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Directions: Write an essay of 160-200 words based on the following drawing. In your essay, you shou...
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Directions:Inthispartyouaretowriteanessayof160—200
Directions: Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwrite
PartB Directions: Youarerequiredtowriteanessayont
Directions:Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwritean
Directions:Writeanessayof160-200wordsbasedonthefo
Directions:Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwritean
Directions: Writeanessayof160-200wordsbasedonthef
Directions: Studythepicturesabovecarefullyandwrit
Directions:Studythepicturesabovecarefullyandwritea
Directions:Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwritean
Directions: Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwrite
Directions:Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwritean
Directions: Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwrite
Directions:Writeanessayof160-200wordsbasedonthefo
Directions: Youarerequiredtowriteanessayoffthetop
Directions:Writeanessayof160-200wordsbasedonthefo
Directions:Studythetwopicturesabovecarefullyandwri
Directions:Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwritean
Directions:Writeanessayof160-200wordsbasedonthefol
Directions:Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwritean
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Weakdollarorno$46000-thepriceforasingleyearofundergraduateinstructionamidtheredbrickofHarvardYard-is1Butnowadayscostis2barriertoentryatmanyofAmerica’sbestuniversities.Formidablefinancial-assistancepolicieshave3feesorslashedthemdeeplyforneedystudents.AndlastmonthHarvardannouncedanewplandesignedto4thesticker-shockforundergraduatesfrommiddleandevenupper-incomefamiliestoo. SincethenotherrichAmericanuniversitieshaveunveiled5initiatives.YaleHarvard’sbitterest6revealeditsplansonJanuary14th.Studentswhosefamiliesmake7than$60000ayearwillpaynothingatall.Familiesearningupto$200000ayearwillhavetopayanaverageof10%oftheirincomes.Theuniversitywill8itsfinancial-assistancebudgetby43%toover$80m. Harvardwillhaveasimilararrangementforfamiliesmakingupto$180000.ThatmakesthepriceofgoingtoHarvardorYale9toattendingastate-rununiversityformiddle-andupper-incomestudents.Theuniversitieswillalsonotrequireanystudenttotakeout10topayfortheir11apolicyintroducedbyPrincetonin2001andbytheUniversityofPennsylvaniajustafterHarvard’s12.Noapplicantwhogainsadmissionofficialssayshouldfeel13togoelsewherebecauseheorshecan’taffordthefees. Noneofthatisquiteasaltruisticasitsounds.HarvardandYaleareafterallnowlikelytoluremorestudentsawayfrompreviously14optionsparticularlystate-rununiversities15theiralreadyimpressiveadmissionsfiguresandreputations. Theschemesalsoprovidea16forstructuringuniversityfeesinwhichhighpricesforrichstudentshelpoffsetmodestpricesforpooreronesandfamiliesareless17onfederalgrantsandgovernment-backedloans. Lesswealthyprivatecollegeswhosefeesarehighwillnotbeableto18HarvardorYaleeasily.ButAmerica’sstate-rununiversitieswhichhavetraditionallykepttheirfeeslowandstablemightwelltryadifferentiated19schemeastheyraisecashtocompeteacademicallywiththeirprivate20.IndeedtheUniversityofCaliforniasystemhasalreadystartedtoimplementasliding-feescale. 6
Weakdollarorno$46000-thepriceforasingleyearofundergraduateinstructionamidtheredbrickofHarvardYard-is1Butnowadayscostis2barriertoentryatmanyofAmerica’sbestuniversities.Formidablefinancial-assistancepolicieshave3feesorslashedthemdeeplyforneedystudents.AndlastmonthHarvardannouncedanewplandesignedto4thesticker-shockforundergraduatesfrommiddleandevenupper-incomefamiliestoo. SincethenotherrichAmericanuniversitieshaveunveiled5initiatives.YaleHarvard’sbitterest6revealeditsplansonJanuary14th.Studentswhosefamiliesmake7than$60000ayearwillpaynothingatall.Familiesearningupto$200000ayearwillhavetopayanaverageof10%oftheirincomes.Theuniversitywill8itsfinancial-assistancebudgetby43%toover$80m. Harvardwillhaveasimilararrangementforfamiliesmakingupto$180000.ThatmakesthepriceofgoingtoHarvardorYale9toattendingastate-rununiversityformiddle-andupper-incomestudents.Theuniversitieswillalsonotrequireanystudenttotakeout10topayfortheir11apolicyintroducedbyPrincetonin2001andbytheUniversityofPennsylvaniajustafterHarvard’s12.Noapplicantwhogainsadmissionofficialssayshouldfeel13togoelsewherebecauseheorshecan’taffordthefees. Noneofthatisquiteasaltruisticasitsounds.HarvardandYaleareafterallnowlikelytoluremorestudentsawayfrompreviously14optionsparticularlystate-rununiversities15theiralreadyimpressiveadmissionsfiguresandreputations. Theschemesalsoprovidea16forstructuringuniversityfeesinwhichhighpricesforrichstudentshelpoffsetmodestpricesforpooreronesandfamiliesareless17onfederalgrantsandgovernment-backedloans. Lesswealthyprivatecollegeswhosefeesarehighwillnotbeableto18HarvardorYaleeasily.ButAmerica’sstate-rununiversitieswhichhavetraditionallykepttheirfeeslowandstablemightwelltryadifferentiated19schemeastheyraisecashtocompeteacademicallywiththeirprivate20.IndeedtheUniversityofCaliforniasystemhasalreadystartedtoimplementasliding-feescale. 12
Thenewspapermustprovideforthereaderthefactsunalloyedunslantedobjectivelyselectedfacts.Butinthesedaysofcomplexnewsitmustprovidemore;itmustsupplyinterpretationthemeaningofthefacts.ThisisthemostimportantassignmentConfrontingAmericanjournalism—tomakecleartothereadertheproblemsofthedaytomakeinternationalnewsasunderstandableascommunitynewstorecognizethatthereisnolongeranysuchthingwiththepossibleexceptionofsuchscribblingassocietyandclubnewsas“local”newsbecauseanyeventintheinternationalareahasalocalreactioninmanpowerdraftineconomicstrainintermsindeedofourverywayoflife. 46Thereisinjournalismawidespreadviewthatwhenyouembarkoninterpretationyouareenteringchoppyanddangerouswaterstheswirlingtidesofopinion.Thisisnonsense. Theopponentsofinterpretationinsistthatthewriterandtheeditorshallconfinehimselftothe“facts”.Thisinsistenceraisestwoquestions:WhatarethefactsAnd:Arethebarefactsenough Astothefirstqueryconsiderhowaso-called“factual”storycomesabout.Thereportercollectssayfiftyfacts;outofthesefiftyhisspaceallotmentbeingnecessarilyrestrictedheselectsthetenwhichheconsidersmostimportant.ThisisJudgmentNumberOne.ThenheorhiseditordecideswhichofthesetenfactsshallconstitutetheleadofthepieceThisisimportantdecisionbecausemanyreadersdonotproceedbeyondthefirstparagraph.ThisisJudgmentNumberTwo.47Thenthenighteditordetermineswhetherthearticleshallbepresentedonpageonewhereithasalargeimpactoronpagetwenty-fourwhereithaslittle.JudgmentNumberThree. Thusinthepresentationofaso-called“factual”or“objective”storyatleastthreejudgmentsareinvolved.48Andtheyarejudgmentsnotatallunlikethoseinvolvedininterpretationinwhichreporterandeditorcallingupontheirresearchresourcestheirgeneralbackgroundandtheir“newsneutralism”arriveataconclusionastothesignificanceofthenews. 49Thetwoareasofjudgmentpresentationofthenewsanditsinterpretationarebothobjectiveratherthansubjectiveprocesses—asobjectivethatisasanyhumanbeingcanbe.Noteinpassing:eventhoughcompleteobjectivitycanneverbeachievedneverthelesstheidealmustalwaysbethebeacononthemurkynewschannels.50Ifaneditorisintentonslantingthenewshecandoitinotherwaysandmoreeffectivelythanbyinterpretationandhecandoitbytheselectionofthosefactsthatpropuphisparticularplea.Orhecandoitbythepayhegivesastory—promotingittopageoneordemotingittopagethirty. 48Andtheyarejudgmentsnotatallunlikethoseinvolvedininterpretationinwhichreporterandeditorcallingupontheirresearchresourcestheirgeneralbackgroundandtheirnewsneutralismarriveataconclusionastothesignificanceofthenews.
Weakdollarorno$46000-thepriceforasingleyearofundergraduateinstructionamidtheredbrickofHarvardYard-is1Butnowadayscostis2barriertoentryatmanyofAmerica’sbestuniversities.Formidablefinancial-assistancepolicieshave3feesorslashedthemdeeplyforneedystudents.AndlastmonthHarvardannouncedanewplandesignedto4thesticker-shockforundergraduatesfrommiddleandevenupper-incomefamiliestoo. SincethenotherrichAmericanuniversitieshaveunveiled5initiatives.YaleHarvard’sbitterest6revealeditsplansonJanuary14th.Studentswhosefamiliesmake7than$60000ayearwillpaynothingatall.Familiesearningupto$200000ayearwillhavetopayanaverageof10%oftheirincomes.Theuniversitywill8itsfinancial-assistancebudgetby43%toover$80m. Harvardwillhaveasimilararrangementforfamiliesmakingupto$180000.ThatmakesthepriceofgoingtoHarvardorYale9toattendingastate-rununiversityformiddle-andupper-incomestudents.Theuniversitieswillalsonotrequireanystudenttotakeout10topayfortheir11apolicyintroducedbyPrincetonin2001andbytheUniversityofPennsylvaniajustafterHarvard’s12.Noapplicantwhogainsadmissionofficialssayshouldfeel13togoelsewherebecauseheorshecan’taffordthefees. Noneofthatisquiteasaltruisticasitsounds.HarvardandYaleareafterallnowlikelytoluremorestudentsawayfrompreviously14optionsparticularlystate-rununiversities15theiralreadyimpressiveadmissionsfiguresandreputations. Theschemesalsoprovidea16forstructuringuniversityfeesinwhichhighpricesforrichstudentshelpoffsetmodestpricesforpooreronesandfamiliesareless17onfederalgrantsandgovernment-backedloans. Lesswealthyprivatecollegeswhosefeesarehighwillnotbeableto18HarvardorYaleeasily.ButAmerica’sstate-rununiversitieswhichhavetraditionallykepttheirfeeslowandstablemightwelltryadifferentiated19schemeastheyraisecashtocompeteacademicallywiththeirprivate20.IndeedtheUniversityofCaliforniasystemhasalreadystartedtoimplementasliding-feescale. 20
Thenewspapermustprovideforthereaderthefactsunalloyedunslantedobjectivelyselectedfacts.Butinthesedaysofcomplexnewsitmustprovidemore;itmustsupplyinterpretationthemeaningofthefacts.ThisisthemostimportantassignmentConfrontingAmericanjournalism—tomakecleartothereadertheproblemsofthedaytomakeinternationalnewsasunderstandableascommunitynewstorecognizethatthereisnolongeranysuchthingwiththepossibleexceptionofsuchscribblingassocietyandclubnewsas“local”newsbecauseanyeventintheinternationalareahasalocalreactioninmanpowerdraftineconomicstrainintermsindeedofourverywayoflife. 46Thereisinjournalismawidespreadviewthatwhenyouembarkoninterpretationyouareenteringchoppyanddangerouswaterstheswirlingtidesofopinion.Thisisnonsense. Theopponentsofinterpretationinsistthatthewriterandtheeditorshallconfinehimselftothe“facts”.Thisinsistenceraisestwoquestions:WhatarethefactsAnd:Arethebarefactsenough Astothefirstqueryconsiderhowaso-called“factual”storycomesabout.Thereportercollectssayfiftyfacts;outofthesefiftyhisspaceallotmentbeingnecessarilyrestrictedheselectsthetenwhichheconsidersmostimportant.ThisisJudgmentNumberOne.ThenheorhiseditordecideswhichofthesetenfactsshallconstitutetheleadofthepieceThisisimportantdecisionbecausemanyreadersdonotproceedbeyondthefirstparagraph.ThisisJudgmentNumberTwo.47Thenthenighteditordetermineswhetherthearticleshallbepresentedonpageonewhereithasalargeimpactoronpagetwenty-fourwhereithaslittle.JudgmentNumberThree. Thusinthepresentationofaso-called“factual”or“objective”storyatleastthreejudgmentsareinvolved.48Andtheyarejudgmentsnotatallunlikethoseinvolvedininterpretationinwhichreporterandeditorcallingupontheirresearchresourcestheirgeneralbackgroundandtheir“newsneutralism”arriveataconclusionastothesignificanceofthenews. 49Thetwoareasofjudgmentpresentationofthenewsanditsinterpretationarebothobjectiveratherthansubjectiveprocesses—asobjectivethatisasanyhumanbeingcanbe.Noteinpassing:eventhoughcompleteobjectivitycanneverbeachievedneverthelesstheidealmustalwaysbethebeacononthemurkynewschannels.50Ifaneditorisintentonslantingthenewshecandoitinotherwaysandmoreeffectivelythanbyinterpretationandhecandoitbytheselectionofthosefactsthatpropuphisparticularplea.Orhecandoitbythepayhegivesastory—promotingittopageoneordemotingittopagethirty. 50Ifaneditorisintentonslantingthenewshecandoitinotherwaysandmoreeffectivelythanbyinterpretationandhecandoitbytheselectionofthosefactsthatpropuphisparticularplea.
Evenplantscanrunafeverespeciallywhentheyareunderattackbyinsectsordisease.But1humansplantscanhavetheirtemperature2from3000feetaway—straightup.Adecadeago3theinfraredscanningtechnologydevelopedformilitarypurposeandothersatellitesphysicistStephenPaley4aquickwaytotakethetemperatureofcropstodetermine5onesareunderstress.Thegoalwastoletfarmer6targetpesticidespraying7rainpoisononawholefieldwhich8includeplantsthatdon’thavethepestproblem. EvenbetterPaley’sRemoteScanningServicesCompanycoulddetectcropproblembeforetheybecame9totheeye.Mountedonaplaneflownat3000feet10aninfraredscannermeasuredtheheatemittedbycrops.Thedatawere11intoacolor-codedmapshowing12plantswererunning"fevers".Farmerscouldthenspotsprayusing50to70percentlesspesticidethanthey13would. ThebadnewsisthatPaley’scompanycloseddownin1984afteronlythreeyears.Farmers14thenewtechnologyandlong-termbackerswerehard15.ButwiththerenewedconcernaboutpesticidesonproduceandrefinementsininfraredscanningPaleyhopesto16intooperation.Agricultureexpertshavenodoubtaboutthetechnologyworks."Thistechniquecanbeused1775percentofagriculturallandintheUnitedStates"saysGeorgeOertherofTexasA＆M.RayJacksonwhorecentlyretiredfromtheDepartmentofAgriculturethinks18infraredcropscanningcouldbeadoptedbytheendofthedecade.But19Paleyfindsthefinancialbacking20hefailedtoobtain10yearsago. 2
Weakdollarorno$46000-thepriceforasingleyearofundergraduateinstructionamidtheredbrickofHarvardYard-is1Butnowadayscostis2barriertoentryatmanyofAmerica’sbestuniversities.Formidablefinancial-assistancepolicieshave3feesorslashedthemdeeplyforneedystudents.AndlastmonthHarvardannouncedanewplandesignedto4thesticker-shockforundergraduatesfrommiddleandevenupper-incomefamiliestoo. SincethenotherrichAmericanuniversitieshaveunveiled5initiatives.YaleHarvard’sbitterest6revealeditsplansonJanuary14th.Studentswhosefamiliesmake7than$60000ayearwillpaynothingatall.Familiesearningupto$200000ayearwillhavetopayanaverageof10%oftheirincomes.Theuniversitywill8itsfinancial-assistancebudgetby43%toover$80m. Harvardwillhaveasimilararrangementforfamiliesmakingupto$180000.ThatmakesthepriceofgoingtoHarvardorYale9toattendingastate-rununiversityformiddle-andupper-incomestudents.Theuniversitieswillalsonotrequireanystudenttotakeout10topayfortheir11apolicyintroducedbyPrincetonin2001andbytheUniversityofPennsylvaniajustafterHarvard’s12.Noapplicantwhogainsadmissionofficialssayshouldfeel13togoelsewherebecauseheorshecan’taffordthefees. Noneofthatisquiteasaltruisticasitsounds.HarvardandYaleareafterallnowlikelytoluremorestudentsawayfrompreviously14optionsparticularlystate-rununiversities15theiralreadyimpressiveadmissionsfiguresandreputations. Theschemesalsoprovidea16forstructuringuniversityfeesinwhichhighpricesforrichstudentshelpoffsetmodestpricesforpooreronesandfamiliesareless17onfederalgrantsandgovernment-backedloans. Lesswealthyprivatecollegeswhosefeesarehighwillnotbeableto18HarvardorYaleeasily.ButAmerica’sstate-rununiversitieswhichhavetraditionallykepttheirfeeslowandstablemightwelltryadifferentiated19schemeastheyraisecashtocompeteacademicallywiththeirprivate20.IndeedtheUniversityofCaliforniasystemhasalreadystartedtoimplementasliding-feescale. 14
[A]Assumedinhospitablenesstosocialdevelopment [B]Pricepaidformisconceptions [C]Evolutionaryadaptationtoforestecology [D]Falsebeliefsrevised [E]Extremeimpoverishmentandbackwardness [F]Ignoranceofearlyhumanimpact [G]Popularviewonresidents In1942AlanRHolmbergadoctoralstudentinanthropologyfromYaleUniversityUSAventureddeepintothejungleofBolivianAmazoniaandsearchedoutanisolatedbandofSirionoIndians.TheresearcherdescribedtheprimitivesocietyasadesperatestruggleforsurvivalaviewofAmazoniabeingfundamentallyreconsideredtoday. TheSirionoHohnbergwroteleda"strikinglybackward"existence.Theirvillageswerelittlemorethanclustersofhuts.Lifeitselfwasaperpetualandpunishingsearchforfood:somefamiliesgrewmaniocandotherstarchycropsinsmallgardenplotsclearedfromtheforestwhileothermembersofthetribescouredthecountryforsmallgameandpromisingfishholes.Whenlocalresourcesbecamedepletedthetribemovedon.AsfortechnologyHolmbergnotedtheSiriuno"maybeclassifiedamongthemosthandicappedpeoplesoftheworld".OtherthanbowsarrowsandcrudediggingstickstheonlytoolstheSirionoseemedtopossesswere"twomachetesworntothesizeofpocket-knives". AlthoughthelivesoftheSirionohavechangedintheinterveningdecadestheimageofthemasStoneAgerelicshasendured.TocasualobserversaswellastoinfluentialnaturalscientistsandregionalplannerstheluxuriantforestsofAmazoniaseemagelessunconquerableahabitattotallyhostiletohumancivilization.TheapparentsimplicityofIndianwaysoflifehasbeenjudgedanevolutionaryadaptationtoforestecologylivingproofthatAmazoniacouldnot--andcan’tsustainamorecomplexsociety.Archaeologicaltracesoffarmoreelaboralecullureshavebeendismissedastheruinsofinvadersfromoutsidetheregionabandonedlodecayintheuncompromisingtropicalenvironment. ThepopularconceptionofAmazoniaanditsnativeresidentswouldbeenormouslyconsequentialifitweretrue.ButthehumanhistoryofAmazoniainthepast11000yearsbetraysthatviewasmyth.Evidencegatheredinrecentyearsfiomanthropologyandarchaeologyindicatedthattheregionhassupportedaseriesoflocal/indigenousculturesforeleventhousandyears;anextensivenetworkofcomplexsocieties—somewithpopulationsperhapsaslargeas10000—thrivedthereformorethan1000yearsbeforethearrivalEuropeans.FarfrombeingevolutionarilyretardedprehistoricAmazonianpeopledeelopedtechnologiesandculturesthatwereadvancedfortheirtime.IfthelivesofIndianstodayseem"primitive"theappearanceisnottheresultofsomeenvironmentaladaptationorecologicalbarrier;ratheritisacomparativelyrecentadaptationtocenturiesofeconomicandpoliticalpressure. TheevidenceforarevisedviewofAmazoniawilltakemanypeoplebysurprise.Ecologistshaveassumedthattropicalecosystemswereshapedentirelybynaturalforcesandtheyhavefocusedtheirresearchonhabitatstheybelievehaveescapedhumaninfluence.ButastheUniversityofFloridaeeologistPeterFeinsingerhasnotedanapproachthatleavespeopleoutoftheequationisnolongersensible.ThearchaeologicalevidenceshowsthatthenaturalhistoryofAmazoniaistoasurprisingextenttiedtotheactivitiesofitsprehistoricinhabitants. Therealizationcomesnonetoosoon.InJune1992politicalandenvironmentalleadersfromacrosstheworldmetinRiodeJaneirotodiscusshowdevelopingcountriescanadvancetheireconomieswithoutdestroyingtheirnaturalresources.ThechallengeisespeciallydifficultinAmazonia.Becausethetropicalforesthasbeendepictedasecologicallyunfitforlarge-scalehumanoccupationsomeenvironmentalistshaveopposeddevelopmentofanykind.Ironicallyonemajorcasualtyofthatextremepositionhasbeentheenvironmentitself.Whilepolicymakersstruggletodefineandimplementappropriatelegislationdevelopmentofthemostdestructivekindhascontinuedonalargescaleovervastareas. Theothermajorcasualtyofthe"naturalism"ofenvironmentalscientistshasbeentheindigenousAmazonianswhosehabitsofhuntingfishingandslash-and-burncultivationoftenhavebeenrepresentedasharmfultothehabitat.IntheclashbetweenenvironmentalistsanddeveloperstheIndianshavesufferedthemost.Thenewunderstandingofthepre-historyofAinazoniahoweverpointstowardamiddleground.Archaeologymakesclearthatwithjudiciousmanagementselectedpartsoftheregioncouldsupportmorepeoplethananyonethoughtbefore.Thelong-buriedpastitseemsofferhopeforthetuture. 42
TheLakers’forwardKobeBryanthasscored50ormorepointsinfourstraightgamessecondintheNBAonlytoWiltChamberlain’sseven.HealsonowistiedwithMichaelJordanforsecondwithfourbehindChamberlain’s32inmost60-pointgames. "He’sdoingsomethingI’veneverseen"LakerscoachPhilJacksonsaidinane-mailSaturday."Thishasbeenhistoric."HeshouldknowbecausehecoachedJordanandplayedagainstChamberlain.BryantisnotgoingtowintheMVPawardwhichlikelywillgotoDirkNowitzkiorSteveNash.Buthisscoringbrillianceagainseemstoanswerthequestionofwho’sthebestplayerintheleagueanditalsoprovidesmoreevidenceinthesimilarityofBryantandJordanintheirtalentandapproachtothegame. InanyeaseBryantistheplayernowfirmlyholdingthatmythicaltorchofgreatnesssportingcelebrityandcreativitythatJordanoncetookfromJulius"Dr.J"Erring."Kobehastheverdantgreenlighttohoistitupuntilhecoolsdown"Jacksonsaid."Wondersneverceaseinthisgame."CertainlyBryanthasbeenwonderfulinthefourgamesaveraging56.3pointswithtwogamesofatleast60.Moreoverhehardlyhasbeenselfishorworkingoutsidetheoffensebecausemostofhisfieldgoalshavecomeonlongjumpersincluding17of33onthree-pointers.Bryantisshooting54percent. "It’sphenomenal.It’sincredible"JacksontoldLosAngelesreporters."He’sshooting[outside]morethanMichaelwas.Michaelwasprobablydoingmorepost-upmorepenetrationmoreat-the-basketkindofstuff.ButKobe’sdoingawholerangeofthings.Ithinkhisshootinghasjustbeenremarkablethewayheisraisingupoverpeopleandknockingtheballdown." It’sstillalongwayoffbutbecausehestartedintheNBAwhenhewas18Bryant28canpassKareemAbdul-Jabbarastheleague’sall-timescorerifhecanstayhealthyandaverage25pointsuntilheis38."Thebestpartofitallisthatwe’rewinning"Bryantsaid."ThesecondisthatthisgenerationofplayerswhomightnothaveeverheardoftheElgin[Baylors]orWilts[andtheir]greatnesswillnowtakenoticesothelegacyoftheirbrilliancewillliveon. "AsfarasmyselfIcan’texplainit.Allisinslowmotionallthetime.Idon’tknowwhyorhowbutit’strippy."That’sprobablywhatChamberlainsaidduringhisrecordrun. Whichwordismostsimilarinmeaningtotrippyinthelastparagraph
Thereareanumberofformatsforreportingresearchsuchasarticlestoappearinjournalsreportsaddressedtofundingagenciesthesesordissertationsaspartoftherequirementsforuniversitydegreesandpaperstobepresentedatconferences.Theseformatsdifferfromoneanothermostlyintheirpurposesandtheaudienceswhomtheyaddress.Wewillnowbrieflydescribethem. Thejournalarticleisawayofreportingresearchforprofessionaljournalsoreditedcollections.Theresearchisreportinginabriefyetinformativewayfocusingmostlyonthemainfeaturesoftheresearchsuchasthepurposereviewoftheliteratureoftenreferredtoas"background"proceduresusedforcarryingouttheresearchaccompaniedbytableschartsandgraphsandinterpretationsoftheresultsoftenreferredtoasdiscussion. Thecontentandemphasisofthejournalarticlewillvaryaccordingtotheintendedreadersresearchorpractitionersanditisimportantfortheresearchertobeawareofthebackgroundandinterestofthereadersofthejournal.ArticlesintendedtobereadbypractitionerswillemphasizethepracticalimplicationsandrecommendationsoftheresearchwhilearticlesintendedtobereadbyresearcherswilldescribeindetailthemethodusedtocollectdatatheconstructionofdatacollectionproceduresandthetechniquesusedforanalyzingthedataItisimportantforthenoviceresearchertobeawareofthefactthatarticlessubmittedtojournalsgothroughaprocessofevaluationbyexpertswhomakeajudgmentandrecommendwhethertheyshouldbepublishedornot. Thethesisordissertationisaformatforreportingresearchwhichgraduatestudentswriteaspartoffulfillingtherequirementsforanadvancedacademicdegree.Thestudentisexpectedtodescribeingreatdetailallthephasesoftheresearchsoitcanbeexaminedandevaluatedcarefullybythereader.Thusthethesisordissertationincludesthepurposeandsignificanceofthestudytherationaleathoroughreviewoftheliteraturedetailedinformationastotheresearchtoolsandtheproceduresinvolvedintheirdevelopmentadescriptionofdataanalysisandtheresultsandaninterpretationoftheresultsintheformofconclusionsimplicationsandrecommendation.Thisdetaileddescriptionoftheprocessoftheresearchisneededtoprovidetheprofessorswithanindicationofthestudent’sabilitytocarryoutresearch. Theconferencepaperisawayofreportingresearchatconferencesseminarsandcolloquia.Atsuchmeetingsresearchpapersareusuallypresentedorally.Theyaresimilartotheresearcharticlesinceresearchisreportedinaconciseyetinformativewayfocusingonthemostessentialelementsoftheresearch.Handoutsandtransparenciescanalsoaccompanythepresentations.Aswiththeresearcharticleheretoothecontentandemphasisoftheoralreportwilldependtoalargeextentonthetypeofaudiencepresentatthemeetingandwhethertheyareresearchersorpractitioners. Whichofthefollowingstatementsisnotmentionedinthispassage
OnthegroundflooroftheFederalReservebuildinginWashingtonDCthereisanelectronicgamewhichtestsavisitor’sskillatsettinginterestrates.Youhavetodecidehowtorespondtoeventssuchasrisinginflationorastockmarketcrash.IfyougetalltheanswersrightthemachinedeclaresyouthenextFedchairman.Inreallifebecauseofhugeuncertaintiesaboutdataandhowtheeconomyworksthereisnoobviouslyrightanswertothequestionofwhentochangeinterestrates.NoristhereanyeasytestofwhowillmakethebestFedchairman.SowhowouldTheEconomistselectforthejob AlanGreenspanwillretireasFedchairmanonJanuary31stafteramere181/2yearsinthejob.SoGeorgeBushneedstonominateasuccessorsoon.Mr.Bushhasapenchantforpickinghispalstofilltopjobs:lastweekhenominatedhispersonallawyerHarrietMierstotheSupremeCourt.ButhispersonalbankmanagerreallywouldnotcutthemustardasFedchairman.Thisisthemostimportanteconomic-policyjobinAmerica—indeedinthewholeworld.TheFedchairmansetsinterestrateswiththeaimofcontrollinginflationwhichinturnhelpsdeterminethevalueofthedollartheworld’smainreservecurrency.Itishardlysurprisingthatfinancialmarketsworldwidecanriseorfallonhiseveryword. Financialmarketsaretypicallymorevolatileduringthefirstyearafterthehandovertoanewchairmanthanduringtherestofhistenure.InOctober1987barelytwomonthsafterMr.Greenspantookofficethestockmarketcrashed.Currentconditionsforahandoverarehardlyideal.America’seconomyhasneverlookedsounbalancedwithanegativehouseholdsavingsrateahousingbubbleaheftybudgetdeficitarecordcurrent-accountdeficitandrisinginflation.FiguresdueonOctober14thareexpectedtoshowthatthe12-monthrateofinflationhasrisenabove4%—itshighestsince1991. Whichofthefollowingaccordingtothetextisacommonphenomenon
Directions:Writeanessayof160～200wordsbasedonthefollowingdrawings.Inyoushould: 1describethedrawingbriefly 2interpretthephenomenonreflectedbyitandthen 3giveyourcomments. YoushouldwriteneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.
Weakdollarorno$46000-thepriceforasingleyearofundergraduateinstructionamidtheredbrickofHarvardYard-is1Butnowadayscostis2barriertoentryatmanyofAmerica’sbestuniversities.Formidablefinancial-assistancepolicieshave3feesorslashedthemdeeplyforneedystudents.AndlastmonthHarvardannouncedanewplandesignedto4thesticker-shockforundergraduatesfrommiddleandevenupper-incomefamiliestoo. SincethenotherrichAmericanuniversitieshaveunveiled5initiatives.YaleHarvard’sbitterest6revealeditsplansonJanuary14th.Studentswhosefamiliesmake7than$60000ayearwillpaynothingatall.Familiesearningupto$200000ayearwillhavetopayanaverageof10%oftheirincomes.Theuniversitywill8itsfinancial-assistancebudgetby43%toover$80m. Harvardwillhaveasimilararrangementforfamiliesmakingupto$180000.ThatmakesthepriceofgoingtoHarvardorYale9toattendingastate-rununiversityformiddle-andupper-incomestudents.Theuniversitieswillalsonotrequireanystudenttotakeout10topayfortheir11apolicyintroducedbyPrincetonin2001andbytheUniversityofPennsylvaniajustafterHarvard’s12.Noapplicantwhogainsadmissionofficialssayshouldfeel13togoelsewherebecauseheorshecan’taffordthefees. Noneofthatisquiteasaltruisticasitsounds.HarvardandYaleareafterallnowlikelytoluremorestudentsawayfrompreviously14optionsparticularlystate-rununiversities15theiralreadyimpressiveadmissionsfiguresandreputations. Theschemesalsoprovidea16forstructuringuniversityfeesinwhichhighpricesforrichstudentshelpoffsetmodestpricesforpooreronesandfamiliesareless17onfederalgrantsandgovernment-backedloans. Lesswealthyprivatecollegeswhosefeesarehighwillnotbeableto18HarvardorYaleeasily.ButAmerica’sstate-rununiversitieswhichhavetraditionallykepttheirfeeslowandstablemightwelltryadifferentiated19schemeastheyraisecashtocompeteacademicallywiththeirprivate20.IndeedtheUniversityofCaliforniasystemhasalreadystartedtoimplementasliding-feescale. 8
Weakdollarorno$46000-thepriceforasingleyearofundergraduateinstructionamidtheredbrickofHarvardYard-is1Butnowadayscostis2barriertoentryatmanyofAmerica’sbestuniversities.Formidablefinancial-assistancepolicieshave3feesorslashedthemdeeplyforneedystudents.AndlastmonthHarvardannouncedanewplandesignedto4thesticker-shockforundergraduatesfrommiddleandevenupper-incomefamiliestoo. SincethenotherrichAmericanuniversitieshaveunveiled5initiatives.YaleHarvard’sbitterest6revealeditsplansonJanuary14th.Studentswhosefamiliesmake7than$60000ayearwillpaynothingatall.Familiesearningupto$200000ayearwillhavetopayanaverageof10%oftheirincomes.Theuniversitywill8itsfinancial-assistancebudgetby43%toover$80m. Harvardwillhaveasimilararrangementforfamiliesmakingupto$180000.ThatmakesthepriceofgoingtoHarvardorYale9toattendingastate-rununiversityformiddle-andupper-incomestudents.Theuniversitieswillalsonotrequireanystudenttotakeout10topayfortheir11apolicyintroducedbyPrincetonin2001andbytheUniversityofPennsylvaniajustafterHarvard’s12.Noapplicantwhogainsadmissionofficialssayshouldfeel13togoelsewherebecauseheorshecan’taffordthefees. Noneofthatisquiteasaltruisticasitsounds.HarvardandYaleareafterallnowlikelytoluremorestudentsawayfrompreviously14optionsparticularlystate-rununiversities15theiralreadyimpressiveadmissionsfiguresandreputations. Theschemesalsoprovidea16forstructuringuniversityfeesinwhichhighpricesforrichstudentshelpoffsetmodestpricesforpooreronesandfamiliesareless17onfederalgrantsandgovernment-backedloans. Lesswealthyprivatecollegeswhosefeesarehighwillnotbeableto18HarvardorYaleeasily.ButAmerica’sstate-rununiversitieswhichhavetraditionallykepttheirfeeslowandstablemightwelltryadifferentiated19schemeastheyraisecashtocompeteacademicallywiththeirprivate20.IndeedtheUniversityofCaliforniasystemhasalreadystartedtoimplementasliding-feescale. 10
Weakdollarorno$46000-thepriceforasingleyearofundergraduateinstructionamidtheredbrickofHarvardYard-is1Butnowadayscostis2barriertoentryatmanyofAmerica’sbestuniversities.Formidablefinancial-assistancepolicieshave3feesorslashedthemdeeplyforneedystudents.AndlastmonthHarvardannouncedanewplandesignedto4thesticker-shockforundergraduatesfrommiddleandevenupper-incomefamiliestoo. SincethenotherrichAmericanuniversitieshaveunveiled5initiatives.YaleHarvard’sbitterest6revealeditsplansonJanuary14th.Studentswhosefamiliesmake7than$60000ayearwillpaynothingatall.Familiesearningupto$200000ayearwillhavetopayanaverageof10%oftheirincomes.Theuniversitywill8itsfinancial-assistancebudgetby43%toover$80m. Harvardwillhaveasimilararrangementforfamiliesmakingupto$180000.ThatmakesthepriceofgoingtoHarvardorYale9toattendingastate-rununiversityformiddle-andupper-incomestudents.Theuniversitieswillalsonotrequireanystudenttotakeout10topayfortheir11apolicyintroducedbyPrincetonin2001andbytheUniversityofPennsylvaniajustafterHarvard’s12.Noapplicantwhogainsadmissionofficialssayshouldfeel13togoelsewherebecauseheorshecan’taffordthefees. Noneofthatisquiteasaltruisticasitsounds.HarvardandYaleareafterallnowlikelytoluremorestudentsawayfrompreviously14optionsparticularlystate-rununiversities15theiralreadyimpressiveadmissionsfiguresandreputations. Theschemesalsoprovidea16forstructuringuniversityfeesinwhichhighpricesforrichstudentshelpoffsetmodestpricesforpooreronesandfamiliesareless17onfederalgrantsandgovernment-backedloans. Lesswealthyprivatecollegeswhosefeesarehighwillnotbeableto18HarvardorYaleeasily.ButAmerica’sstate-rununiversitieswhichhavetraditionallykepttheirfeeslowandstablemightwelltryadifferentiated19schemeastheyraisecashtocompeteacademicallywiththeirprivate20.IndeedtheUniversityofCaliforniasystemhasalreadystartedtoimplementasliding-feescale. 16
EveryyearNewZealanderslivinginLondoncanbeseenloadingupKombivansandheadingofftoexperiencethe"classicEuropeanholiday".ThetripusuallystartsinthenorthofFranceaftercrossingthechannelfromDoverinEnglandtoCalaisdrivingdownthroughFranceoverthePyreneesintoSpainwestintoPortugalandthenacrosstheContinenttoItalyandoftenbeyond. TherearenumerousreasonsyoungNewZealanderstakethisriteofpassage—aswellasseeingallthefantasticsightsandtastingthedelightsofEurope’sfoodandwineit’srelativelyinexpensive.TheKombiistransportandaccommodationallinonecuttingdownsignificantlyoncosts. Thereisjustoneproblem.AstheKombisbecome"antique"thesetripsareusuallypunctuatedwithnumerousroadsidesessionsasthevansitsidleinnohurrytostartwhileyouswelterinthehotsun.Butdonotletthisdeteryou.TravellingEuropeinyourownvehiclemeansnopublictransportschedulestocrampyourstyletheabilitytoexplorethequaintoff-the-beaten-trackvillageswherethe"real"localslivefreedomtonothavetobookaccommodationinadvance—youcannearlyalwaysgetacampsiteandcanloadyourvehiclewithcheapfantasticregionalwinesandsouvenirs.WiththesebonusesinmindherearesomesuggestionsforplanningthegreatEuroperoadadventure.Thekeytoapleasurabledrivingexperienceisagoodnavigatorandadriverwithacoolhead.Ifyoudonotfeelrelaxeddriving’aroundNewZealand’scitiesandhighwaysthenyouprobablywillnotenjoydrivingaroundEurope.Asco-pilottothedriveryouneedtoreadandunderstandmapslookoutforturn-offs--andkeepthemusicplaying.Languageisnotabigproblemonceafewessentialtermsaremastered.Thebiggestchallengeisinthecitieswheretrafficcanbechaoticandelaborateone-waysystemsandnarrowcobbledalleywayscanmakefindingyourdestinationhardwork.Itcanbeeasiertoleavethevehicleontheoutskirtsoftownorinacampinggroundandusepublictransport.Thisalsoavoidspayingforcostlyparking. Inthesentenceit’srelativelyinexpensivePara.2itmostprobablyrefersto
OnthegroundflooroftheFederalReservebuildinginWashingtonDCthereisanelectronicgamewhichtestsavisitor’sskillatsettinginterestrates.Youhavetodecidehowtorespondtoeventssuchasrisinginflationorastockmarketcrash.IfyougetalltheanswersrightthemachinedeclaresyouthenextFedchairman.Inreallifebecauseofhugeuncertaintiesaboutdataandhowtheeconomyworksthereisnoobviouslyrightanswertothequestionofwhentochangeinterestrates.NoristhereanyeasytestofwhowillmakethebestFedchairman.SowhowouldTheEconomistselectforthejob AlanGreenspanwillretireasFedchairmanonJanuary31stafteramere181/2yearsinthejob.SoGeorgeBushneedstonominateasuccessorsoon.Mr.Bushhasapenchantforpickinghispalstofilltopjobs:lastweekhenominatedhispersonallawyerHarrietMierstotheSupremeCourt.ButhispersonalbankmanagerreallywouldnotcutthemustardasFedchairman.Thisisthemostimportanteconomic-policyjobinAmerica—indeedinthewholeworld.TheFedchairmansetsinterestrateswiththeaimofcontrollinginflationwhichinturnhelpsdeterminethevalueofthedollartheworld’smainreservecurrency.Itishardlysurprisingthatfinancialmarketsworldwidecanriseorfallonhiseveryword. Financialmarketsaretypicallymorevolatileduringthefirstyearafterthehandovertoanewchairmanthanduringtherestofhistenure.InOctober1987barelytwomonthsafterMr.Greenspantookofficethestockmarketcrashed.Currentconditionsforahandoverarehardlyideal.America’seconomyhasneverlookedsounbalancedwithanegativehouseholdsavingsrateahousingbubbleaheftybudgetdeficitarecordcurrent-accountdeficitandrisinginflation.FiguresdueonOctober14thareexpectedtoshowthatthe12-monthrateofinflationhasrisenabove4%—itshighestsince1991. Thephrasecutthemustardinthesecondparagraphmostprobablymeans
TheLakers’forwardKobeBryanthasscored50ormorepointsinfourstraightgamessecondintheNBAonlytoWiltChamberlain’sseven.HealsonowistiedwithMichaelJordanforsecondwithfourbehindChamberlain’s32inmost60-pointgames. "He’sdoingsomethingI’veneverseen"LakerscoachPhilJacksonsaidinane-mailSaturday."Thishasbeenhistoric."HeshouldknowbecausehecoachedJordanandplayedagainstChamberlain.BryantisnotgoingtowintheMVPawardwhichlikelywillgotoDirkNowitzkiorSteveNash.Buthisscoringbrillianceagainseemstoanswerthequestionofwho’sthebestplayerintheleagueanditalsoprovidesmoreevidenceinthesimilarityofBryantandJordanintheirtalentandapproachtothegame. InanyeaseBryantistheplayernowfirmlyholdingthatmythicaltorchofgreatnesssportingcelebrityandcreativitythatJordanoncetookfromJulius"Dr.J"Erring."Kobehastheverdantgreenlighttohoistitupuntilhecoolsdown"Jacksonsaid."Wondersneverceaseinthisgame."CertainlyBryanthasbeenwonderfulinthefourgamesaveraging56.3pointswithtwogamesofatleast60.Moreoverhehardlyhasbeenselfishorworkingoutsidetheoffensebecausemostofhisfieldgoalshavecomeonlongjumpersincluding17of33onthree-pointers.Bryantisshooting54percent. "It’sphenomenal.It’sincredible"JacksontoldLosAngelesreporters."He’sshooting[outside]morethanMichaelwas.Michaelwasprobablydoingmorepost-upmorepenetrationmoreat-the-basketkindofstuff.ButKobe’sdoingawholerangeofthings.Ithinkhisshootinghasjustbeenremarkablethewayheisraisingupoverpeopleandknockingtheballdown." It’sstillalongwayoffbutbecausehestartedintheNBAwhenhewas18Bryant28canpassKareemAbdul-Jabbarastheleague’sall-timescorerifhecanstayhealthyandaverage25pointsuntilheis38."Thebestpartofitallisthatwe’rewinning"Bryantsaid."ThesecondisthatthisgenerationofplayerswhomightnothaveeverheardoftheElgin[Baylors]orWilts[andtheir]greatnesswillnowtakenoticesothelegacyoftheirbrilliancewillliveon. "AsfarasmyselfIcan’texplainit.Allisinslowmotionallthetime.Idon’tknowwhyorhowbutit’strippy."That’sprobablywhatChamberlainsaidduringhisrecordrun. Whichofthefollowingstatementsistrueaccordingtotheauthor
TheTheoryofContinentalDrifthashadalongandturbulenthistorysinceitwasfirstproposedbyAlfredWegenerin1910.46Vigorouslychallengedyetwidelyignoredthetheoryhadlanguishedforhalfacenturyprimarilyduetoitslackofaplausiblemechanismtosupporttheproposeddrift.Withthediscoveryofsea-floorspreadinginthelate1950’sandearly60’stheideawasreinvigorated.Platetectonicsisnowalmostuniversallyaccepted.Manydetailsofthemechanismaretobeworkedout. ThesurfaceoftheEarthisdividedintoapproximatelysixlargeplatesplusanumberofsmallerones.Theplatesare’boundedbyaninterconnectednetworkofridgestransformfaultsandtrenches.RidgesalsocalledspreadingcentersoccurwheretwoplatesaremovingawayfromeachOther.Astheplatesseparatehotmoltenmantlematerialflowsuptofillthevoid.47Theincreasedheatresultingfromthisflowreducesthedensityoftheplatescausingthemtofloathigherthuselevatingtheboundariesbymanythousandsoffeetabovethecoldersurroundingseafloor.48Ridgesontheoceanfloorformthelongestcontinuousrangesofmountainsontheplanetbut.onlyinaveryfewplacesontheEarthdothesemountainsriseabovetheoceansurface. Newseafloorisconstantlybeingcreatedalongspreadingcenters.Obviouslysomewhereelseoldseafloormustbegoingaway.Thisoccursintrenchesalsocalledsubductionzones.Trenchesoccuralongtheboundarybetweentwoplatesthataremovingtowardseachother.49Wherethisoccursoneplateisbentdownwardsatabouta400angleandplungesundertheotherplate’sleadingedgeeventuallytomeltbackintotheliquidmantlebelow.Asthesubductingplateisheatedbackuptomantletemperaturescertainmineralsintheplatemeltsoonerthanothers.50Mineralsthatmeltatlowertemperaturesandarelighterthanthesurroundingmaterialtendtorisemeltingtheirwayupthroughtheoverridingplatetoeruptasvolcanoesontheoceanfloor.Asthesevolcanoesgrowtheyriseabovetheoceansurfacetoformlinesofislandsalongtheleadingedgeoftheoverridingplate.NumerousislandsofMicronesiaandMelanesiainthewesternPacificwerecreatedinthisway. 46Vigorouslychallengedyetwidelyignoredthetheoryhadlanguishedforhalfacenturyprimarilyduetoitslackofaplausiblemechanismtosupporttheproposeddrift.
Directions:Lookatthefollowingpictureandwriteanarticleoneagerlearners.Yourarticleshouldmeetthefollowingtworequirements: 1Interpretthemessageconveyedbythepicture. 2Makeyourcommentsonthephenomenon. Youshouldwriteabout160-200wordsneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.20points
[A]Assumedinhospitablenesstosocialdevelopment [B]Pricepaidformisconceptions [C]Evolutionaryadaptationtoforestecology [D]Falsebeliefsrevised [E]Extremeimpoverishmentandbackwardness [F]Ignoranceofearlyhumanimpact [G]Popularviewonresidents In1942AlanRHolmbergadoctoralstudentinanthropologyfromYaleUniversityUSAventureddeepintothejungleofBolivianAmazoniaandsearchedoutanisolatedbandofSirionoIndians.TheresearcherdescribedtheprimitivesocietyasadesperatestruggleforsurvivalaviewofAmazoniabeingfundamentallyreconsideredtoday. TheSirionoHohnbergwroteleda"strikinglybackward"existence.Theirvillageswerelittlemorethanclustersofhuts.Lifeitselfwasaperpetualandpunishingsearchforfood:somefamiliesgrewmaniocandotherstarchycropsinsmallgardenplotsclearedfromtheforestwhileothermembersofthetribescouredthecountryforsmallgameandpromisingfishholes.Whenlocalresourcesbecamedepletedthetribemovedon.AsfortechnologyHolmbergnotedtheSiriuno"maybeclassifiedamongthemosthandicappedpeoplesoftheworld".OtherthanbowsarrowsandcrudediggingstickstheonlytoolstheSirionoseemedtopossesswere"twomachetesworntothesizeofpocket-knives". AlthoughthelivesoftheSirionohavechangedintheinterveningdecadestheimageofthemasStoneAgerelicshasendured.TocasualobserversaswellastoinfluentialnaturalscientistsandregionalplannerstheluxuriantforestsofAmazoniaseemagelessunconquerableahabitattotallyhostiletohumancivilization.TheapparentsimplicityofIndianwaysoflifehasbeenjudgedanevolutionaryadaptationtoforestecologylivingproofthatAmazoniacouldnot--andcan’tsustainamorecomplexsociety.Archaeologicaltracesoffarmoreelaboralecullureshavebeendismissedastheruinsofinvadersfromoutsidetheregionabandonedlodecayintheuncompromisingtropicalenvironment. ThepopularconceptionofAmazoniaanditsnativeresidentswouldbeenormouslyconsequentialifitweretrue.ButthehumanhistoryofAmazoniainthepast11000yearsbetraysthatviewasmyth.Evidencegatheredinrecentyearsfiomanthropologyandarchaeologyindicatedthattheregionhassupportedaseriesoflocal/indigenousculturesforeleventhousandyears;anextensivenetworkofcomplexsocieties—somewithpopulationsperhapsaslargeas10000—thrivedthereformorethan1000yearsbeforethearrivalEuropeans.FarfrombeingevolutionarilyretardedprehistoricAmazonianpeopledeelopedtechnologiesandculturesthatwereadvancedfortheirtime.IfthelivesofIndianstodayseem"primitive"theappearanceisnottheresultofsomeenvironmentaladaptationorecologicalbarrier;ratheritisacomparativelyrecentadaptationtocenturiesofeconomicandpoliticalpressure. TheevidenceforarevisedviewofAmazoniawilltakemanypeoplebysurprise.Ecologistshaveassumedthattropicalecosystemswereshapedentirelybynaturalforcesandtheyhavefocusedtheirresearchonhabitatstheybelievehaveescapedhumaninfluence.ButastheUniversityofFloridaeeologistPeterFeinsingerhasnotedanapproachthatleavespeopleoutoftheequationisnolongersensible.ThearchaeologicalevidenceshowsthatthenaturalhistoryofAmazoniaistoasurprisingextenttiedtotheactivitiesofitsprehistoricinhabitants. Therealizationcomesnonetoosoon.InJune1992politicalandenvironmentalleadersfromacrosstheworldmetinRiodeJaneirotodiscusshowdevelopingcountriescanadvancetheireconomieswithoutdestroyingtheirnaturalresources.ThechallengeisespeciallydifficultinAmazonia.Becausethetropicalforesthasbeendepictedasecologicallyunfitforlarge-scalehumanoccupationsomeenvironmentalistshaveopposeddevelopmentofanykind.Ironicallyonemajorcasualtyofthatextremepositionhasbeentheenvironmentitself.Whilepolicymakersstruggletodefineandimplementappropriatelegislationdevelopmentofthemostdestructivekindhascontinuedonalargescaleovervastareas. Theothermajorcasualtyofthe"naturalism"ofenvironmentalscientistshasbeentheindigenousAmazonianswhosehabitsofhuntingfishingandslash-and-burncultivationoftenhavebeenrepresentedasharmfultothehabitat.IntheclashbetweenenvironmentalistsanddeveloperstheIndianshavesufferedthemost.Thenewunderstandingofthepre-historyofAinazoniahoweverpointstowardamiddleground.Archaeologymakesclearthatwithjudiciousmanagementselectedpartsoftheregioncouldsupportmorepeoplethananyonethoughtbefore.Thelong-buriedpastitseemsofferhopeforthetuture. 44
TheTheoryofContinentalDrifthashadalongandturbulenthistorysinceitwasfirstproposedbyAlfredWegenerin1910.46Vigorouslychallengedyetwidelyignoredthetheoryhadlanguishedforhalfacenturyprimarilyduetoitslackofaplausiblemechanismtosupporttheproposeddrift.Withthediscoveryofsea-floorspreadinginthelate1950’sandearly60’stheideawasreinvigorated.Platetectonicsisnowalmostuniversallyaccepted.Manydetailsofthemechanismaretobeworkedout. ThesurfaceoftheEarthisdividedintoapproximatelysixlargeplatesplusanumberofsmallerones.Theplatesare’boundedbyaninterconnectednetworkofridgestransformfaultsandtrenches.RidgesalsocalledspreadingcentersoccurwheretwoplatesaremovingawayfromeachOther.Astheplatesseparatehotmoltenmantlematerialflowsuptofillthevoid.47Theincreasedheatresultingfromthisflowreducesthedensityoftheplatescausingthemtofloathigherthuselevatingtheboundariesbymanythousandsoffeetabovethecoldersurroundingseafloor.48Ridgesontheoceanfloorformthelongestcontinuousrangesofmountainsontheplanetbut.onlyinaveryfewplacesontheEarthdothesemountainsriseabovetheoceansurface. Newseafloorisconstantlybeingcreatedalongspreadingcenters.Obviouslysomewhereelseoldseafloormustbegoingaway.Thisoccursintrenchesalsocalledsubductionzones.Trenchesoccuralongtheboundarybetweentwoplatesthataremovingtowardseachother.49Wherethisoccursoneplateisbentdownwardsatabouta400angleandplungesundertheotherplate’sleadingedgeeventuallytomeltbackintotheliquidmantlebelow.Asthesubductingplateisheatedbackuptomantletemperaturescertainmineralsintheplatemeltsoonerthanothers.50Mineralsthatmeltatlowertemperaturesandarelighterthanthesurroundingmaterialtendtorisemeltingtheirwayupthroughtheoverridingplatetoeruptasvolcanoesontheoceanfloor.Asthesevolcanoesgrowtheyriseabovetheoceansurfacetoformlinesofislandsalongtheleadingedgeoftheoverridingplate.NumerousislandsofMicronesiaandMelanesiainthewesternPacificwerecreatedinthisway. 48Ridgesontheoceanfloorformthelongestcontinuousrangesofmountainsontheplanetbut.onlyinaveryfewplacesontheEarthdothesemountainsriseabovetheoceansurface.
Weakdollarorno$46000-thepriceforasingleyearofundergraduateinstructionamidtheredbrickofHarvardYard-is1Butnowadayscostis2barriertoentryatmanyofAmerica’sbestuniversities.Formidablefinancial-assistancepolicieshave3feesorslashedthemdeeplyforneedystudents.AndlastmonthHarvardannouncedanewplandesignedto4thesticker-shockforundergraduatesfrommiddleandevenupper-incomefamiliestoo. SincethenotherrichAmericanuniversitieshaveunveiled5initiatives.YaleHarvard’sbitterest6revealeditsplansonJanuary14th.Studentswhosefamiliesmake7than$60000ayearwillpaynothingatall.Familiesearningupto$200000ayearwillhavetopayanaverageof10%oftheirincomes.Theuniversitywill8itsfinancial-assistancebudgetby43%toover$80m. Harvardwillhaveasimilararrangementforfamiliesmakingupto$180000.ThatmakesthepriceofgoingtoHarvardorYale9toattendingastate-rununiversityformiddle-andupper-incomestudents.Theuniversitieswillalsonotrequireanystudenttotakeout10topayfortheir11apolicyintroducedbyPrincetonin2001andbytheUniversityofPennsylvaniajustafterHarvard’s12.Noapplicantwhogainsadmissionofficialssayshouldfeel13togoelsewherebecauseheorshecan’taffordthefees. Noneofthatisquiteasaltruisticasitsounds.HarvardandYaleareafterallnowlikelytoluremorestudentsawayfrompreviously14optionsparticularlystate-rununiversities15theiralreadyimpressiveadmissionsfiguresandreputations. Theschemesalsoprovidea16forstructuringuniversityfeesinwhichhighpricesforrichstudentshelpoffsetmodestpricesforpooreronesandfamiliesareless17onfederalgrantsandgovernment-backedloans. Lesswealthyprivatecollegeswhosefeesarehighwillnotbeableto18HarvardorYaleeasily.ButAmerica’sstate-rununiversitieswhichhavetraditionallykepttheirfeeslowandstablemightwelltryadifferentiated19schemeastheyraisecashtocompeteacademicallywiththeirprivate20.IndeedtheUniversityofCaliforniasystemhasalreadystartedtoimplementasliding-feescale. 18
EveryyearNewZealanderslivinginLondoncanbeseenloadingupKombivansandheadingofftoexperiencethe"classicEuropeanholiday".ThetripusuallystartsinthenorthofFranceaftercrossingthechannelfromDoverinEnglandtoCalaisdrivingdownthroughFranceoverthePyreneesintoSpainwestintoPortugalandthenacrosstheContinenttoItalyandoftenbeyond. TherearenumerousreasonsyoungNewZealanderstakethisriteofpassage—aswellasseeingallthefantasticsightsandtastingthedelightsofEurope’sfoodandwineit’srelativelyinexpensive.TheKombiistransportandaccommodationallinonecuttingdownsignificantlyoncosts. Thereisjustoneproblem.AstheKombisbecome"antique"thesetripsareusuallypunctuatedwithnumerousroadsidesessionsasthevansitsidleinnohurrytostartwhileyouswelterinthehotsun.Butdonotletthisdeteryou.TravellingEuropeinyourownvehiclemeansnopublictransportschedulestocrampyourstyletheabilitytoexplorethequaintoff-the-beaten-trackvillageswherethe"real"localslivefreedomtonothavetobookaccommodationinadvance—youcannearlyalwaysgetacampsiteandcanloadyourvehiclewithcheapfantasticregionalwinesandsouvenirs.WiththesebonusesinmindherearesomesuggestionsforplanningthegreatEuroperoadadventure.Thekeytoapleasurabledrivingexperienceisagoodnavigatorandadriverwithacoolhead.Ifyoudonotfeelrelaxeddriving’aroundNewZealand’scitiesandhighwaysthenyouprobablywillnotenjoydrivingaroundEurope.Asco-pilottothedriveryouneedtoreadandunderstandmapslookoutforturn-offs--andkeepthemusicplaying.Languageisnotabigproblemonceafewessentialtermsaremastered.Thebiggestchallengeisinthecitieswheretrafficcanbechaoticandelaborateone-waysystemsandnarrowcobbledalleywayscanmakefindingyourdestinationhardwork.Itcanbeeasiertoleavethevehicleontheoutskirtsoftownorinacampinggroundandusepublictransport.Thisalsoavoidspayingforcostlyparking. Whatisthenationalityofthetargetreaders
EveryyearNewZealanderslivinginLondoncanbeseenloadingupKombivansandheadingofftoexperiencethe"classicEuropeanholiday".ThetripusuallystartsinthenorthofFranceaftercrossingthechannelfromDoverinEnglandtoCalaisdrivingdownthroughFranceoverthePyreneesintoSpainwestintoPortugalandthenacrosstheContinenttoItalyandoftenbeyond. TherearenumerousreasonsyoungNewZealanderstakethisriteofpassage—aswellasseeingallthefantasticsightsandtastingthedelightsofEurope’sfoodandwineit’srelativelyinexpensive.TheKombiistransportandaccommodationallinonecuttingdownsignificantlyoncosts. Thereisjustoneproblem.AstheKombisbecome"antique"thesetripsareusuallypunctuatedwithnumerousroadsidesessionsasthevansitsidleinnohurrytostartwhileyouswelterinthehotsun.Butdonotletthisdeteryou.TravellingEuropeinyourownvehiclemeansnopublictransportschedulestocrampyourstyletheabilitytoexplorethequaintoff-the-beaten-trackvillageswherethe"real"localslivefreedomtonothavetobookaccommodationinadvance—youcannearlyalwaysgetacampsiteandcanloadyourvehiclewithcheapfantasticregionalwinesandsouvenirs.WiththesebonusesinmindherearesomesuggestionsforplanningthegreatEuroperoadadventure.Thekeytoapleasurabledrivingexperienceisagoodnavigatorandadriverwithacoolhead.Ifyoudonotfeelrelaxeddriving’aroundNewZealand’scitiesandhighwaysthenyouprobablywillnotenjoydrivingaroundEurope.Asco-pilottothedriveryouneedtoreadandunderstandmapslookoutforturn-offs--andkeepthemusicplaying.Languageisnotabigproblemonceafewessentialtermsaremastered.Thebiggestchallengeisinthecitieswheretrafficcanbechaoticandelaborateone-waysystemsandnarrowcobbledalleywayscanmakefindingyourdestinationhardwork.Itcanbeeasiertoleavethevehicleontheoutskirtsoftownorinacampinggroundandusepublictransport.Thisalsoavoidspayingforcostlyparking. Accordingtothepassagethetripusuallystartsin
Weakdollarorno$46000-thepriceforasingleyearofundergraduateinstructionamidtheredbrickofHarvardYard-is1Butnowadayscostis2barriertoentryatmanyofAmerica’sbestuniversities.Formidablefinancial-assistancepolicieshave3feesorslashedthemdeeplyforneedystudents.AndlastmonthHarvardannouncedanewplandesignedto4thesticker-shockforundergraduatesfrommiddleandevenupper-incomefamiliestoo. SincethenotherrichAmericanuniversitieshaveunveiled5initiatives.YaleHarvard’sbitterest6revealeditsplansonJanuary14th.Studentswhosefamiliesmake7than$60000ayearwillpaynothingatall.Familiesearningupto$200000ayearwillhavetopayanaverageof10%oftheirincomes.Theuniversitywill8itsfinancial-assistancebudgetby43%toover$80m. Harvardwillhaveasimilararrangementforfamiliesmakingupto$180000.ThatmakesthepriceofgoingtoHarvardorYale9toattendingastate-rununiversityformiddle-andupper-incomestudents.Theuniversitieswillalsonotrequireanystudenttotakeout10topayfortheir11apolicyintroducedbyPrincetonin2001andbytheUniversityofPennsylvaniajustafterHarvard’s12.Noapplicantwhogainsadmissionofficialssayshouldfeel13togoelsewherebecauseheorshecan’taffordthefees. Noneofthatisquiteasaltruisticasitsounds.HarvardandYaleareafterallnowlikelytoluremorestudentsawayfrompreviously14optionsparticularlystate-rununiversities15theiralreadyimpressiveadmissionsfiguresandreputations. Theschemesalsoprovidea16forstructuringuniversityfeesinwhichhighpricesforrichstudentshelpoffsetmodestpricesforpooreronesandfamiliesareless17onfederalgrantsandgovernment-backedloans. Lesswealthyprivatecollegeswhosefeesarehighwillnotbeableto18HarvardorYaleeasily.ButAmerica’sstate-rununiversitieswhichhavetraditionallykepttheirfeeslowandstablemightwelltryadifferentiated19schemeastheyraisecashtocompeteacademicallywiththeirprivate20.IndeedtheUniversityofCaliforniasystemhasalreadystartedtoimplementasliding-feescale. 4
Thereareanumberofformatsforreportingresearchsuchasarticlestoappearinjournalsreportsaddressedtofundingagenciesthesesordissertationsaspartoftherequirementsforuniversitydegreesandpaperstobepresentedatconferences.Theseformatsdifferfromoneanothermostlyintheirpurposesandtheaudienceswhomtheyaddress.Wewillnowbrieflydescribethem. Thejournalarticleisawayofreportingresearchforprofessionaljournalsoreditedcollections.Theresearchisreportinginabriefyetinformativewayfocusingmostlyonthemainfeaturesoftheresearchsuchasthepurposereviewoftheliteratureoftenreferredtoas"background"proceduresusedforcarryingouttheresearchaccompaniedbytableschartsandgraphsandinterpretationsoftheresultsoftenreferredtoasdiscussion. Thecontentandemphasisofthejournalarticlewillvaryaccordingtotheintendedreadersresearchorpractitionersanditisimportantfortheresearchertobeawareofthebackgroundandinterestofthereadersofthejournal.ArticlesintendedtobereadbypractitionerswillemphasizethepracticalimplicationsandrecommendationsoftheresearchwhilearticlesintendedtobereadbyresearcherswilldescribeindetailthemethodusedtocollectdatatheconstructionofdatacollectionproceduresandthetechniquesusedforanalyzingthedataItisimportantforthenoviceresearchertobeawareofthefactthatarticlessubmittedtojournalsgothroughaprocessofevaluationbyexpertswhomakeajudgmentandrecommendwhethertheyshouldbepublishedornot. Thethesisordissertationisaformatforreportingresearchwhichgraduatestudentswriteaspartoffulfillingtherequirementsforanadvancedacademicdegree.Thestudentisexpectedtodescribeingreatdetailallthephasesoftheresearchsoitcanbeexaminedandevaluatedcarefullybythereader.Thusthethesisordissertationincludesthepurposeandsignificanceofthestudytherationaleathoroughreviewoftheliteraturedetailedinformationastotheresearchtoolsandtheproceduresinvolvedintheirdevelopmentadescriptionofdataanalysisandtheresultsandaninterpretationoftheresultsintheformofconclusionsimplicationsandrecommendation.Thisdetaileddescriptionoftheprocessoftheresearchisneededtoprovidetheprofessorswithanindicationofthestudent’sabilitytocarryoutresearch. Theconferencepaperisawayofreportingresearchatconferencesseminarsandcolloquia.Atsuchmeetingsresearchpapersareusuallypresentedorally.Theyaresimilartotheresearcharticlesinceresearchisreportedinaconciseyetinformativewayfocusingonthemostessentialelementsoftheresearch.Handoutsandtransparenciescanalsoaccompanythepresentations.Aswiththeresearcharticleheretoothecontentandemphasisoftheoralreportwilldependtoalargeextentonthetypeofaudiencepresentatthemeetingandwhethertheyareresearchersorpractitioners. Thecommonaspectforthejournalarticlestheseandconferencepapersliesinthat
TheLakers’forwardKobeBryanthasscored50ormorepointsinfourstraightgamessecondintheNBAonlytoWiltChamberlain’sseven.HealsonowistiedwithMichaelJordanforsecondwithfourbehindChamberlain’s32inmost60-pointgames. "He’sdoingsomethingI’veneverseen"LakerscoachPhilJacksonsaidinane-mailSaturday."Thishasbeenhistoric."HeshouldknowbecausehecoachedJordanandplayedagainstChamberlain.BryantisnotgoingtowintheMVPawardwhichlikelywillgotoDirkNowitzkiorSteveNash.Buthisscoringbrillianceagainseemstoanswerthequestionofwho’sthebestplayerintheleagueanditalsoprovidesmoreevidenceinthesimilarityofBryantandJordanintheirtalentandapproachtothegame. InanyeaseBryantistheplayernowfirmlyholdingthatmythicaltorchofgreatnesssportingcelebrityandcreativitythatJordanoncetookfromJulius"Dr.J"Erring."Kobehastheverdantgreenlighttohoistitupuntilhecoolsdown"Jacksonsaid."Wondersneverceaseinthisgame."CertainlyBryanthasbeenwonderfulinthefourgamesaveraging56.3pointswithtwogamesofatleast60.Moreoverhehardlyhasbeenselfishorworkingoutsidetheoffensebecausemostofhisfieldgoalshavecomeonlongjumpersincluding17of33onthree-pointers.Bryantisshooting54percent. "It’sphenomenal.It’sincredible"JacksontoldLosAngelesreporters."He’sshooting[outside]morethanMichaelwas.Michaelwasprobablydoingmorepost-upmorepenetrationmoreat-the-basketkindofstuff.ButKobe’sdoingawholerangeofthings.Ithinkhisshootinghasjustbeenremarkablethewayheisraisingupoverpeopleandknockingtheballdown." It’sstillalongwayoffbutbecausehestartedintheNBAwhenhewas18Bryant28canpassKareemAbdul-Jabbarastheleague’sall-timescorerifhecanstayhealthyandaverage25pointsuntilheis38."Thebestpartofitallisthatwe’rewinning"Bryantsaid."ThesecondisthatthisgenerationofplayerswhomightnothaveeverheardoftheElgin[Baylors]orWilts[andtheir]greatnesswillnowtakenoticesothelegacyoftheirbrilliancewillliveon. "AsfarasmyselfIcan’texplainit.Allisinslowmotionallthetime.Idon’tknowwhyorhowbutit’strippy."That’sprobablywhatChamberlainsaidduringhisrecordrun. What’stheevidencethatJacksonthoughtKobeisbetterthanMichael
Weakdollarorno$46000-thepriceforasingleyearofundergraduateinstructionamidtheredbrickofHarvardYard-is1Butnowadayscostis2barriertoentryatmanyofAmerica’sbestuniversities.Formidablefinancial-assistancepolicieshave3feesorslashedthemdeeplyforneedystudents.AndlastmonthHarvardannouncedanewplandesignedto4thesticker-shockforundergraduatesfrommiddleandevenupper-incomefamiliestoo. SincethenotherrichAmericanuniversitieshaveunveiled5initiatives.YaleHarvard’sbitterest6revealeditsplansonJanuary14th.Studentswhosefamiliesmake7than$60000ayearwillpaynothingatall.Familiesearningupto$200000ayearwillhavetopayanaverageof10%oftheirincomes.Theuniversitywill8itsfinancial-assistancebudgetby43%toover$80m. Harvardwillhaveasimilararrangementforfamiliesmakingupto$180000.ThatmakesthepriceofgoingtoHarvardorYale9toattendingastate-rununiversityformiddle-andupper-incomestudents.Theuniversitieswillalsonotrequireanystudenttotakeout10topayfortheir11apolicyintroducedbyPrincetonin2001andbytheUniversityofPennsylvaniajustafterHarvard’s12.Noapplicantwhogainsadmissionofficialssayshouldfeel13togoelsewherebecauseheorshecan’taffordthefees. Noneofthatisquiteasaltruisticasitsounds.HarvardandYaleareafterallnowlikelytoluremorestudentsawayfrompreviously14optionsparticularlystate-rununiversities15theiralreadyimpressiveadmissionsfiguresandreputations. Theschemesalsoprovidea16forstructuringuniversityfeesinwhichhighpricesforrichstudentshelpoffsetmodestpricesforpooreronesandfamiliesareless17onfederalgrantsandgovernment-backedloans. Lesswealthyprivatecollegeswhosefeesarehighwillnotbeableto18HarvardorYaleeasily.ButAmerica’sstate-rununiversitieswhichhavetraditionallykepttheirfeeslowandstablemightwelltryadifferentiated19schemeastheyraisecashtocompeteacademicallywiththeirprivate20.IndeedtheUniversityofCaliforniasystemhasalreadystartedtoimplementasliding-feescale. 2
TheTheoryofContinentalDrifthashadalongandturbulenthistorysinceitwasfirstproposedbyAlfredWegenerin1910.46Vigorouslychallengedyetwidelyignoredthetheoryhadlanguishedforhalfacenturyprimarilyduetoitslackofaplausiblemechanismtosupporttheproposeddrift.Withthediscoveryofsea-floorspreadinginthelate1950’sandearly60’stheideawasreinvigorated.Platetectonicsisnowalmostuniversallyaccepted.Manydetailsofthemechanismaretobeworkedout. ThesurfaceoftheEarthisdividedintoapproximatelysixlargeplatesplusanumberofsmallerones.Theplatesare’boundedbyaninterconnectednetworkofridgestransformfaultsandtrenches.RidgesalsocalledspreadingcentersoccurwheretwoplatesaremovingawayfromeachOther.Astheplatesseparatehotmoltenmantlematerialflowsuptofillthevoid.47Theincreasedheatresultingfromthisflowreducesthedensityoftheplatescausingthemtofloathigherthuselevatingtheboundariesbymanythousandsoffeetabovethecoldersurroundingseafloor.48Ridgesontheoceanfloorformthelongestcontinuousrangesofmountainsontheplanetbut.onlyinaveryfewplacesontheEarthdothesemountainsriseabovetheoceansurface. Newseafloorisconstantlybeingcreatedalongspreadingcenters.Obviouslysomewhereelseoldseafloormustbegoingaway.Thisoccursintrenchesalsocalledsubductionzones.Trenchesoccuralongtheboundarybetweentwoplatesthataremovingtowardseachother.49Wherethisoccursoneplateisbentdownwardsatabouta400angleandplungesundertheotherplate’sleadingedgeeventuallytomeltbackintotheliquidmantlebelow.Asthesubductingplateisheatedbackuptomantletemperaturescertainmineralsintheplatemeltsoonerthanothers.50Mineralsthatmeltatlowertemperaturesandarelighterthanthesurroundingmaterialtendtorisemeltingtheirwayupthroughtheoverridingplatetoeruptasvolcanoesontheoceanfloor.Asthesevolcanoesgrowtheyriseabovetheoceansurfacetoformlinesofislandsalongtheleadingedgeoftheoverridingplate.NumerousislandsofMicronesiaandMelanesiainthewesternPacificwerecreatedinthisway. 50Mineralsthatmeltatlowertemperaturesandarelighterthanthesurroundingmaterialtendtorisemeltingtheirwayupthroughtheoverridingplatetoeruptasvolcanoesontheoceanfloor.
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