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[A] International students have the same needs as local students and should be accorded equivalen...
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Thenumberofinternationalstudentsatcollegesandun
Home Countries of International Students in the US
Study Areas of International Students in the US
New Trends of International Students in the US
Backgrounds of International Students in the US
A.Internationalstudentshavethesameneedsaslocalstud
[A]Internationalstudentshavethesameneedsaslocal
[A]Internationalstudentshavethesameneedsaslocal
[A]Internationalstudentshavethesameneedsaslocal
[A]Internationalstudentshavethesameneedsaslocal
[A]Internationalstudentshavethesameneedsaslocal
[A]Internationalstudentshavethesameneedsaslocal
[A]Internationalstudentshavethesameneedsaslocal
[A]Internationalstudentshavethesameneedsaslocal
Thenumberofinternationalstudentsatcollegesandun
China, Vietnam, India, etc.
Iran, China, Saudi, Arabia, etc.
South Korea, China, Vietnam, etc.
South Korea, Vietnam, Venezuela, etc.
[A]Internationalstudentshavethesameneedsaslocal
[A]Internationalstudentshavethesameneedsaslocal
[A]Internationalstudentshavethesameneedsaslocal
[A]Internationalstudentshavethesameneedsaslocal
Internationalstudentsareallowedtoworkfortheunivers
Acollegeoruniversity’sinternationalstudentofficeis
college
colleges
student
students
[A]Internationalstudentshavethesameneedsaslocal
[A]Internationalstudentshavethesameneedsaslocal
[A]Internationalstudentshavethesameneedsaslocal
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MosttownsuptoElizabethantimesweresmallerthanamodernvillageandeachofthemwasbuiltarounditsweeklymarketwherelocalproducewasbroughtforsaleandthetownfolkssoldtheirworktothepeoplefromthecountrysideandprovidedthemwithrefreshmentfortheday.Tradewasvirtuallyconfinedtothatonedayeveninatownofathousandorsopeople.Onmarketdayscraftsmenputuptheirstallsintheopenairwhilstononeortwootherdaysduringtheweekthetownsmanwouldpackuphisloavesornailsorclothandsetoutearlytodoaday’stradeinthemarketofanadjoiningtownwherehoweverhewouldbechargedaheavytollfortheprivilegeandgetalessfavourablespotforhisstandthanthelocalcraftsmen.AnotherchanceforhimtomakeasalewastothecongregationgatheredforSundaymorningworship.Althoughnotradewasallowedanywhereduringthehoursoftheserviceexceptatannualfairtimesafterchurchtherewouldbesometradeatthechurchdoorwithdepartingcountryfolk. Thetradeofmarketswasalmostwhollyconcernedwithexchangingtheproductsofthenearbycountrysideandthegoodssoldinthemarketbutparticularlyinfoodretaildealingwasdistrustedasakindofprofiteering.Evenwhentherewasenoughtradebeingdonetoaffordalivelihoodtoanenterprisingmanreadytobuywholesaleandsellretailtownauthoritieswerereluctanttoallowit. Yettherewereplainlypeoplewhoweretemptedto“forestallthemarket”bybuyinggoodsoutsideitandto“regrate”themthatistoresellthematahigherprice.Theconstantlyrepeatedrulesagainstthesepracticesandtheendlesslyrecurringprosecutionsmentionedintherecordsofallthelargertownsprovethatsomewell-informedandsharp-wittedpeopledidthesethings. Everytownmadeitsownlawsandifitwasbigenoughtohavecraftguildstheseassociationswouldregulatethebusinessoftheirmembersandtriedtoenforceastrictmonopolyoftheirowntrades.Yetwhiletheguildleadersascraftsmenfollowedfiercelyprotectionistpoliciesatthesametimeasleadingtownsmentheywantedtoseeabigbusymarketyieldingahandsomerevenueinvariousduesandtolls.Conflictsofinterestledtoendlessminuteregulationschangeableofteninconsistentfrequentlyabsurd.TherewasatimeinthefourteenthcenturyforexamplewhenLondonfishmongerswerenotallowedtohandleanyfishthathadnotalreadybeenexposedforsaleforthreedaysbythemenwhocaughtit. Itissuggestedinthelastparagraphthatcraftguilds
Aconventionalteacher’slicenseeusuallyrequiresauniversitydegreeineducationplusanunpaidtermofpracticeteaching.Thishasnevermademuchsense.Itexcludesbrightstudentswhotakedegreesinothersubjectsandmightteachthosesubjects;itiscostlyandtime-consumingforcareer-switcherswhomustwaitayearormorebeforetheycanenteraclassroom;itissorigidthatprivate-schoolteachersoruniversityprofessorswithyearsofexperiencehavetojumpthroughhoopsbeforetheycanstartteachinginastateschool.Andthereisvirtuallynoevidencethatitcreatesbetterteachers.Forallthatitisstronglybackedbyschoolsofeducationwhichhaveamonopolyofteacher-trainingandbyteachers’unionswhosemembersmakemoremoneywhenitisartificiallyhardforotherstogetintotheprofession. Nowsome45statesandtheDistrictsofColumbiaofferan"alternativeroute"toateacher’slicenseeupfromonlyahandfulinthe1980s.AlternativecertificationACgenerallyallowsindividualswithauniversitydegreetobeginteachingimmediatelyafterpassinganentranceexamination.Theserecruitswatchedoverbyamentorteachthesubjecttheystudiedatuniversityandtakeeducationcoursesatasponsoringuniversitywhiledrawingtheirsalaries. ThetraditionalsortofAmericanteacherislikelytobeyoungwhiteandfemale.Alternativecertificationattractsmoremenandmorenon-whites.InTexasforinstanceroughly90%ofpublic-schoolteachersarewhitebut40%ofthosewhohavejoinedthroughalternativecertificationarenon-whites.TheACroutealsodrawsteacherswillingtogowheretheyaremostneeded.AsurveyofTroopstoTeachersaprogramthatturnsexsoldiersintopublic-schoolteachers"Proudtoserveagain"foundthat39%ofthosetakingpartarewillingtoteachininner-cityschoolsand68%inruralareas. AretheygoodteachersOfficialdomisreluctanttoreleasethedetailswhichmightanswerthatquestionforcertain.Butanecdotalevidencesuggeststheydowell.InNewJerseywhichhasbeenrunningthissortofprogramsince1984richdistrictswhichcanaffordtobechoosyconsistentlyhiremoreACteachersthanpoordistrictsdo.InHoustonTexaswheretheTeachofAmericaprogramTFAputsrecentuniversitygraduatesintopoorcommunitiesasteachersthemosteffectiveteachersaregenerallytheTFAones."Schoolprincipalsareourbiggestfans"WendyKoppTFA’spresidentsaysproudly. Sowhynotscrapthecumbersometeacher-licensinglawsFrederickHessaprofessorattheUniversityofVirginiahaswrittenapaperfortheProgressivePolicyInstitutearguingthatteacher-licensingoughttobestrippedtothebareessentials.Prospectiveteachersshouldberequiredonlytoholdacollegedegreepassatestofessentialskillsandbecheckedtomakesuretheydonothaveacriminalbackground.OthertrainingisimportantarguesMr.Hessbutthemarketnotstatelegislatorsshoulddecidewhatthattraininglookslike.Thisnotionof"competitivecertification"hasdrawnfavorableattentionfromtheBushadministration. WhichofthefollowingistrueofalternativecertificationAC
MosttownsuptoElizabethantimesweresmallerthanamodernvillageandeachofthemwasbuiltarounditsweeklymarketwherelocalproducewasbroughtforsaleandthetownfolkssoldtheirworktothepeoplefromthecountrysideandprovidedthemwithrefreshmentfortheday.Tradewasvirtuallyconfinedtothatonedayeveninatownofathousandorsopeople.Onmarketdayscraftsmenputuptheirstallsintheopenairwhilstononeortwootherdaysduringtheweekthetownsmanwouldpackuphisloavesornailsorclothandsetoutearlytodoaday’stradeinthemarketofanadjoiningtownwherehoweverhewouldbechargedaheavytollfortheprivilegeandgetalessfavourablespotforhisstandthanthelocalcraftsmen.AnotherchanceforhimtomakeasalewastothecongregationgatheredforSundaymorningworship.Althoughnotradewasallowedanywhereduringthehoursoftheserviceexceptatannualfairtimesafterchurchtherewouldbesometradeatthechurchdoorwithdepartingcountryfolk. Thetradeofmarketswasalmostwhollyconcernedwithexchangingtheproductsofthenearbycountrysideandthegoodssoldinthemarketbutparticularlyinfoodretaildealingwasdistrustedasakindofprofiteering.Evenwhentherewasenoughtradebeingdonetoaffordalivelihoodtoanenterprisingmanreadytobuywholesaleandsellretailtownauthoritieswerereluctanttoallowit. Yettherewereplainlypeoplewhoweretemptedto“forestallthemarket”bybuyinggoodsoutsideitandto“regrate”themthatistoresellthematahigherprice.Theconstantlyrepeatedrulesagainstthesepracticesandtheendlesslyrecurringprosecutionsmentionedintherecordsofallthelargertownsprovethatsomewell-informedandsharp-wittedpeopledidthesethings. Everytownmadeitsownlawsandifitwasbigenoughtohavecraftguildstheseassociationswouldregulatethebusinessoftheirmembersandtriedtoenforceastrictmonopolyoftheirowntrades.Yetwhiletheguildleadersascraftsmenfollowedfiercelyprotectionistpoliciesatthesametimeasleadingtownsmentheywantedtoseeabigbusymarketyieldingahandsomerevenueinvariousduesandtolls.Conflictsofinterestledtoendlessminuteregulationschangeableofteninconsistentfrequentlyabsurd.TherewasatimeinthefourteenthcenturyforexamplewhenLondonfishmongerswerenotallowedtohandleanyfishthathadnotalreadybeenexposedforsaleforthreedaysbythemenwhocaughtit. WeknowfromParagraph1thatcraftsmen
It’sallannualback-to-schoolroutine.Onemorningyouwavegoodbyeandthat1eveningyou’reburningthelate-nightoilinsympathy.Intheracetoimproveeducationalstandards2arethrowingthebooksatkids.3elementaryschoolstudentsarecomplainingofhomework4What’sawell-meaningparenttodo.Ashardas5mayhesitbackandchillexpertsadvise.Thoughyou’vegottogetthemtodoit6helpingtoomuchorevenexamining7toocarefullyyoumaykeepthem8doingitbythemselves."Iwouldn’tadviseaparenttocheckevery9assignment"sayspsychologistJohnRosemondauthorofEndingtheToughHomework."There’sa10ofappreciationfortrialanderror.Letyourchildren11thegradetheydeserve."Manyexpertsbelieveparentsshouldgentlylookovertheworkofyoungerchildrenandaskthemtorethinktheir12.But"youdon’twantthemtofeelithastobe13"shesays. That’snottosayparentsshould14homework-firsttheyshouldmonitorhowmuchhomeworktheirkids15.Thirtyminutesadayintheearlyelementaryyearsandanhourin16fourfiveandsixisstandardsaysRosemond.Forjunior-highstudentsitshouldbe"17morethananhourandahalf"andtwoforhighschoolstudents.Ifyourchild18hasmorehomeworkthanthisyoumaywanttocheck19otherparentsandthentalktotheteacherabout20assignments. 17
It’sallannualback-to-schoolroutine.Onemorningyouwavegoodbyeandthat1eveningyou’reburningthelate-nightoilinsympathy.Intheracetoimproveeducationalstandards2arethrowingthebooksatkids.3elementaryschoolstudentsarecomplainingofhomework4What’sawell-meaningparenttodo.Ashardas5mayhesitbackandchillexpertsadvise.Thoughyou’vegottogetthemtodoit6helpingtoomuchorevenexamining7toocarefullyyoumaykeepthem8doingitbythemselves."Iwouldn’tadviseaparenttocheckevery9assignment"sayspsychologistJohnRosemondauthorofEndingtheToughHomework."There’sa10ofappreciationfortrialanderror.Letyourchildren11thegradetheydeserve."Manyexpertsbelieveparentsshouldgentlylookovertheworkofyoungerchildrenandaskthemtorethinktheir12.But"youdon’twantthemtofeelithastobe13"shesays. That’snottosayparentsshould14homework-firsttheyshouldmonitorhowmuchhomeworktheirkids15.Thirtyminutesadayintheearlyelementaryyearsandanhourin16fourfiveandsixisstandardsaysRosemond.Forjunior-highstudentsitshouldbe"17morethananhourandahalf"andtwoforhighschoolstudents.Ifyourchild18hasmorehomeworkthanthisyoumaywanttocheck19otherparentsandthentalktotheteacherabout20assignments. 9
Aconventionalteacher’slicenseeusuallyrequiresauniversitydegreeineducationplusanunpaidtermofpracticeteaching.Thishasnevermademuchsense.Itexcludesbrightstudentswhotakedegreesinothersubjectsandmightteachthosesubjects;itiscostlyandtime-consumingforcareer-switcherswhomustwaitayearormorebeforetheycanenteraclassroom;itissorigidthatprivate-schoolteachersoruniversityprofessorswithyearsofexperiencehavetojumpthroughhoopsbeforetheycanstartteachinginastateschool.Andthereisvirtuallynoevidencethatitcreatesbetterteachers.Forallthatitisstronglybackedbyschoolsofeducationwhichhaveamonopolyofteacher-trainingandbyteachers’unionswhosemembersmakemoremoneywhenitisartificiallyhardforotherstogetintotheprofession. Nowsome45statesandtheDistrictsofColumbiaofferan"alternativeroute"toateacher’slicenseeupfromonlyahandfulinthe1980s.AlternativecertificationACgenerallyallowsindividualswithauniversitydegreetobeginteachingimmediatelyafterpassinganentranceexamination.Theserecruitswatchedoverbyamentorteachthesubjecttheystudiedatuniversityandtakeeducationcoursesatasponsoringuniversitywhiledrawingtheirsalaries. ThetraditionalsortofAmericanteacherislikelytobeyoungwhiteandfemale.Alternativecertificationattractsmoremenandmorenon-whites.InTexasforinstanceroughly90%ofpublic-schoolteachersarewhitebut40%ofthosewhohavejoinedthroughalternativecertificationarenon-whites.TheACroutealsodrawsteacherswillingtogowheretheyaremostneeded.AsurveyofTroopstoTeachersaprogramthatturnsexsoldiersintopublic-schoolteachers"Proudtoserveagain"foundthat39%ofthosetakingpartarewillingtoteachininner-cityschoolsand68%inruralareas. AretheygoodteachersOfficialdomisreluctanttoreleasethedetailswhichmightanswerthatquestionforcertain.Butanecdotalevidencesuggeststheydowell.InNewJerseywhichhasbeenrunningthissortofprogramsince1984richdistrictswhichcanaffordtobechoosyconsistentlyhiremoreACteachersthanpoordistrictsdo.InHoustonTexaswheretheTeachofAmericaprogramTFAputsrecentuniversitygraduatesintopoorcommunitiesasteachersthemosteffectiveteachersaregenerallytheTFAones."Schoolprincipalsareourbiggestfans"WendyKoppTFA’spresidentsaysproudly. Sowhynotscrapthecumbersometeacher-licensinglawsFrederickHessaprofessorattheUniversityofVirginiahaswrittenapaperfortheProgressivePolicyInstitutearguingthatteacher-licensingoughttobestrippedtothebareessentials.Prospectiveteachersshouldberequiredonlytoholdacollegedegreepassatestofessentialskillsandbecheckedtomakesuretheydonothaveacriminalbackground.OthertrainingisimportantarguesMr.Hessbutthemarketnotstatelegislatorsshoulddecidewhatthattraininglookslike.Thisnotionof"competitivecertification"hasdrawnfavorableattentionfromtheBushadministration. WhatdoestheexampleofNewJerseyPara.4illustrate
46Theclimaticphenomenonthatisbeingblamedforfloodshurricanesandearlysnowstormsalsodeservescreditforencouragingplantgrowthandhelpingtocontrolthepollutantlinkedtoglobalwarminganewstudyshows.E1Nino—theperiodicwarmingofeasternPacificOceanwaters—causesaburstofplantgrowththroughouttheworldandthisremovescarbondioxidefromtheatmosphereresearchershavefound.47ThenewstudyshowsthatnaturalweathereventssuchasthebriefwarmingcausedbyE1Ninohaveamuchmoredramaticeffectthanpreviouslybelievedonhowmuchcarbondioxideisabsorbedbyplantsandhowmuchofthegasisexpelledbythesoil.AtmosphericcarbondioxideorCO2hasbeenincreasingsteadilyfordecades.Thisisthoughttobecausedbyanexpandeduseoffossilfuelsandbytopplingoftropicalforests.ScientistshavelinkedtheCO2risetoglobalwarmingaphenomenonknownasthegreenhouseeffect.48Alarmednationsoftheworldnowaredrawingupnewconservationpoliciestoreducefossilfuelburninginhopesofreducinggreenhousegasesintheatmosphere.ButDavidSchimeloftheNationalCenterforAtmosphericResearchaco-authorofthenewstudysaysthatbeforedetermininghowmuchtoreducefossilfuelburningweshouldconsidertheeffectsofnaturalclimatevariationsontheabilityofplantstoabsorbCO2.SchimelsaidsatellitemeasurementsofCO2plantgrowthandtemperatureshowthatnaturalwarmingeventssuchasE1NinoatfirstcausemoreCO2tobereleasedintotheatmosphereprobablyastheresultofaccelerateddecayofdeadplantmatterinthesoil.Butlaterwithintwoyearsthereisanexplosionofgrowthinforestsandgrasslandswhichmeansplantssuckmorecarbondioxideoutoftheatmosphere.WethinkthatthereisadelayedresponseinvegetationandsoiltothewarmingeffectsofsuchphenomenaasE1NinoandthisleadstoincreasedplantgrowthsaidSchimel.49HoweverhesaiditisnotclearwhetherthewarmingbyE1NinocausesanetdecreaseinthebuildupofCO2overthelonghaul.Wedon’treallyknowthatyetsaidSchimel.WhatthestudydoesshowhoweveristhattheriseandfallofCO2intheatmosphereisstronglyinfluencedbynaturalchangesinglobaltemperaturesaidB.H.BraswelloftheUniversityofNewHampshireanotherco-authorofthestudy.Braswellsaidthatinyearswhentheglobalweatheriscoolerthannormalthereisadecreaseinboththedecayofdeadplantsandinnewplantgrowth.ThiscausesaneffectthatistheoppositeofE1Ninowarming:CO2atmospherelevelsfirstdeclineandlaterincrease.50IthinkwehavedemonstratedthattheecosystemhasalotmoretodowithclimatechangethanwaspreviouslybelievedsaidBraswellFocusingontheroleofhumanactivityinclimatechangeisimportantbutmanmadefactorsarenottheonlyfactors./
It’sallannualback-to-schoolroutine.Onemorningyouwavegoodbyeandthat1eveningyou’reburningthelate-nightoilinsympathy.Intheracetoimproveeducationalstandards2arethrowingthebooksatkids.3elementaryschoolstudentsarecomplainingofhomework4What’sawell-meaningparenttodo.Ashardas5mayhesitbackandchillexpertsadvise.Thoughyou’vegottogetthemtodoit6helpingtoomuchorevenexamining7toocarefullyyoumaykeepthem8doingitbythemselves."Iwouldn’tadviseaparenttocheckevery9assignment"sayspsychologistJohnRosemondauthorofEndingtheToughHomework."There’sa10ofappreciationfortrialanderror.Letyourchildren11thegradetheydeserve."Manyexpertsbelieveparentsshouldgentlylookovertheworkofyoungerchildrenandaskthemtorethinktheir12.But"youdon’twantthemtofeelithastobe13"shesays. That’snottosayparentsshould14homework-firsttheyshouldmonitorhowmuchhomeworktheirkids15.Thirtyminutesadayintheearlyelementaryyearsandanhourin16fourfiveandsixisstandardsaysRosemond.Forjunior-highstudentsitshouldbe"17morethananhourandahalf"andtwoforhighschoolstudents.Ifyourchild18hasmorehomeworkthanthisyoumaywanttocheck19otherparentsandthentalktotheteacherabout20assignments. 11
It’sallannualback-to-schoolroutine.Onemorningyouwavegoodbyeandthat1eveningyou’reburningthelate-nightoilinsympathy.Intheracetoimproveeducationalstandards2arethrowingthebooksatkids.3elementaryschoolstudentsarecomplainingofhomework4What’sawell-meaningparenttodo.Ashardas5mayhesitbackandchillexpertsadvise.Thoughyou’vegottogetthemtodoit6helpingtoomuchorevenexamining7toocarefullyyoumaykeepthem8doingitbythemselves."Iwouldn’tadviseaparenttocheckevery9assignment"sayspsychologistJohnRosemondauthorofEndingtheToughHomework."There’sa10ofappreciationfortrialanderror.Letyourchildren11thegradetheydeserve."Manyexpertsbelieveparentsshouldgentlylookovertheworkofyoungerchildrenandaskthemtorethinktheir12.But"youdon’twantthemtofeelithastobe13"shesays. That’snottosayparentsshould14homework-firsttheyshouldmonitorhowmuchhomeworktheirkids15.Thirtyminutesadayintheearlyelementaryyearsandanhourin16fourfiveandsixisstandardsaysRosemond.Forjunior-highstudentsitshouldbe"17morethananhourandahalf"andtwoforhighschoolstudents.Ifyourchild18hasmorehomeworkthanthisyoumaywanttocheck19otherparentsandthentalktotheteacherabout20assignments. 3
Directions: OneofyourfriendsWangTaoisgoingtopursuehisM.A.studiesatPrincetonUniversity.Hewillarrivethereonemonthbeforeregistration.WritealettertoyourfriendMarkGreenatthatuniversityto 1introduceWangTao 2askhimtohelpWangTaogetfamiliarwiththeuniversityandrentanapartmentthere. Donotsignyourownnameattheendoftheletter.Use"LiMing"instead. Donotwritetheaddress.
Ascientificviewoflanguagewasdominantamongphilosophersandlinguistswhoaffectedtodevelopascientificanalysisofhumanthoughtandbehaviorintheearlypartofthiscentury.Undertheforceofthisviewitwasperhapsinevitablethattheartofrhetoricshouldpassfromthestatusofbeingregardedasofquestionableworthbecausealthoughitmightbebothasourceofpleasureandameanstourgepeopletorightactionitmightalsobeameanstodistorttruthandasourceofmisguidedactiontothestatusofbeingwhollycondemned.47Ifpeopleareregardedonlyasmachinesguidedbylogicastheywerebythesescientificthinkersrhetoricislikelytobeheldinlowregardforthemostobvioustruthaboutrhetoricisthatitspeakstothewholeperson.Itpresentsitsargumentsfirsttothepersonasarationalbeingbecausepersuasivediscourseifhonestlyconceivedalwayshasabasisinreasoning.Logicalargumentistheplotasitwereofanyspeechoressaythatisrespectfullyintendedtopersuadepeople.48Yetitisacharacterizingfeatureofrhetoricthatgoesbeyondthisandappealstothepartsofournaturethatareinvolvedinfeelingdesiringactingandsuffering.Itrecallsrelevantinstancesoftheemotionalreactionsofpeopletocircumstances--realorfictional--thataresimilartoourowncircumstances.49Suchisthepurposeofbothhistoricalaccountsandfablesinpersuasivediscoursetheyindicateliterallyorsymbolicallyhowpeoplemayreactemotionallywithhopeorfeartoparticularcircumstances.Aspeechattemptingtopersuadepeoplecanachievelittleunlessittakesintoaccounttheaspectoftheirbeingrelatedtosuchhopesandfears.Rhetoricthenisaddressedtohumanbeingslivingatparticulartimesandinparticularplaces.Fromthepointofviewofrhetoricwearenotmerelylogicalthinkingmachinescreaturesabstractedfromtimeandspace.Thestudyofrhetoricshouldthereforebeconsideredthemosthumanisticofthehumanitiessincerhetoricisnotdirectedonlytoourrationalselves.Ittakesintoaccountwhatthescientificviewleavesout.Ifitisweaknesstoharborfeelingsthenrhetoricmaybethoughtofasdealinginweakness.50Butthosewhorejecttheideaofrhetoricbecausetheybelieveitdealsinliesandwhoatthesametimehopetomovepeopletoactionmusteitherbeliarsthemselvesorbeverynaive.Purelogichasneverbeenamotivatingforceunlessithasbeensubordinatedtohumanpurposesfeelingsanddesiresandtherebyceasedtobepurelogic.
[A]Convenientpackaging[B]Healthandwellness[C]Skepticalcustomers[D]Enormousmarkets[E]Soaringsales[F]TrendydrinkInthelast40yearsthebottledwaterindustryhasgonefromabusinessprospectthatfewtookseriouslytoaglobalindustryworthbillionsofpounds.Thecommodityitselfremainssimple.Thewaywethinkaboutithaschangedfundamentally.Waterisnaturalpureandsourcedatminimalcost.Itsrealvalueliesinitsmarketingandbranding.IthinkbottledwateristhemostrevealingsubstanceforshowingushowtheglobalcapitalistmarketworkstodaysaysRichardWilkprofessorofanthropologyatIndianaUniversity.Inasensewe’rebuyingchoicewe’rebuyingfreedom.That’stheonlythingthatcanexplainwhyyouwouldpaymoneyforabottleofsomethingthatyoucanotherwisegetforfree.41.______Throughaconfectionofadvertisingandmarketingbottledwaterhasbecomeoneofthebiggestsuccessstoriesinthemodernfoodandbeverageindustry.ThedemandforbottlewaterhasgrownexponentiallyinthelastfewdecadessaysDr.PeterGleickauthorofBottledandSold.It’sdoubledit’sdoubledagainandit’sdoubledagain.Andthebottlewatercompaniesseeenormousmarketsnotjustintherichcountriesbutalsointhepoorercountries.NoactualvarietySomepeoplethinkthatbottledwateristhehighpointofglobalcapitalismparticularlythepeopleinthebottledwaterbusiness.Ithinkbottledwateractuallyrepresentsakindofcaricatureoftheglobaleconomy.Itprovidespeopleinthedevelopedworldwith20or30varietiesofsomethingforwhichthereisnoactualvarietysaysCharlesFishmanauthorofTheBigThirst.42.______.Atthebeginningtherereallywasnovarietyandthebottledwaterphenomenonbeganwithonebrand.Perrier佩绿雅矿泉水品牌wasatriumphofadvertisingcreatingabrandthatwastodefineageneration.AttheheartofthecampaigntomakethebrandpopularwasRichardWheatleyoftheLeoBurnettadvertisingagencybetween1979and1994.Perrierpopularisedbottledwaterhesays.Itmadeitacceptablemorethanacceptableitmadeit...desirable.Butitwasnotaninstantsuccess.WhenPerrierUKwaslookingtoincreaseitssalesintheearly1970’sitfacedaskepticalpublic.Manyquestionedwhyanyonewouldbuywaterwhenyoucouldgetitfreefromthetap.43.______.FacedwithobstaclesPerrierturnedtoadvertisingwithacampaignthatwastochangeourconsumerlandscapeforever.Thecampaignwasamarketingcoupandsaleswentthroughtherooffrom12millionbottlesin1980to152millionbytheendofthedecade.Perrierwasnolongerjustabottleofwater.Themarketingandadvertisingteamshadestablishedacrucialemotionallinkbetweentheproductandtheconsumers.PerrierbecameabadgesaysMichaelBellaschairmanoftheBeverageMarketingCorporation.WhenyouheldaPerrierbottleupitsaidsomethingaboutyourselfitsaidyouweresophisticatedyouunderstoodwhatwashappeningintheworld.Itwasaperfectbeveragefortheyoungandcomingbusinessexecutivesthetrend-setters.44.______.Inanageofinstantgratificationstillwaterinportablebottlesprovidedwhatpeopleneededexactlywhentheyneededit.PeopleingeneralaremoreandmoretimepressedsaysMr.Fishman.Wedon’tcookourownmealsanymoreweeatpreparedfoodsofallkinds.Andthere’snothingmoreappealingthanabottleofcoldwateratamomentwhenyou’rereallythirsty.ButIthinkbottledwaterisoneofthoseproductsthatonmanyoccasionswhenpeoplebuyitwhatthey’rebuyingisn’tthewatersomuchasthebottle.Thatisthepackageandtheconvenienceatthatmoment.45.______.WhenpeopleboughtthisconveniencewhattheywerereallybuyingwasPolyethyleneTerephthalateorPETthesinglemostimportantinnovationintheindustry’shistory.StrongshatterproofandahighlyvaluedformofpolyesterPETisaby-productoftheoilindustry.Itisnowutilisedinthepackagingofeverythingfrompharmaceuticalsandsoaptoreadymeals.InyearstocometheenvironmentalimpactofPETwouldhaunttheindustryandraisequestionsaboutitsverysurvivalbutinthe1990sthiswasarevolution.AccordingtoMr.Bellasitwasbehindthesubsequentincrediblegrowthoftheindustry.StartingwiththeintroductionofthesmallpremiumPETwatersthecategorystartedtoexplodesaysMr.Bellas.ThebottledwaterindustrybeforePETonthelistofallbeveragecategorieswasnumberseven.WiththeadventofPETwaterjumpedtothenumbertwospotbehindcarbonatedsoftdrinks.Bybrandingandmarketingwaterbottledwaterhasbeentransformedfromsomethingthatmanyofustookforgrantedintoaproductthatnowmakesbillionsforglobalmultinationalcompanies.
Everythreemonthsfromthebeginningof2008saysCliffRichardwhowasonceBritain’sanswertoElvisPresleyIwillloseasong.ThereasonisthatinmostEuropeancountriescopyrightprotectiononsoundrecordingslastsfor50yearsandnowSirCliffrecordedhisfirsthitsingleMoveItin1958.41Oneofthebigfourmusicfirmsestimatesthatabout100mdeepcatalogueieoldalbumsnowsoldinEuropeeachyearwillhaveenteredthepublicdomainbytheendof2010.Assumingacurrentwholesalepriceof$10thatcouldjeopardise$1billionofrevenuesorabout3%ofannualrecordedmusicsales.42EvenoncemuchofthebackcataloguehasenteredthepublicdomainthebigmusicfirmscancarryonsellingitonCD.Theywillevenbenefitfromnothavingtopayanythingtotheartistortohisestate.Theywillinmanycasesstillowncopyrightontheoriginalcoverart.ButtheywillfacenewcompetitionfromahostofprovidersofCDswhomayundercutthem.Andontheinternetpublicdomainmusicislikelytobefreeasmuchofthecopyrightedstuffalreadyisonpeer-to-peernetworks.43Artistshaveralliedtothecause:U2StatusQuoandCharlesAznavourallwantthe50-yearlimitincreased.Manymoreactswillsignapetitionthisspring.SirCliffhasspenthourscomplainingtothecommissionthatcomposersofsongsgetcopyrightfor70yearsaftertheirdeath:morethanperformers.44ManypeoplebelievethatAmericahasgonetoofarinprotectingcopyrightattheexpenseofthepublicgoodincludingitseemsthecommissionwhichsaidlastyearthatitsawnoneedtoliftitsown50-yearlimit.Itsdeadlineforproposalsoncopyrightlawhasslippedfromthisyearto2006.Butgovernmentsarelikelytoweighinontheissue.FranceItalyandPortugalhaveindicatedthattheysupportanextensionofthetermandBritainislikelytostickupforitsownmusicmajorEMI.AlthoughartistsandtheirestateswantlongercopyrightthebigmusicfirmswouldbenefitfromitthemostespeciallyinthenextcoupleofdecadessaysStephenKingchairmanoftheAssociationofUnitedRecordingArtistsandmanageroftheLibertines.45Nowtheyhavewisedupaboutmakingdeals.Thebestguaranteeoffinancialsecurity--saferthanclingingontocopyright--ishiringagoodlawyerearlyon.[A]Heisunlikelytoproducesuchabighitinthenearfuturesomoreofhisattentionisdirectedtorevisingtheoldsongandsellingittomorepeople.[B]Backinthe1950shesaysperformersgotonlyone-tenthoftheshareofroyaltiesthattheydonow.Foryearsartistshavewithgoodreasonaccusedbigrecordlabelsofrippingthemoff.[C]ThismonthearlyrecordingsbyE1vishimselfstartedtoenterEurope’spublicdomain.OverthenextfewdecadesatorrentofthemostpopulartracksfromtheBeatlestheRollingStonesandmanyotherartistswillbecomepublicpropertyinEurope--tothepleasureoffansandtheconsternationofthemusicindustry.[D]ThemusicindustryalsopointsoutthatAmericagivesartistsalmosttwiceasmuchcopyrightprotectionasEurope.AmericahasrepeatedlylengthenedcopyrighttermswiththelatestreprievetheSonnyBonoCopyrightTermExtensionActof1998givingperformersprotectionfor95yearsafterpublication.[E]ButwhentheattentionisshiftedfromEuropetoAmericaartistsshouldfeelmuchbetterbecausethelengthofcopyrightprotectionthereisevenshorter.ItseemsthattheAmericangovernmentismoreinterestedinservingthepublicthanthealreadyveryrichartists.[F]MusicexecutiveswanttheEuropeanCommissiontoprotectthemfromsuchunwelcomecompetitionbyextendingthecopyrightterm.[G]Andthatestimateaccountsonlyforsongsuptotheendofthe1950s.Farmorewillbeatriskasmusicfromthe1960sand1970smovesoutofcopyright.
[A]Convenientpackaging[B]Healthandwellness[C]Skepticalcustomers[D]Enormousmarkets[E]Soaringsales[F]TrendydrinkInthelast40yearsthebottledwaterindustryhasgonefromabusinessprospectthatfewtookseriouslytoaglobalindustryworthbillionsofpounds.Thecommodityitselfremainssimple.Thewaywethinkaboutithaschangedfundamentally.Waterisnaturalpureandsourcedatminimalcost.Itsrealvalueliesinitsmarketingandbranding.IthinkbottledwateristhemostrevealingsubstanceforshowingushowtheglobalcapitalistmarketworkstodaysaysRichardWilkprofessorofanthropologyatIndianaUniversity.Inasensewe’rebuyingchoicewe’rebuyingfreedom.That’stheonlythingthatcanexplainwhyyouwouldpaymoneyforabottleofsomethingthatyoucanotherwisegetforfree.41.______Throughaconfectionofadvertisingandmarketingbottledwaterhasbecomeoneofthebiggestsuccessstoriesinthemodernfoodandbeverageindustry.ThedemandforbottlewaterhasgrownexponentiallyinthelastfewdecadessaysDr.PeterGleickauthorofBottledandSold.It’sdoubledit’sdoubledagainandit’sdoubledagain.Andthebottlewatercompaniesseeenormousmarketsnotjustintherichcountriesbutalsointhepoorercountries.NoactualvarietySomepeoplethinkthatbottledwateristhehighpointofglobalcapitalismparticularlythepeopleinthebottledwaterbusiness.Ithinkbottledwateractuallyrepresentsakindofcaricatureoftheglobaleconomy.Itprovidespeopleinthedevelopedworldwith20or30varietiesofsomethingforwhichthereisnoactualvarietysaysCharlesFishmanauthorofTheBigThirst.42.______.Atthebeginningtherereallywasnovarietyandthebottledwaterphenomenonbeganwithonebrand.Perrier佩绿雅矿泉水品牌wasatriumphofadvertisingcreatingabrandthatwastodefineageneration.AttheheartofthecampaigntomakethebrandpopularwasRichardWheatleyoftheLeoBurnettadvertisingagencybetween1979and1994.Perrierpopularisedbottledwaterhesays.Itmadeitacceptablemorethanacceptableitmadeit...desirable.Butitwasnotaninstantsuccess.WhenPerrierUKwaslookingtoincreaseitssalesintheearly1970’sitfacedaskepticalpublic.Manyquestionedwhyanyonewouldbuywaterwhenyoucouldgetitfreefromthetap.43.______.FacedwithobstaclesPerrierturnedtoadvertisingwithacampaignthatwastochangeourconsumerlandscapeforever.Thecampaignwasamarketingcoupandsaleswentthroughtherooffrom12millionbottlesin1980to152millionbytheendofthedecade.Perrierwasnolongerjustabottleofwater.Themarketingandadvertisingteamshadestablishedacrucialemotionallinkbetweentheproductandtheconsumers.PerrierbecameabadgesaysMichaelBellaschairmanoftheBeverageMarketingCorporation.WhenyouheldaPerrierbottleupitsaidsomethingaboutyourselfitsaidyouweresophisticatedyouunderstoodwhatwashappeningintheworld.Itwasaperfectbeveragefortheyoungandcomingbusinessexecutivesthetrend-setters.44.______.Inanageofinstantgratificationstillwaterinportablebottlesprovidedwhatpeopleneededexactlywhentheyneededit.PeopleingeneralaremoreandmoretimepressedsaysMr.Fishman.Wedon’tcookourownmealsanymoreweeatpreparedfoodsofallkinds.Andthere’snothingmoreappealingthanabottleofcoldwateratamomentwhenyou’rereallythirsty.ButIthinkbottledwaterisoneofthoseproductsthatonmanyoccasionswhenpeoplebuyitwhatthey’rebuyingisn’tthewatersomuchasthebottle.Thatisthepackageandtheconvenienceatthatmoment.45.______.WhenpeopleboughtthisconveniencewhattheywerereallybuyingwasPolyethyleneTerephthalateorPETthesinglemostimportantinnovationintheindustry’shistory.StrongshatterproofandahighlyvaluedformofpolyesterPETisaby-productoftheoilindustry.Itisnowutilisedinthepackagingofeverythingfrompharmaceuticalsandsoaptoreadymeals.InyearstocometheenvironmentalimpactofPETwouldhaunttheindustryandraisequestionsaboutitsverysurvivalbutinthe1990sthiswasarevolution.AccordingtoMr.Bellasitwasbehindthesubsequentincrediblegrowthoftheindustry.StartingwiththeintroductionofthesmallpremiumPETwatersthecategorystartedtoexplodesaysMr.Bellas.ThebottledwaterindustrybeforePETonthelistofallbeveragecategorieswasnumberseven.WiththeadventofPETwaterjumpedtothenumbertwospotbehindcarbonatedsoftdrinks.Bybrandingandmarketingwaterbottledwaterhasbeentransformedfromsomethingthatmanyofustookforgrantedintoaproductthatnowmakesbillionsforglobalmultinationalcompanies.
It’sallannualback-to-schoolroutine.Onemorningyouwavegoodbyeandthat1eveningyou’reburningthelate-nightoilinsympathy.Intheracetoimproveeducationalstandards2arethrowingthebooksatkids.3elementaryschoolstudentsarecomplainingofhomework4What’sawell-meaningparenttodo.Ashardas5mayhesitbackandchillexpertsadvise.Thoughyou’vegottogetthemtodoit6helpingtoomuchorevenexamining7toocarefullyyoumaykeepthem8doingitbythemselves."Iwouldn’tadviseaparenttocheckevery9assignment"sayspsychologistJohnRosemondauthorofEndingtheToughHomework."There’sa10ofappreciationfortrialanderror.Letyourchildren11thegradetheydeserve."Manyexpertsbelieveparentsshouldgentlylookovertheworkofyoungerchildrenandaskthemtorethinktheir12.But"youdon’twantthemtofeelithastobe13"shesays. That’snottosayparentsshould14homework-firsttheyshouldmonitorhowmuchhomeworktheirkids15.Thirtyminutesadayintheearlyelementaryyearsandanhourin16fourfiveandsixisstandardsaysRosemond.Forjunior-highstudentsitshouldbe"17morethananhourandahalf"andtwoforhighschoolstudents.Ifyourchild18hasmorehomeworkthanthisyoumaywanttocheck19otherparentsandthentalktotheteacherabout20assignments. 19
It’sallannualback-to-schoolroutine.Onemorningyouwavegoodbyeandthat1eveningyou’reburningthelate-nightoilinsympathy.Intheracetoimproveeducationalstandards2arethrowingthebooksatkids.3elementaryschoolstudentsarecomplainingofhomework4What’sawell-meaningparenttodo.Ashardas5mayhesitbackandchillexpertsadvise.Thoughyou’vegottogetthemtodoit6helpingtoomuchorevenexamining7toocarefullyyoumaykeepthem8doingitbythemselves."Iwouldn’tadviseaparenttocheckevery9assignment"sayspsychologistJohnRosemondauthorofEndingtheToughHomework."There’sa10ofappreciationfortrialanderror.Letyourchildren11thegradetheydeserve."Manyexpertsbelieveparentsshouldgentlylookovertheworkofyoungerchildrenandaskthemtorethinktheir12.But"youdon’twantthemtofeelithastobe13"shesays. That’snottosayparentsshould14homework-firsttheyshouldmonitorhowmuchhomeworktheirkids15.Thirtyminutesadayintheearlyelementaryyearsandanhourin16fourfiveandsixisstandardsaysRosemond.Forjunior-highstudentsitshouldbe"17morethananhourandahalf"andtwoforhighschoolstudents.Ifyourchild18hasmorehomeworkthanthisyoumaywanttocheck19otherparentsandthentalktotheteacherabout20assignments. 7
In2010afederaljudgeshookAmerica’sbiotechindustrytoitscore.CompanieshadwonpatentsforisolatedDNAfordecades—by2005some20%ofhumangeneswereparented.ButinMarch2010ajudgeruledthatgeneswereunpatentable.Executiveswereviolentlyagitated.TheBiotechnologyIndustryOrganisationBIOatradegroupassuredmembersthatthiswasjusta"preliminarystep"inalongerbattle. OnJuly29ththeywererelievedatleasttemporarily.AfederalappealscourtoverturnedthepriordecisionrulingthatMyriadGeneticscouldindeedholbpatentstotwogenesthathelpforecastawoman’sriskofbreastcancer.ThechiefexecutiveofMyriadacompanyinUtahsaidtherulingwasablessingtofirmsandpatientsalike. Butascompaniescontinuetheirattemptsatpersonalisedmedicinethecourtswillremainratherbusy.TheMyriadcaseitselfisprobablynotoverCriticsmakethreemainargumentsagainstgenepatents:ageneisaproductofnaturesoitmaynotbepatented;genepatentssuppressinnovationratherthanrewardit;andpatents’monopoliesrestrictaccesstogenetictestssuchasMyriad’s.Agrowingnumberseemtoagree.Lastyearafederaltask-forceurgedreformforpatentsrelatedtogenetictests.InOctobertheDepartmentofJusticefiledabriefintheMyriadcasearguingthatanisolatedDNAmolecule"isnolessaproductofnature..thanarecottonfibresthathavebeenseparatedfromcottonseeds." Despitetheappealscourt’sdecisionbigquestionsremainunanswered.Forexampleitisunclearwhetherthesequencingofawholegenomeviolatesthepatentsofindividualgeneswithinit.ThecasemayyetreachtheSupremeCourt. Astheindustryadvanceshoweverothersuitsmayhaveanevengreaterimpact.CompaniesareunlikelytofilemanymorepatentsforhumanDNAmoleculesImostarealreadypatentedorinthepublicdomain.Firmsarenowstudyinghowgenesinteractlookingforcorrelationsthatmightbeusedtodeterminethecausesofdiseaseorpredictadrug’sefficacycompaniesareeagertowinpatentsfor’connectingthedits’explainsHansSaueralawyerfortheBIO. TheirsuccessmaybedeterminedbyasuitrelatedtothisissuebroughtbytheMayoClinicwhichtheSupremeCourtwillhearinitsnextterm.TheBIOrecentlyheldaconventionwhichincludedseddionstocoachlawyersontheshiftinglandscapeforpatents.Eachmeetingwaspacked. AccordingtoHansSauercompaniesareeagertowinpatentsfor
In2010afederaljudgeshookAmerica’sbiotechindustrytoitscore.CompanieshadwonpatentsforisolatedDNAfordecades—by2005some20%ofhumangeneswereparented.ButinMarch2010ajudgeruledthatgeneswereunpatentable.Executiveswereviolentlyagitated.TheBiotechnologyIndustryOrganisationBIOatradegroupassuredmembersthatthiswasjusta"preliminarystep"inalongerbattle. OnJuly29ththeywererelievedatleasttemporarily.AfederalappealscourtoverturnedthepriordecisionrulingthatMyriadGeneticscouldindeedholbpatentstotwogenesthathelpforecastawoman’sriskofbreastcancer.ThechiefexecutiveofMyriadacompanyinUtahsaidtherulingwasablessingtofirmsandpatientsalike. Butascompaniescontinuetheirattemptsatpersonalisedmedicinethecourtswillremainratherbusy.TheMyriadcaseitselfisprobablynotoverCriticsmakethreemainargumentsagainstgenepatents:ageneisaproductofnaturesoitmaynotbepatented;genepatentssuppressinnovationratherthanrewardit;andpatents’monopoliesrestrictaccesstogenetictestssuchasMyriad’s.Agrowingnumberseemtoagree.Lastyearafederaltask-forceurgedreformforpatentsrelatedtogenetictests.InOctobertheDepartmentofJusticefiledabriefintheMyriadcasearguingthatanisolatedDNAmolecule"isnolessaproductofnature..thanarecottonfibresthathavebeenseparatedfromcottonseeds." Despitetheappealscourt’sdecisionbigquestionsremainunanswered.Forexampleitisunclearwhetherthesequencingofawholegenomeviolatesthepatentsofindividualgeneswithinit.ThecasemayyetreachtheSupremeCourt. Astheindustryadvanceshoweverothersuitsmayhaveanevengreaterimpact.CompaniesareunlikelytofilemanymorepatentsforhumanDNAmoleculesImostarealreadypatentedorinthepublicdomain.Firmsarenowstudyinghowgenesinteractlookingforcorrelationsthatmightbeusedtodeterminethecausesofdiseaseorpredictadrug’sefficacycompaniesareeagertowinpatentsfor’connectingthedits’explainsHansSaueralawyerfortheBIO. TheirsuccessmaybedeterminedbyasuitrelatedtothisissuebroughtbytheMayoClinicwhichtheSupremeCourtwillhearinitsnextterm.TheBIOrecentlyheldaconventionwhichincludedseddionstocoachlawyersontheshiftinglandscapeforpatents.Eachmeetingwaspacked. ItcanbelearnedfromParagraphIthatthebiotechcompanieswouldlike
ThesuddendramaticexplosioninvalueofonlinesocialmediasiteslikeFacebookandTwitterisreminiscentoftheriseabout15yearsagooftheonlinebusinessesthatcreatedthe"dotcombubble."TheInternetwasfarlesswidelyusedthanitistoday.StillvisionariessawthepotentialfortheInternetwehavetodaysovirtualcompaniessprungupandgrewlikeweedsasinvestorsthrewmoneytheirway.SomelikeGoogleandAmazondevelopedanenduringonlinepresenceandlastingfinancialvalue.Butfartoomanyquicklylostvaluewhenitbecameapparentthattheirrapidgrowthwasn’tyieldingrevenue. SohowmuchisFacebook’snetworkofusersreallyworthThepotentialisclear—whensomanypeoplearegatheredinonevirtualplaceofferingsomuchpersonalinformationaboutthemselvestheycreateanunprecedentedplatformfortargetedadvertising.Ortheywouldiftheywereonthenetworktoshop.WheneBayandAmazonsuggestproductstotheircustomersthey’retalkingtopeoplewho’vealreadyproventhatthey’reinterestedinbuyingsimilarproducts.PeoplegoonFacebookforavarietyofreasons-tocatchupwitholdfriendssharepicturesmakenewacquaintancesandtalksometimesendlesslyaboutthemselves.Whetherthey’llappreciatehavingtheirvirtualconversationsinterruptedbyadvertisingtargetedornotremainsunclear. It’salsounclearwhetherFacebookwillactuallybeabletoshareinformationaboutitsusers’browsinghabitswithadvertisers.ComplaintsabouttheineffectivenessofFacebook’sprivacypolicieshaveariseninmultiplecountriespartofalargersocialconcernabouthowprivateinformationgetsusedonline.InDecembertheFederalTradeCommissionissuedaproposedframeworkthatamongotherthingswouldpermitFacebookuserstoblockadvertisersfromaccessinginformationabouttheironlineinterests.IfthatframeworkisimplementedandwidelyusedbyFacebooksubscribersitcouldseriouslyimpairthesite’svalueasapotentialplatformfortargetedmarketing. WhatisclearisthatGoldmanSachshasasignificantinterestinFacebook’sfinancialvalueatleastfortheshortterm.GoldmanSachs’decisiontoinvestheavilyinFacebookhashadsomeinterestingimpacts.ForonethingtheinvestmenthasallowedFacebookanopportunitytopostponeissuinganIPO.ThatmeansthatatleastforthemomentFacebookdoesn’tyethavetodiscloseitsfinancesorpubliclyaddressinvestorcomplaints. GoldmanSachs’investmentalsoputsthefirminanidealpositiontohandleFacebook’sIPOwheniteventuallyisissuedperhapssometimenextyear.ThatofcoursehasthepotentialtogeneratesubstantialrevenuesforGoldmanSachs’clients.Google’s2004IPOraisedaninitial$1.2billionforthecompany.AfterallthepropagandaFacebook’sIPOcanhardlybeexpectedtoraiseless.HoweverthereremainsasignificantquestionastowhetherFacebook’spotentialforgeneratingincomeismorevirtualthanreal.IfitturnsoutthatFacebookcan’tliveuptoitspotentialforgeneratingadvertisingrevenueventurecapitalistswhoinvestforthelongtermmaygetburned. CompanieslikeAmazonandFacebookearntheirmoneyby
It’sallannualback-to-schoolroutine.Onemorningyouwavegoodbyeandthat1eveningyou’reburningthelate-nightoilinsympathy.Intheracetoimproveeducationalstandards2arethrowingthebooksatkids.3elementaryschoolstudentsarecomplainingofhomework4What’sawell-meaningparenttodo.Ashardas5mayhesitbackandchillexpertsadvise.Thoughyou’vegottogetthemtodoit6helpingtoomuchorevenexamining7toocarefullyyoumaykeepthem8doingitbythemselves."Iwouldn’tadviseaparenttocheckevery9assignment"sayspsychologistJohnRosemondauthorofEndingtheToughHomework."There’sa10ofappreciationfortrialanderror.Letyourchildren11thegradetheydeserve."Manyexpertsbelieveparentsshouldgentlylookovertheworkofyoungerchildrenandaskthemtorethinktheir12.But"youdon’twantthemtofeelithastobe13"shesays. That’snottosayparentsshould14homework-firsttheyshouldmonitorhowmuchhomeworktheirkids15.Thirtyminutesadayintheearlyelementaryyearsandanhourin16fourfiveandsixisstandardsaysRosemond.Forjunior-highstudentsitshouldbe"17morethananhourandahalf"andtwoforhighschoolstudents.Ifyourchild18hasmorehomeworkthanthisyoumaywanttocheck19otherparentsandthentalktotheteacherabout20assignments. 13
It’sallannualback-to-schoolroutine.Onemorningyouwavegoodbyeandthat1eveningyou’reburningthelate-nightoilinsympathy.Intheracetoimproveeducationalstandards2arethrowingthebooksatkids.3elementaryschoolstudentsarecomplainingofhomework4What’sawell-meaningparenttodo.Ashardas5mayhesitbackandchillexpertsadvise.Thoughyou’vegottogetthemtodoit6helpingtoomuchorevenexamining7toocarefullyyoumaykeepthem8doingitbythemselves."Iwouldn’tadviseaparenttocheckevery9assignment"sayspsychologistJohnRosemondauthorofEndingtheToughHomework."There’sa10ofappreciationfortrialanderror.Letyourchildren11thegradetheydeserve."Manyexpertsbelieveparentsshouldgentlylookovertheworkofyoungerchildrenandaskthemtorethinktheir12.But"youdon’twantthemtofeelithastobe13"shesays. That’snottosayparentsshould14homework-firsttheyshouldmonitorhowmuchhomeworktheirkids15.Thirtyminutesadayintheearlyelementaryyearsandanhourin16fourfiveandsixisstandardsaysRosemond.Forjunior-highstudentsitshouldbe"17morethananhourandahalf"andtwoforhighschoolstudents.Ifyourchild18hasmorehomeworkthanthisyoumaywanttocheck19otherparentsandthentalktotheteacherabout20assignments. 1
In2010afederaljudgeshookAmerica’sbiotechindustrytoitscore.CompanieshadwonpatentsforisolatedDNAfordecades—by2005some20%ofhumangeneswereparented.ButinMarch2010ajudgeruledthatgeneswereunpatentable.Executiveswereviolentlyagitated.TheBiotechnologyIndustryOrganisationBIOatradegroupassuredmembersthatthiswasjusta"preliminarystep"inalongerbattle. OnJuly29ththeywererelievedatleasttemporarily.AfederalappealscourtoverturnedthepriordecisionrulingthatMyriadGeneticscouldindeedholbpatentstotwogenesthathelpforecastawoman’sriskofbreastcancer.ThechiefexecutiveofMyriadacompanyinUtahsaidtherulingwasablessingtofirmsandpatientsalike. Butascompaniescontinuetheirattemptsatpersonalisedmedicinethecourtswillremainratherbusy.TheMyriadcaseitselfisprobablynotoverCriticsmakethreemainargumentsagainstgenepatents:ageneisaproductofnaturesoitmaynotbepatented;genepatentssuppressinnovationratherthanrewardit;andpatents’monopoliesrestrictaccesstogenetictestssuchasMyriad’s.Agrowingnumberseemtoagree.Lastyearafederaltask-forceurgedreformforpatentsrelatedtogenetictests.InOctobertheDepartmentofJusticefiledabriefintheMyriadcasearguingthatanisolatedDNAmolecule"isnolessaproductofnature..thanarecottonfibresthathavebeenseparatedfromcottonseeds." Despitetheappealscourt’sdecisionbigquestionsremainunanswered.Forexampleitisunclearwhetherthesequencingofawholegenomeviolatesthepatentsofindividualgeneswithinit.ThecasemayyetreachtheSupremeCourt. Astheindustryadvanceshoweverothersuitsmayhaveanevengreaterimpact.CompaniesareunlikelytofilemanymorepatentsforhumanDNAmoleculesImostarealreadypatentedorinthepublicdomain.Firmsarenowstudyinghowgenesinteractlookingforcorrelationsthatmightbeusedtodeterminethecausesofdiseaseorpredictadrug’sefficacycompaniesareeagertowinpatentsfor’connectingthedits’explainsHansSaueralawyerfortheBIO. TheirsuccessmaybedeterminedbyasuitrelatedtothisissuebroughtbytheMayoClinicwhichtheSupremeCourtwillhearinitsnextterm.TheBIOrecentlyheldaconventionwhichincludedseddionstocoachlawyersontheshiftinglandscapeforpatents.Eachmeetingwaspacked. Generallyspeakingtheauthor’sattitudetowardgenepatentingis
Ascientificviewoflanguagewasdominantamongphilosophersandlinguistswhoaffectedtodevelopascientificanalysisofhumanthoughtandbehaviorintheearlypartofthiscentury.Undertheforceofthisviewitwasperhapsinevitablethattheartofrhetoricshouldpassfromthestatusofbeingregardedasofquestionableworthbecausealthoughitmightbebothasourceofpleasureandameanstourgepeopletorightactionitmightalsobeameanstodistorttruthandasourceofmisguidedactiontothestatusofbeingwhollycondemned.47Ifpeopleareregardedonlyasmachinesguidedbylogicastheywerebythesescientificthinkersrhetoricislikelytobeheldinlowregardforthemostobvioustruthaboutrhetoricisthatitspeakstothewholeperson.Itpresentsitsargumentsfirsttothepersonasarationalbeingbecausepersuasivediscourseifhonestlyconceivedalwayshasabasisinreasoning.Logicalargumentistheplotasitwereofanyspeechoressaythatisrespectfullyintendedtopersuadepeople.48Yetitisacharacterizingfeatureofrhetoricthatgoesbeyondthisandappealstothepartsofournaturethatareinvolvedinfeelingdesiringactingandsuffering.Itrecallsrelevantinstancesoftheemotionalreactionsofpeopletocircumstances--realorfictional--thataresimilartoourowncircumstances.49Suchisthepurposeofbothhistoricalaccountsandfablesinpersuasivediscoursetheyindicateliterallyorsymbolicallyhowpeoplemayreactemotionallywithhopeorfeartoparticularcircumstances.Aspeechattemptingtopersuadepeoplecanachievelittleunlessittakesintoaccounttheaspectoftheirbeingrelatedtosuchhopesandfears.Rhetoricthenisaddressedtohumanbeingslivingatparticulartimesandinparticularplaces.Fromthepointofviewofrhetoricwearenotmerelylogicalthinkingmachinescreaturesabstractedfromtimeandspace.Thestudyofrhetoricshouldthereforebeconsideredthemosthumanisticofthehumanitiessincerhetoricisnotdirectedonlytoourrationalselves.Ittakesintoaccountwhatthescientificviewleavesout.Ifitisweaknesstoharborfeelingsthenrhetoricmaybethoughtofasdealinginweakness.50Butthosewhorejecttheideaofrhetoricbecausetheybelieveitdealsinliesandwhoatthesametimehopetomovepeopletoactionmusteitherbeliarsthemselvesorbeverynaive.Purelogichasneverbeenamotivatingforceunlessithasbeensubordinatedtohumanpurposesfeelingsanddesiresandtherebyceasedtobepurelogic.
Everythreemonthsfromthebeginningof2008saysCliffRichardwhowasonceBritain’sanswertoElvisPresleyIwillloseasong.ThereasonisthatinmostEuropeancountriescopyrightprotectiononsoundrecordingslastsfor50yearsandnowSirCliffrecordedhisfirsthitsingleMoveItin1958.41Oneofthebigfourmusicfirmsestimatesthatabout100mdeepcatalogueieoldalbumsnowsoldinEuropeeachyearwillhaveenteredthepublicdomainbytheendof2010.Assumingacurrentwholesalepriceof$10thatcouldjeopardise$1billionofrevenuesorabout3%ofannualrecordedmusicsales.42EvenoncemuchofthebackcataloguehasenteredthepublicdomainthebigmusicfirmscancarryonsellingitonCD.Theywillevenbenefitfromnothavingtopayanythingtotheartistortohisestate.Theywillinmanycasesstillowncopyrightontheoriginalcoverart.ButtheywillfacenewcompetitionfromahostofprovidersofCDswhomayundercutthem.Andontheinternetpublicdomainmusicislikelytobefreeasmuchofthecopyrightedstuffalreadyisonpeer-to-peernetworks.43Artistshaveralliedtothecause:U2StatusQuoandCharlesAznavourallwantthe50-yearlimitincreased.Manymoreactswillsignapetitionthisspring.SirCliffhasspenthourscomplainingtothecommissionthatcomposersofsongsgetcopyrightfor70yearsaftertheirdeath:morethanperformers.44ManypeoplebelievethatAmericahasgonetoofarinprotectingcopyrightattheexpenseofthepublicgoodincludingitseemsthecommissionwhichsaidlastyearthatitsawnoneedtoliftitsown50-yearlimit.Itsdeadlineforproposalsoncopyrightlawhasslippedfromthisyearto2006.Butgovernmentsarelikelytoweighinontheissue.FranceItalyandPortugalhaveindicatedthattheysupportanextensionofthetermandBritainislikelytostickupforitsownmusicmajorEMI.AlthoughartistsandtheirestateswantlongercopyrightthebigmusicfirmswouldbenefitfromitthemostespeciallyinthenextcoupleofdecadessaysStephenKingchairmanoftheAssociationofUnitedRecordingArtistsandmanageroftheLibertines.45Nowtheyhavewisedupaboutmakingdeals.Thebestguaranteeoffinancialsecurity--saferthanclingingontocopyright--ishiringagoodlawyerearlyon.[A]Heisunlikelytoproducesuchabighitinthenearfuturesomoreofhisattentionisdirectedtorevisingtheoldsongandsellingittomorepeople.[B]Backinthe1950shesaysperformersgotonlyone-tenthoftheshareofroyaltiesthattheydonow.Foryearsartistshavewithgoodreasonaccusedbigrecordlabelsofrippingthemoff.[C]ThismonthearlyrecordingsbyE1vishimselfstartedtoenterEurope’spublicdomain.OverthenextfewdecadesatorrentofthemostpopulartracksfromtheBeatlestheRollingStonesandmanyotherartistswillbecomepublicpropertyinEurope--tothepleasureoffansandtheconsternationofthemusicindustry.[D]ThemusicindustryalsopointsoutthatAmericagivesartistsalmosttwiceasmuchcopyrightprotectionasEurope.AmericahasrepeatedlylengthenedcopyrighttermswiththelatestreprievetheSonnyBonoCopyrightTermExtensionActof1998givingperformersprotectionfor95yearsafterpublication.[E]ButwhentheattentionisshiftedfromEuropetoAmericaartistsshouldfeelmuchbetterbecausethelengthofcopyrightprotectionthereisevenshorter.ItseemsthattheAmericangovernmentismoreinterestedinservingthepublicthanthealreadyveryrichartists.[F]MusicexecutiveswanttheEuropeanCommissiontoprotectthemfromsuchunwelcomecompetitionbyextendingthecopyrightterm.[G]Andthatestimateaccountsonlyforsongsuptotheendofthe1950s.Farmorewillbeatriskasmusicfromthe1960sand1970smovesoutofcopyright.
It’sallannualback-to-schoolroutine.Onemorningyouwavegoodbyeandthat1eveningyou’reburningthelate-nightoilinsympathy.Intheracetoimproveeducationalstandards2arethrowingthebooksatkids.3elementaryschoolstudentsarecomplainingofhomework4What’sawell-meaningparenttodo.Ashardas5mayhesitbackandchillexpertsadvise.Thoughyou’vegottogetthemtodoit6helpingtoomuchorevenexamining7toocarefullyyoumaykeepthem8doingitbythemselves."Iwouldn’tadviseaparenttocheckevery9assignment"sayspsychologistJohnRosemondauthorofEndingtheToughHomework."There’sa10ofappreciationfortrialanderror.Letyourchildren11thegradetheydeserve."Manyexpertsbelieveparentsshouldgentlylookovertheworkofyoungerchildrenandaskthemtorethinktheir12.But"youdon’twantthemtofeelithastobe13"shesays. That’snottosayparentsshould14homework-firsttheyshouldmonitorhowmuchhomeworktheirkids15.Thirtyminutesadayintheearlyelementaryyearsandanhourin16fourfiveandsixisstandardsaysRosemond.Forjunior-highstudentsitshouldbe"17morethananhourandahalf"andtwoforhighschoolstudents.Ifyourchild18hasmorehomeworkthanthisyoumaywanttocheck19otherparentsandthentalktotheteacherabout20assignments. 15
It’sallannualback-to-schoolroutine.Onemorningyouwavegoodbyeandthat1eveningyou’reburningthelate-nightoilinsympathy.Intheracetoimproveeducationalstandards2arethrowingthebooksatkids.3elementaryschoolstudentsarecomplainingofhomework4What’sawell-meaningparenttodo.Ashardas5mayhesitbackandchillexpertsadvise.Thoughyou’vegottogetthemtodoit6helpingtoomuchorevenexamining7toocarefullyyoumaykeepthem8doingitbythemselves."Iwouldn’tadviseaparenttocheckevery9assignment"sayspsychologistJohnRosemondauthorofEndingtheToughHomework."There’sa10ofappreciationfortrialanderror.Letyourchildren11thegradetheydeserve."Manyexpertsbelieveparentsshouldgentlylookovertheworkofyoungerchildrenandaskthemtorethinktheir12.But"youdon’twantthemtofeelithastobe13"shesays. That’snottosayparentsshould14homework-firsttheyshouldmonitorhowmuchhomeworktheirkids15.Thirtyminutesadayintheearlyelementaryyearsandanhourin16fourfiveandsixisstandardsaysRosemond.Forjunior-highstudentsitshouldbe"17morethananhourandahalf"andtwoforhighschoolstudents.Ifyourchild18hasmorehomeworkthanthisyoumaywanttocheck19otherparentsandthentalktotheteacherabout20assignments. 5
ThesuddendramaticexplosioninvalueofonlinesocialmediasiteslikeFacebookandTwitterisreminiscentoftheriseabout15yearsagooftheonlinebusinessesthatcreatedthe"dotcombubble."TheInternetwasfarlesswidelyusedthanitistoday.StillvisionariessawthepotentialfortheInternetwehavetodaysovirtualcompaniessprungupandgrewlikeweedsasinvestorsthrewmoneytheirway.SomelikeGoogleandAmazondevelopedanenduringonlinepresenceandlastingfinancialvalue.Butfartoomanyquicklylostvaluewhenitbecameapparentthattheirrapidgrowthwasn’tyieldingrevenue. SohowmuchisFacebook’snetworkofusersreallyworthThepotentialisclear—whensomanypeoplearegatheredinonevirtualplaceofferingsomuchpersonalinformationaboutthemselvestheycreateanunprecedentedplatformfortargetedadvertising.Ortheywouldiftheywereonthenetworktoshop.WheneBayandAmazonsuggestproductstotheircustomersthey’retalkingtopeoplewho’vealreadyproventhatthey’reinterestedinbuyingsimilarproducts.PeoplegoonFacebookforavarietyofreasons-tocatchupwitholdfriendssharepicturesmakenewacquaintancesandtalksometimesendlesslyaboutthemselves.Whetherthey’llappreciatehavingtheirvirtualconversationsinterruptedbyadvertisingtargetedornotremainsunclear. It’salsounclearwhetherFacebookwillactuallybeabletoshareinformationaboutitsusers’browsinghabitswithadvertisers.ComplaintsabouttheineffectivenessofFacebook’sprivacypolicieshaveariseninmultiplecountriespartofalargersocialconcernabouthowprivateinformationgetsusedonline.InDecembertheFederalTradeCommissionissuedaproposedframeworkthatamongotherthingswouldpermitFacebookuserstoblockadvertisersfromaccessinginformationabouttheironlineinterests.IfthatframeworkisimplementedandwidelyusedbyFacebooksubscribersitcouldseriouslyimpairthesite’svalueasapotentialplatformfortargetedmarketing. WhatisclearisthatGoldmanSachshasasignificantinterestinFacebook’sfinancialvalueatleastfortheshortterm.GoldmanSachs’decisiontoinvestheavilyinFacebookhashadsomeinterestingimpacts.ForonethingtheinvestmenthasallowedFacebookanopportunitytopostponeissuinganIPO.ThatmeansthatatleastforthemomentFacebookdoesn’tyethavetodiscloseitsfinancesorpubliclyaddressinvestorcomplaints. GoldmanSachs’investmentalsoputsthefirminanidealpositiontohandleFacebook’sIPOwheniteventuallyisissuedperhapssometimenextyear.ThatofcoursehasthepotentialtogeneratesubstantialrevenuesforGoldmanSachs’clients.Google’s2004IPOraisedaninitial$1.2billionforthecompany.AfterallthepropagandaFacebook’sIPOcanhardlybeexpectedtoraiseless.HoweverthereremainsasignificantquestionastowhetherFacebook’spotentialforgeneratingincomeismorevirtualthanreal.IfitturnsoutthatFacebookcan’tliveuptoitspotentialforgeneratingadvertisingrevenueventurecapitalistswhoinvestforthelongtermmaygetburned. GoldmanSachs’investmentisagoodthingtoFacebookbecause
Everythreemonthsfromthebeginningof2008saysCliffRichardwhowasonceBritain’sanswertoElvisPresleyIwillloseasong.ThereasonisthatinmostEuropeancountriescopyrightprotectiononsoundrecordingslastsfor50yearsandnowSirCliffrecordedhisfirsthitsingleMoveItin1958.41Oneofthebigfourmusicfirmsestimatesthatabout100mdeepcatalogueieoldalbumsnowsoldinEuropeeachyearwillhaveenteredthepublicdomainbytheendof2010.Assumingacurrentwholesalepriceof$10thatcouldjeopardise$1billionofrevenuesorabout3%ofannualrecordedmusicsales.42EvenoncemuchofthebackcataloguehasenteredthepublicdomainthebigmusicfirmscancarryonsellingitonCD.Theywillevenbenefitfromnothavingtopayanythingtotheartistortohisestate.Theywillinmanycasesstillowncopyrightontheoriginalcoverart.ButtheywillfacenewcompetitionfromahostofprovidersofCDswhomayundercutthem.Andontheinternetpublicdomainmusicislikelytobefreeasmuchofthecopyrightedstuffalreadyisonpeer-to-peernetworks.43Artistshaveralliedtothecause:U2StatusQuoandCharlesAznavourallwantthe50-yearlimitincreased.Manymoreactswillsignapetitionthisspring.SirCliffhasspenthourscomplainingtothecommissionthatcomposersofsongsgetcopyrightfor70yearsaftertheirdeath:morethanperformers.44ManypeoplebelievethatAmericahasgonetoofarinprotectingcopyrightattheexpenseofthepublicgoodincludingitseemsthecommissionwhichsaidlastyearthatitsawnoneedtoliftitsown50-yearlimit.Itsdeadlineforproposalsoncopyrightlawhasslippedfromthisyearto2006.Butgovernmentsarelikelytoweighinontheissue.FranceItalyandPortugalhaveindicatedthattheysupportanextensionofthetermandBritainislikelytostickupforitsownmusicmajorEMI.AlthoughartistsandtheirestateswantlongercopyrightthebigmusicfirmswouldbenefitfromitthemostespeciallyinthenextcoupleofdecadessaysStephenKingchairmanoftheAssociationofUnitedRecordingArtistsandmanageroftheLibertines.45Nowtheyhavewisedupaboutmakingdeals.Thebestguaranteeoffinancialsecurity--saferthanclingingontocopyright--ishiringagoodlawyerearlyon.[A]Heisunlikelytoproducesuchabighitinthenearfuturesomoreofhisattentionisdirectedtorevisingtheoldsongandsellingittomorepeople.[B]Backinthe1950shesaysperformersgotonlyone-tenthoftheshareofroyaltiesthattheydonow.Foryearsartistshavewithgoodreasonaccusedbigrecordlabelsofrippingthemoff.[C]ThismonthearlyrecordingsbyE1vishimselfstartedtoenterEurope’spublicdomain.OverthenextfewdecadesatorrentofthemostpopulartracksfromtheBeatlestheRollingStonesandmanyotherartistswillbecomepublicpropertyinEurope--tothepleasureoffansandtheconsternationofthemusicindustry.[D]ThemusicindustryalsopointsoutthatAmericagivesartistsalmosttwiceasmuchcopyrightprotectionasEurope.AmericahasrepeatedlylengthenedcopyrighttermswiththelatestreprievetheSonnyBonoCopyrightTermExtensionActof1998givingperformersprotectionfor95yearsafterpublication.[E]ButwhentheattentionisshiftedfromEuropetoAmericaartistsshouldfeelmuchbetterbecausethelengthofcopyrightprotectionthereisevenshorter.ItseemsthattheAmericangovernmentismoreinterestedinservingthepublicthanthealreadyveryrichartists.[F]MusicexecutiveswanttheEuropeanCommissiontoprotectthemfromsuchunwelcomecompetitionbyextendingthecopyrightterm.[G]Andthatestimateaccountsonlyforsongsuptotheendofthe1950s.Farmorewillbeatriskasmusicfromthe1960sand1970smovesoutofcopyright.
MosttownsuptoElizabethantimesweresmallerthanamodernvillageandeachofthemwasbuiltarounditsweeklymarketwherelocalproducewasbroughtforsaleandthetownfolkssoldtheirworktothepeoplefromthecountrysideandprovidedthemwithrefreshmentfortheday.Tradewasvirtuallyconfinedtothatonedayeveninatownofathousandorsopeople.Onmarketdayscraftsmenputuptheirstallsintheopenairwhilstononeortwootherdaysduringtheweekthetownsmanwouldpackuphisloavesornailsorclothandsetoutearlytodoaday’stradeinthemarketofanadjoiningtownwherehoweverhewouldbechargedaheavytollfortheprivilegeandgetalessfavourablespotforhisstandthanthelocalcraftsmen.AnotherchanceforhimtomakeasalewastothecongregationgatheredforSundaymorningworship.Althoughnotradewasallowedanywhereduringthehoursoftheserviceexceptatannualfairtimesafterchurchtherewouldbesometradeatthechurchdoorwithdepartingcountryfolk. Thetradeofmarketswasalmostwhollyconcernedwithexchangingtheproductsofthenearbycountrysideandthegoodssoldinthemarketbutparticularlyinfoodretaildealingwasdistrustedasakindofprofiteering.Evenwhentherewasenoughtradebeingdonetoaffordalivelihoodtoanenterprisingmanreadytobuywholesaleandsellretailtownauthoritieswerereluctanttoallowit. Yettherewereplainlypeoplewhoweretemptedto“forestallthemarket”bybuyinggoodsoutsideitandto“regrate”themthatistoresellthematahigherprice.Theconstantlyrepeatedrulesagainstthesepracticesandtheendlesslyrecurringprosecutionsmentionedintherecordsofallthelargertownsprovethatsomewell-informedandsharp-wittedpeopledidthesethings. Everytownmadeitsownlawsandifitwasbigenoughtohavecraftguildstheseassociationswouldregulatethebusinessoftheirmembersandtriedtoenforceastrictmonopolyoftheirowntrades.Yetwhiletheguildleadersascraftsmenfollowedfiercelyprotectionistpoliciesatthesametimeasleadingtownsmentheywantedtoseeabigbusymarketyieldingahandsomerevenueinvariousduesandtolls.Conflictsofinterestledtoendlessminuteregulationschangeableofteninconsistentfrequentlyabsurd.TherewasatimeinthefourteenthcenturyforexamplewhenLondonfishmongerswerenotallowedtohandleanyfishthathadnotalreadybeenexposedforsaleforthreedaysbythemenwhocaughtit. Inmedievalmarketstherewaslittleretailtradebecause
[A]Convenientpackaging[B]Healthandwellness[C]Skepticalcustomers[D]Enormousmarkets[E]Soaringsales[F]TrendydrinkInthelast40yearsthebottledwaterindustryhasgonefromabusinessprospectthatfewtookseriouslytoaglobalindustryworthbillionsofpounds.Thecommodityitselfremainssimple.Thewaywethinkaboutithaschangedfundamentally.Waterisnaturalpureandsourcedatminimalcost.Itsrealvalueliesinitsmarketingandbranding.IthinkbottledwateristhemostrevealingsubstanceforshowingushowtheglobalcapitalistmarketworkstodaysaysRichardWilkprofessorofanthropologyatIndianaUniversity.Inasensewe’rebuyingchoicewe’rebuyingfreedom.That’stheonlythingthatcanexplainwhyyouwouldpaymoneyforabottleofsomethingthatyoucanotherwisegetforfree.41.______Throughaconfectionofadvertisingandmarketingbottledwaterhasbecomeoneofthebiggestsuccessstoriesinthemodernfoodandbeverageindustry.ThedemandforbottlewaterhasgrownexponentiallyinthelastfewdecadessaysDr.PeterGleickauthorofBottledandSold.It’sdoubledit’sdoubledagainandit’sdoubledagain.Andthebottlewatercompaniesseeenormousmarketsnotjustintherichcountriesbutalsointhepoorercountries.NoactualvarietySomepeoplethinkthatbottledwateristhehighpointofglobalcapitalismparticularlythepeopleinthebottledwaterbusiness.Ithinkbottledwateractuallyrepresentsakindofcaricatureoftheglobaleconomy.Itprovidespeopleinthedevelopedworldwith20or30varietiesofsomethingforwhichthereisnoactualvarietysaysCharlesFishmanauthorofTheBigThirst.42.______.Atthebeginningtherereallywasnovarietyandthebottledwaterphenomenonbeganwithonebrand.Perrier佩绿雅矿泉水品牌wasatriumphofadvertisingcreatingabrandthatwastodefineageneration.AttheheartofthecampaigntomakethebrandpopularwasRichardWheatleyoftheLeoBurnettadvertisingagencybetween1979and1994.Perrierpopularisedbottledwaterhesays.Itmadeitacceptablemorethanacceptableitmadeit...desirable.Butitwasnotaninstantsuccess.WhenPerrierUKwaslookingtoincreaseitssalesintheearly1970’sitfacedaskepticalpublic.Manyquestionedwhyanyonewouldbuywaterwhenyoucouldgetitfreefromthetap.43.______.FacedwithobstaclesPerrierturnedtoadvertisingwithacampaignthatwastochangeourconsumerlandscapeforever.Thecampaignwasamarketingcoupandsaleswentthroughtherooffrom12millionbottlesin1980to152millionbytheendofthedecade.Perrierwasnolongerjustabottleofwater.Themarketingandadvertisingteamshadestablishedacrucialemotionallinkbetweentheproductandtheconsumers.PerrierbecameabadgesaysMichaelBellaschairmanoftheBeverageMarketingCorporation.WhenyouheldaPerrierbottleupitsaidsomethingaboutyourselfitsaidyouweresophisticatedyouunderstoodwhatwashappeningintheworld.Itwasaperfectbeveragefortheyoungandcomingbusinessexecutivesthetrend-setters.44.______.Inanageofinstantgratificationstillwaterinportablebottlesprovidedwhatpeopleneededexactlywhentheyneededit.PeopleingeneralaremoreandmoretimepressedsaysMr.Fishman.Wedon’tcookourownmealsanymoreweeatpreparedfoodsofallkinds.Andthere’snothingmoreappealingthanabottleofcoldwateratamomentwhenyou’rereallythirsty.ButIthinkbottledwaterisoneofthoseproductsthatonmanyoccasionswhenpeoplebuyitwhatthey’rebuyingisn’tthewatersomuchasthebottle.Thatisthepackageandtheconvenienceatthatmoment.45.______.WhenpeopleboughtthisconveniencewhattheywerereallybuyingwasPolyethyleneTerephthalateorPETthesinglemostimportantinnovationintheindustry’shistory.StrongshatterproofandahighlyvaluedformofpolyesterPETisaby-productoftheoilindustry.Itisnowutilisedinthepackagingofeverythingfrompharmaceuticalsandsoaptoreadymeals.InyearstocometheenvironmentalimpactofPETwouldhaunttheindustryandraisequestionsaboutitsverysurvivalbutinthe1990sthiswasarevolution.AccordingtoMr.Bellasitwasbehindthesubsequentincrediblegrowthoftheindustry.StartingwiththeintroductionofthesmallpremiumPETwatersthecategorystartedtoexplodesaysMr.Bellas.ThebottledwaterindustrybeforePETonthelistofallbeveragecategorieswasnumberseven.WiththeadventofPETwaterjumpedtothenumbertwospotbehindcarbonatedsoftdrinks.Bybrandingandmarketingwaterbottledwaterhasbeentransformedfromsomethingthatmanyofustookforgrantedintoaproductthatnowmakesbillionsforglobalmultinationalcompanies.
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