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Recentlegalresearchindicatesthatincorrectidentificationisamajorfactorinmanymiscarriagesofjustice.46Italsosuggeststhatidentificationofpeoplebywitnessesinacourtroomisnotasreliableascommonlybelieved.Recentstudiesdonotsupportthedegreeoffaithjudgesjurorslawyersandthepolicehaveineyewitnessevidence. TheLawCommissionrecentlypublishedaneducationalpaper"TotalRecallTheReliabilityofWitnessTestimony’asacompanionguidetoaproposedcodeofevidence.Thepaperfindsthatcommonlyheldperceptionsabouthowourmindsworkandhowwellwerememberareoftenwrong.Butwhilehumanmemoryisfragileandsubjecttochangeitshouldnotbeunderestimated. Bothcommonsenseandresearchsaymemorydeclinesovertime.Theaccuracyofrecallandrecognitionareattheirbestimmediatelyafterencodingtheinformationdecliningatfirstrapidlythengradually.47Thelongerthedelaythemorelikelyitisthatinformationobtainedaftertheeventwillinterferewiththeoriginalmemorywhichreducesaccuracy. Thepapersayssubsequentinterviewsormediareportscancreatesuchdistortions."Peopleareparticularlysusceptibletohavingtheirmemoriesmodifiedwhenthepassageoftimeallowstheoriginalmemorytofadeandwillbemostsusceptibleiftheyrepeatthemisinformationasfact." 48Witnessesmayseeorreadinformationaftertheeventthenintegrateittoproducesomethingotherthanwhatwasexperiencedsignificantlyreducingthereliabilityoftheirmemoryofaneventoroffender."Furtherwitnessesmaystronglybelieveintheirmemorieseventhoughaspectsofthosememoriesareverifiablyfalse." Thepapersaysitisgenerallyagreedthatthememoriesofadultsandchildrenarefallible.Neverthelessevenpreschoolerscanformreliablememories.Youngchildrendependoncontexttopromotememoryandspontaneouslyreportless.Childrenmayrecallmoreinformationwithadequatesupportbutthetypeofsupportandquestioningiscritical.Methodsofdrawingoutinformationhavetobecarefullymonitored. Althoughresearchshowstheaccuracyofbothadultsandchildrencanbeaffectedbyleadingorsuggestivequestionstheabilitytoresisttheinfluenceofexternalsuggestionincreaseswithage. 49Childrenmaychangetheiraccountofaneventnotbecausetheirmemoryhasalteredbutbecausetheywishtocomplywiththesuggestionofanadultinauthorityorbecausetheyinterpretrepeatedquestioningasanindicationtheirfirstresponseis.judgedwrong. 50Thepapersaysfurtherresearchisrequiredintointerviewtechniquesandconditionsunderwhichfalsememoriesandreportsofabusearemostlikelytoarise.Itseemsthatdecidingwhetheranymemoryistobefinallyassessedasreliableorthetreacherousallyofinventionwilllargelyremainachallengeforjudgesandjuries. Childrenmaychangetheiraccountofaneventnotbecausetheirmemoryhasalteredbutbecausetheywishtocomplywiththesuggestionofanadultinauthorityorbecausetheyinterpretrepeatedquestioningasanindicationtheirfirstresponseis.judgedwrong.
Recentlegalresearchindicatesthatincorrectidentificationisamajorfactorinmanymiscarriagesofjustice.46Italsosuggeststhatidentificationofpeoplebywitnessesinacourtroomisnotasreliableascommonlybelieved.Recentstudiesdonotsupportthedegreeoffaithjudgesjurorslawyersandthepolicehaveineyewitnessevidence. TheLawCommissionrecentlypublishedaneducationalpaper"TotalRecallTheReliabilityofWitnessTestimony’asacompanionguidetoaproposedcodeofevidence.Thepaperfindsthatcommonlyheldperceptionsabouthowourmindsworkandhowwellwerememberareoftenwrong.Butwhilehumanmemoryisfragileandsubjecttochangeitshouldnotbeunderestimated. Bothcommonsenseandresearchsaymemorydeclinesovertime.Theaccuracyofrecallandrecognitionareattheirbestimmediatelyafterencodingtheinformationdecliningatfirstrapidlythengradually.47Thelongerthedelaythemorelikelyitisthatinformationobtainedaftertheeventwillinterferewiththeoriginalmemorywhichreducesaccuracy. Thepapersayssubsequentinterviewsormediareportscancreatesuchdistortions."Peopleareparticularlysusceptibletohavingtheirmemoriesmodifiedwhenthepassageoftimeallowstheoriginalmemorytofadeandwillbemostsusceptibleiftheyrepeatthemisinformationasfact." 48Witnessesmayseeorreadinformationaftertheeventthenintegrateittoproducesomethingotherthanwhatwasexperiencedsignificantlyreducingthereliabilityoftheirmemoryofaneventoroffender."Furtherwitnessesmaystronglybelieveintheirmemorieseventhoughaspectsofthosememoriesareverifiablyfalse." Thepapersaysitisgenerallyagreedthatthememoriesofadultsandchildrenarefallible.Neverthelessevenpreschoolerscanformreliablememories.Youngchildrendependoncontexttopromotememoryandspontaneouslyreportless.Childrenmayrecallmoreinformationwithadequatesupportbutthetypeofsupportandquestioningiscritical.Methodsofdrawingoutinformationhavetobecarefullymonitored. Althoughresearchshowstheaccuracyofbothadultsandchildrencanbeaffectedbyleadingorsuggestivequestionstheabilitytoresisttheinfluenceofexternalsuggestionincreaseswithage. 49Childrenmaychangetheiraccountofaneventnotbecausetheirmemoryhasalteredbutbecausetheywishtocomplywiththesuggestionofanadultinauthorityorbecausetheyinterpretrepeatedquestioningasanindicationtheirfirstresponseis.judgedwrong. 50Thepapersaysfurtherresearchisrequiredintointerviewtechniquesandconditionsunderwhichfalsememoriesandreportsofabusearemostlikelytoarise.Itseemsthatdecidingwhetheranymemoryistobefinallyassessedasreliableorthetreacherousallyofinventionwilllargelyremainachallengeforjudgesandjuries. Thelongerthedelaythemorelikelyitisthatinformationobtainedaftertheeventwillinterferewiththeoriginalmemorywhichreducesaccuracy.
Youshouldwriteabout100wordsonANSWERSHEETII.Donotsignyourownnameattheendoftheletter.UseLiMinginstead.Youdon’tneedtowritetheaddress.
[A]Howtounderstandgenerosity [B]Onewayistosticktoyourwords [C]Thetrueessenceofgenerosity [D]Beinggenerousneedsthoughts [E]Neverusegenerosityasadisguise [F]Smallthingsreflectmore Theword"gift"hasgotdangerouslydevaluedoflate.Salesmenuseso-calledfreegiftsasbaitandpublicistsusethemasbribes;thewealthycanmake"gifts"totheirchildrenortocharitieswithnomorenoblemotivethansavingtax. 41.________________________ WeneedtoclaimthewordbackthisChristmas.Wealsoneedtoclaimbacktheword"generous":whichtoooftengetsusedinthesensesofover-largeportionsoffoodhoteltowelsthesizeofsheetsorwomenspillingoutoftheirdresses.Forgenerosity--theabilitytomakerealgiftswithmodestyandloveexpectingnothingback--isoneofthethingswhichmostmakeushuman.YoudonotfindpigsorlionsgivingoneanotherthoughtfullittlepresentsdoyouMonkeysapparentlyofferoneanotherfleasattimesbutnotinanyprovablespiritofkindliness.Weshouldhonorgenerositymorethanwedo. 42.__________________ Perhapsithasbecomesuspectbecauseofthetalesofover-the-topgenerositysometimestoldingossipabouttheveryrich.ThelateChristinaOnassisgivingherdaughterapersonalzooandaflockofsheepwiththeirownshepherdforinstance;assortedtycoonsflyingtheirguestshalfwayroundtheworldforbirthdaypartieswherethereisanemeraldbraceletorcufflinksoneveryplace-setting.Inthiscontextgenerosityhascometomeanthatyouhurlmoneyaroundlikeadrunkensailor.Andthereisalwaysthesuspicionthatlikethesailoryouaredoingitjusttoprovethatyoucanaffordit.Thatisnotgiving:thatisshowingoff. 43.__________________ Buttherealthingwhenyoumeetitismagicalandasaqualityitbelongsequallytorichandpoor.Sometimesthepoor--likethewidowintheBiblewhogavehermite--arebestatit.TravelersinremotepartsfromPolandtoPerucomehomewithstoriesofbreadshelterevenbedssharedwithoutquestionwiththestrangeronthepeasantprinciplethat"AguestinthehouseisGodinthehouse".NearerhomeIlovedthestoriescollectedinmemoryofKatieSullivanthe23-year-oldmentalhomecare;assistantwhowasmurderedlastyear.Particularlytheoneaboutthedayshewaswalkingtothepubandlaggedbehindandherstudentfriendscaughtaglimpseofheremptyingherwholepurseintoatramp’shandswhenshethoughttheyweren’tlooking.Laterinthepubtheyteasedheraboutnotdrinkingtryingtomakeheradmitwhatshehaddone;butshesteadfastlypretendedshedidn’twantadrink. 44.__________________ Tactisthekeytorealgenerosity:tactandrealthoughtforthepersonyouaregivingthepresentto.Youcanbuyanyoneapicturebyafashionableandexpensiveartistifyoucanaffordit;butitmightbekindertospendatenthoftheamount--andabitoftroubleongettingtheframedoriginalofacartoonyouknowhascheeredthemupatabadtime.Anyonecanbuyamanagoldwatch;butittakesagenerouswifetodowhatonelatelydidandtrackdownanantiquegoldstrapwhichpreciselyfitstheoldoneheinheritedfromhisbelovedfather. 45.__________________ IntheAgathaChristienovelTheHollowHenriettadisplaysremarkablekindnesstowardsashyunintellectualwomanwhoisn’tfittingintoasparklinghouseparty.Gretaiswearingadreadfulcardigansheknittedherself;Henriettanotonlypraisesitbutasksforthepattern.HavinggotthepatternmoreoversheheroicallyknitsthedreadfulthingandwearsitherselfnexttimeshemeetsGreta.ThatiswhatIcallfollow-through.Soistheweddingpresentafriendgotfromabrokebutdomesticsister-in-law:shepromisedtobakeheraloafofspecialdeliciouswholemealbreadeveryweekforthefirstyearofhermarriageanddidso. 45
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