfortablewiththecountry’sliberalsocialmores风俗.4?Europehasbeenknownforwelcomingimmigrantsfordecades.Buttodaythefactisthatsomeimmigrantsarekeptapartfromlocalcitizensbycultureandtheybecomehostiletoeachother.PromotingintegrationhasbecomeamajorconcernforEuropeancountriesaftertheriotinginMuslimghettoes少数民族聚居区inFranceandthekillingofDutchpublicfiguresbyreligiousextremists.5?Officialsbelievethataperson’sattachmenttoacountrycanbetestedbyhisorherknowledgeofthecountry.Howeversomecriticssaythatthechangescandolittletohelppeopleassimilate同化themselves.Immigrationisaculturewartoday.Isgivinganewtesttherightwaytolessentheaccusationsinthatfight?saysAliNooranioftheMassachusettsImmigrantandRefugeeAdvocacyCoalition难民辩护联盟.IntheDutchcitizenshiptestallwould-beimmigrantsarerequired______.
DriventoDistractionJoeCoyneslidesintothedriver’sseatstartsupthecarandheadstotown.TheemptystretchofinterstategiveswaytourbancongestionandCoynehitsthebrakesasapedestriansuddenlycrossesthestreetinfrontofhim.Butevenifhehadn’tstoppedintimethewomanwouldhavebeensafe.Sheisn’treal.Neitheristhetown.AndCoyneisn’treallydriving.CoyneisdemonstratingacomputerizeddrivingsimulatorthatishelpingresearchersatOldDominionUniversityODUexaminehowin-vehicleguidancesystemsaffectthepersonbehindthewheel.Theresearcherswanttoknowifsuchsystemswhichgiveaudibleorwrittendirectionsaretoodistracting—orwhetheranydistractionsareoffsetbythebenefitsdriversgetfromhavinghelpfindingtheirwayinunfamiliarlocations.We’relookingattheperformanceandmentalworkloadofdriverssaidCarylBaldwintheassistantpsychologyprofessorleadingtheresearchwhichinvolvesmeasuringdrivers’reactiontimeandbrainactivityastheyrespondtoauditoryandvisualCues.Theresearchersjustcompletedastudyofthementalworkloadinvolvedindrivingthroughdifferentkindsofenvironmentsandheavyvs.lighttraffic.Preliminaryresultsshowthataspeoplegetintomorechallengingdrivingsituationstheydon’thaveanyextramentalenergytorespondtosomethingelseintheenvironmentBaldwinsaid.Butthetradeoffscouldbeworthitshesaid.Thenextstepistotestdifferentwaysofgivingdriversnavigationalinformationandhowthosemethodschangethedrivers’mentalworkload.Isitbestiftheyseeapicture...thatshowstheirpositionamapkindofdisplayBaldwinsaid.IsitbestiftheyhearitNavigationalsystemsnowonthemarketgivepoint-by-pointdirectionsthatfollowaprescribedroute.They’reveryunforgivingBaldwinsaid.Ifyoumissaturntheycanalmostseemtogetangry.Thatstyleofdirectionsalsocanbefrustratingforpeoplewhoprefermoregeneralinstructions.ButsuchbroaddirectionscanconfusedriverswhopreferroutedirectionsBaldwinsaid.Perhapsmanufacturersshouldallowdriverstochoosethestyleofdirectionstheywantormodifysystemstopresentsomeinformationinawaythatmakessense10forpeoplewhopreferthesurveystyleshesaid.Interestinglyotherresearchhasshownthatabout60percentofmenpreferthesurveystylewhile60percentwomenprefertheroutestyleBaldwinsaid.Thisexplainstheclassiclittlethingofwhymendon’tliketostopandaskfordirectionsandwomendoBaldwinadded.Whatarethepreliminaryresultsgiveninthefifthparagraph
Iftheweathermanhaspredictedaccuratelytomorrowwillbeaperfectdayforourpicnic.
{{*HTML*}}Icebergs??1?Icebergsareamongnature’smostspectacular壮观的creationsandyetmostpeoplehaveneverseenone.Avagueairofmysteryenvelopsthem.Theycomeintobeing—somewhere—infarawayfrigidwatersamidthunderousnoiseandsplashingturbulencewhichinmostcasenoonehearsorsees.Theyexistonlyashorttimeandthenslowlywasteaway消融justasunnoticed.??2?Objectsofsheerest最纯粹的beautytheyhavebeencalled.Appearinginanendlessvarietyofshapestheymaybedazzlinglywhiteortheymaybeglassybluegreenorpurpletintedfaintlyorindarkerhues.Theyaregracefulstatelyinspiring—incalmsunlightseas.??3?Buttheyarealsocalledfrighteninganddangerousandthattheyare—inthenightinthefogandinstorms.Eveninclearweatheroneiswisetostayasafedistanceawayfromthem.Mostoftheirbulkishiddenbelowthewatersotheirunderwaterpartsmayextendoutfarbeyondthevisibletop.Alsotheymayrolloverunexpectedlychurningthewatersaroundthem.??4?Icebergsarepartsofglaciersthatbreakoffdriftintothewaterfloataboutawhileandfinallymelt.Icebergsafloattodayaremadeofsnowflakesthathavefallenoverlongagesoftime.Theyembodysnowsthatdrifteddownhundredsormanythousandsorinsomecasesmaybeamillionyearsago.Thesnowsfellinpolarregionsandoncoldmountainswheretheymeltedonlyalittleornotatallandsocollectedtogreatdepthsovertheyearsandcenturies.Aseachyear’ssnowaccumulationlayonthesurfaceevaporationandmeltingcausedthesnowflakesslowlytolosetheirfeatherypointsandbecometinygrainsofice.Whennewsnowfellontopoftheoldittooturnedtoicygrains.Soblanketsofsnowandicegrainsmountedlayeruponlayerandwereofsuchgreatthicknessthattheweightoftheupperlayerscompressedthelowerones.Withtimeandpressurefromabovethemanysmallicegrainsjoinedandchangedtolargercrystalsandeventuallythedeepercrystalsmergedintoasolidmassofice.A．FormationofIcebergB．IcebergIsBeautifulC．ColorofIcebergD．IcebergIsDangerousE.IcebergIsMysteriousF.ClassificationofIcebergParagraph1______
Jackwasdismissed.
AncientEgyptBroughtdownbyFamineEvenancientEgypt’smightypyramid金字塔builderswerepowerlessinthefaceofthefamine饥荒thathelpedbringdowntheircivilizationaround2180B．C..NowevidencecollectedfrommuddepositedbytheRiverNilesuggeststhatashiftinclimatethousandsofkilometerstothesouthwasultimatelytoblameandthesameorworsecouldhappentoday.TheancientEgyptiansdependedontheNile’sannualfloodstoirrigatetheircrops.ButanychangeinclimatethatpushedtheAfricanmonsoons季风southwardsoutofEthiopiawouldhavereducedthesefloods.DecliningrainsintheEthiopianhighlandswouldhavemeantfewerplantstostabilizethesoil.WhenraindidfallitwouldhavewashedlargeamountsofsoilintotheBlueNileandintoEgyptalongwithsediment沉积fromtheWhiteNile.BlueNilemudhasadifferentisotope同位素signaturefromthatofthewhiteNilesobyanalyzingisotopedifferencesinmuddepositedintheNileDeltaMichaelKromofLeedsUniversityworkedoutwhatproportionofsedimentcamefromeachbranchoftheriver.KromreasonsthatduringperiodsofdroughttheamountofBlueNilemudintheriverwouldberelativelyhigh.Hefoundthatoneoftheseperiodsfrom4500to4200yearsagoimmediatelycamebeforethefalloftheEgypt’soldKingdom.TheweakenedwaterswouldhavebeendisasterfortheEgyptians.Changesthataffectfoodsupplydon’thavetobeverylargetohavearipple波浪effectinsocieties.saysBillRyanoftheLamontDohertyEarthObservatoryinNewYork.SimilareventstodaycouldbeevenmoredevastatingsaysteammemberDanielStanleyascientistfromtheSmithsonianInstitutioninWashingtonD.C..AnythinghumansdotoshifttheclimatebeltswouldhaveanevenworseeffectalongtheNilesystemtodaybecausethepopulationshaveincreaseddramatically./WhichofthefollowingfactorswasultimatelyresponsibleforbringingdownthecivilizationofancientEgypt
Shestoodtheretremblingwithfear.
1.MaleandFemalePilotsCauseAccidentsDifferentlyMalepilotsflyinggeneralaviatingprivateaircraftintheUnitedStatesaremorelikelytocrashduetoinattentionorflaweddecision-makingwhilefemalepilotsaremorelikelytocrashfrommishandlingtheaircraft.ThesearetheresultsofastudybyresearchersattheJohnsHopkinsUniversityBloombergSchoolofPublicHealth.Thestudyidentifiesthedifferencesbetweenmaleandfemalepilotsintermsofcircumstancesofthecrashandthetypeofpilotserrorinvolved.Crashesofgeneralaviationaircraftaccountfor85percentofallaviationdeathsintheUnitedStates.ThecrashrateformalepilotsasformotorvehicledriversexceedsthatofcrashesoffemalepilotsexplainsSusanP.Baker.MPHprofessorofhealthpolicyandmanagementattheBloombergSchoolofPublicHealth.Becausepilotyouthandinexperienceareestablishedcontributorstoaviationcrasheswefocusedononlymaturepilotstodeterminethegenderdifferencesinthereasonsforthecrash.Theresearchersextracteddataforthisstudyfromalargeresearchprojectonpilotagingandflightsafety.Thedataweregatheredfromgeneralaviationcrashesofairplanesandhelicoptersbetween1983and1997involving144femalepilotsand267realepilotsaged40-63.Femalepilotswerematchedwithmalepilotsina1:2ratiobyageclassesofmedicalandpilotcertificatesstateorareaofcrashandyearofcrash.Thenthecircumstancesofthecrashesandthepiloterrorinvolvedwerecategorizedandcodedwithoutknowledgeofpilotgender.Theresearchersfoundthatlossofcontrolonlandingortakeoffwasthemostcommoncircumstanceforbothsexesleadingto59percentoffemalepilots’crashesand36percentofmales.Experiencingmechanicalfailurerunningoutoffuelandlandingtheplanewiththelandinggearupwereamongthefactorsmorelikelywithmaleswhilestalling失速wasmorelikelywithfemales.Themajorityofthecrashes-95percentforfemalesand88percentformales-involvedatleastonetypeofpiloterror.Mishandlingaircraftkineticswasthemostcommonerrorforbothsexesbutwasmorecommonamongfemalesaccountingfor81percentofthecrashesthanmalesaccountingfor48percent.Maleshoweverappearedmorelikelytobeguiltyofpoordecision-makingrisk-takingandinattentivenessexamplesofwhichincludemisjudgingweatherandvisibilityorflyinganaircraftwithaknowndefect.Femalesthoughmorelikelytomishandleorlosecontroloftheaircraftweregenerallymorecarefulthantheirmalecounterparts.Crashesofprivateaircraftaccountforonlyasmallpartofaviationaccidents.
SomeThingsWeKnowaboutLanguageManythingsaboutlanguageareamysteryandmanywillalwaysremainso.Butsomethingswedoknow.Firstweknowthatallhumanbeingshavealanguageofsomesort.Thereisnoraceofmenanywhereonearthsobackwardthatithasnolanguagenosetofspeechsoundsbywhichthepeoplecommunicatewithoneanother.Furthermoreinhistoricaltimestherehasneverbeenaraceofmenwithoutalanguage.Secondthereisnosuchthingasaprimitivelanguage.Therearemanypeoplewhoseculturesareundevelopedwhoareaswesayuncivilizedbutthelanguagestheyspeakarenotprimitive.Inallknownlanguageswecanseecomplexitiesthatmusthavebeentensofthousandsofyearsindeveloping.Thishasnotalwaysbeenwellunderstood;indeedthedirectcontraryhasoftenbeenstated.PopularideasofthelanguageoftheAmericanIndianswillillustrate.ManypeoplehavesupposedthattheIndianscommunicatedinaveryprimitivesystemofnoises.Studyhasprovedthistobenonsense.ThereareorwerehundredsofAmericanIndianlanguagesandallofthemturnouttobeverycomplicatedandveryold.TheyarecertainlydifferentfromthelanguagesthatmostofusarefamiliarwithbuttheyarenomoreprimitivethanEnglishandGreek.Athirdthingweknowaboutlanguageisthatalllanguagesareperfectlyadequate.Thatiseachoneisaperfectmeansofexpressingthecultureofthepeoplewhospeakthelanguage.Finallyweknowthatlanguagechanges.Itisnaturalandnormalforlanguagetochange;theonlylanguageswhichdonotchangearethedeadones.Thisiseasytounderstandifwelookbackwardintime.Changegoesoninallaspectsoflanguage.Grammaticalfeatureschangeasdospeechsoundsandchangesinvocabularyaresometimesveryextensiveandmayoccurveryrapidly.Vocabularyistheleaststablepartofanylanguage.Inthesecondparagraphtheauthorthinksthat______.
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