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Text 4 President Bush takes to the bully pulpit to deliver a stern lecture to America’s busines...
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Text4 PresidentBushtakestothebullypulpittodel
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should avoid law enforcement.
may be caught in a dilemma.
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WithAirbus’sgiantA380airlinerabouttotaketotheskiesyoumightthinkplanescouldnotgetmuchbiggerandyouwouldberight.Foragivendesignitturns1therecomesapointwherethewingsbecometooheavytogenerate2lifttocarrytheirownweight.3anewwayofdesigningandmakingmaterialscould4thatproblem.Twoengineers5UniversityCollegeLondonhavedevisedaninnovativewaytocustomiseandcontrolthe6ofamaterialthroughoutitsthreedimensionalstructure. Inthe7ofawingthiswouldmakepossibleamaterialthatisdensestrongandload-bearingatoneendclosetothefuselage8theextremitiescouldbemadelessdenselighterandmore9.Itislikemakingbespokematerials10youcancustomisethephysicalpropertiesofeverycubicmillimetreofastructure. Thenewtechniquecombinesexistingtechnologiesinan11way.Itstartsbyusingfinite-element-analysissoftwareofthetypecommonlyusedbyengineers12avirtualprototypeoftheobject.Thesoftwaremodelsthestressesandstrainsthattheobjectwillneedto13throughoutitsstructure.Usingthisinformationitisthen14tocalculatethepreciseforcesactingonmillionsofsmallersubsectionsofthestructure.15ofthesesubsectionsis16treatedasaseparateobjectwithitsownsetofforcesactingonit--andeachsubsection17foradifferentmicrostructuretoabsorbthoselocalforces. Designingsomanymicrostructuresmanually18beahugetasksotheresearchersapplyanoptimisationprogramcalledageneticalgorithm19.Thisusesaprocessofrandomisationandtrial-and-errortosearchthevastnumberofpossiblemicrostructurestofindthemost20designforeachsubsection. 20
[A]Periodicalsininitialstage [B]Thefunctionofperiodicals [C]Newspapersandotherperiodicalsonline [D]Theintroductionofreviews [E]Featureso~periodicals [F]Theemergenceofmodernperiodicals Periodicalsrefertopublicationsreleasedonaregularbasisthatmayincludenewsfeaturearticlespoemsfictionalstoriesorothertypesofwriting.Manyperiodicalsalsoincludephotographsanddrawings.Periodicalsthatareaimedatageneralaudiencesuchasweeklynewsroundupsormonthlyspecial-interestpublicationsarealsocalledmagazines.Thosewithamorenarrowaudiencesuchaspublicationsofscholarlyorganizationscanbetermedjournals.Whilenewspapersareperiodicalsthetermgenerallyhascometorefertopublicationsotherthandailies. 41.______. Historicallymostperiodicalshavedifferedfromnewspapersintheirformatpublicationscheduleandcontent.Mostnewspapersdealwiththenewsofthedayandareissuedonpulppaperwithrelativelylargeunboundpages.Bycontrastothertypesofperiodicalsfocusonmorespecializedmaterialandwhentheydealwithnewstheytendtodosointheformofsummariesorcommentaries.Forcenturiestheseperiodicalsgenerallyhavebeenprintedonfinerpaperthannewspaperswithsmallerboundpagesandissuedatintervalslongerthanadayweeklyeverytwoweeksmonthlyquarterlyorevenannually. 42.______. Inthe1990swiththegrowthoftheInternetpublishersbegantoreleasenewspapersandotherperiodicalsonline.Thisdevelopmentblurredthelinebetweenthetwoformsbecausethegeneralformatanddesignofonlinenewspapersandperiodicalsaresimilarandthepublicationschedulesofbothformsbecamemoreflexible.Forexamplemanynewspaperpublishersupdatetheironlineversionsthroughoutthedayandsomeonlineperiodicalsdothesame.Despitethesetechnologicalchangesthetwoforms’differingemphasisinchoiceofcontentremainsadistinguishingfactor. 43.______. TheearliestperiodicalsincludetheGermanErbaulicheMonaths-UnterredungenEdifyingMonthlyDiscussions1663-1668theFrenchJournaldesSayahs1665;subsequentlytitledJournaldesSavantsandtheEnglishPhilosophicalTransactions1665oftheRoyalSocietyofLondon.Thesewereessentiallycollectionsofsummarieslateressaysondevelopmentsinartliteraturephilosophyandscience. 44.______. ThefirstperiodicalofthemoderngeneraltypedevotedtoamiscellanyofreadingentertainmentwastheEnglishpublicationTheGentleman’sMagazine1731-1907--thefirstinstanceoftheuseofthewordmagazinetodenoteaforumforentertainingreading.Itcontainedreportsofpoliticaldebatesessaysstoriesandpoemsandwaswidelyinfluential.ItservedasthemodelforthefirsttrueAmericanperiodicalsGeneralMagazineandHistoricalChronicleandAmericanMagazine.BothoftheseperiodicalsfirstappearedinPhiladelphiaPennsylvaniainJanuary1741asrivalpublications;neitherlastedmorethanafewmonthshowever.TheformerwasfoundedbytheAmericanstatesmanandscientistBenjaminFranklinandthelatterbytheAmericanprinterAndrewBradford. 45.______. MonthlyorquarterlyreviewsusuallypartisaninpolitiesandwitharticlescontributedbyeminentauthorsandpoliticianswereintroducedinBritainearlyinthe19thcentury.Ofthesetwobecameoutstanding.TheEdinburghReview1802-1929foundedinsupportoftheWhigPartywasoneofthemostinfluentialcriticaljournalsofitsdayandnumberedamongitscontributorstheEnglishwritersSirWalterScottThomasCarlyleMatthewArnoldandWilliamHazlitt.Blackwood’sEdinburghMagazine1817-1981aTorypublicationwasearlyinitscareernotedforitsserializationofScottishfictionanditssatiricalcommentariesonScottishaffairs. OneofthemostimportantseriousperiodicalsintheUnitedStatesinthe19thcenturywastheNorthAmericanReview1815-1940;revivedin1964.EditorsduringitslongandillustriouscareerincludedsuchliteraryfiguresasJamesRussellLowellCharlesEliotNortonandHenryAdams;contributorsincludedHenryJamesH.G.WellsandMarkTwain.AmongtheEuropeanequivalentsofsuchperiodicalsweretheFrenchRevuedesDeuxMondesandtheGermanLiterarischesWochenblatt. 42
Text3 WhenIwasachildinSundayschoolIwouldasksearchingquestionslike"Angelscanflyupinheavenbuthowdocloudsholduppianos"andgetthesamepuzzlingresponseabouthowthatwasnotimportantwhatwasimportantwasthatJesusdiedforoursinsandifweacceptedhimasoursaviorwhenwediedwewouldgotoheavenwherewe’dgeteverythingwewanted.Somechildreninmyclasswonderedwhyanyonewouldhangonacrosswithnailsstuckthroughhishandstohelpanyoneelse;IwonderedhowSantaClausknewwhatIwantedforChristmaseventhoughIneverwrotehimaletter.Maybehehadataperecorderhiddenineverychimneyintheworld. Thisliteral-mindednesshasstuckwithme;oneresultofitisthatIamunabletobelieveinGod.MostoftheotheratheistsIknowseemtofeelfreedorproudoftheirunbeliefasifthey’vecleverlyrefusedtobesoldsnakeoil.MyhusbandwhowasrearedinadevoutCatholicfamilyandservedasanaltarboyisalsofirmlygroundedonthisearth.Hedoesn’tevenhavethedesiretobelieve.Sootherthanbaptizingoursontoreassureourfamilieswe’veskatedovertheissueoffaith. Somepeoplebelievefaithisagift;forothersit’sachoiceamatterofspiritualdiscipline.Ihaveafriendwhowasrearedtobelieveandhedoes.Buthisfaithhaswavered.Hehasstruggledtohangontoitandtopassitalongtohischildren.Anotherfriendofminenevergoestochurchbecauseshe’sasinglemotherwhodoesn’thavethegasmoney.Butsheoncetoldmeaboutadaywhenshewaswashingorangesasthesunstreamedontothem.AsshepeeledonethesmellrosetoherfaceandshefeltshereceivedtheHolySpirit."Hesankintomybones"sherecounted."Iliftedmypalmsupwardfeelingfilledwithlove." BeingnotheologianandnotevenabelieverIamnotinapositiontoofferuptheoriesbutmineisthis:peoplewhoreceivefaithdirectlyasaspontaneouscombustionofthesoulhavefewerquestions.Theyhavebeensparkedwithafaiththatismoreunshakablethanthatofthosewhohavebeentaught. Fromthefirstparagraphofthepassageweknowthat
Text4 Thetelecityisacitywhoselifedirectionandfunctioningarelargelyshapedbytelecommunications.Inthetwentyfirstcenturycitieswillbebasedmoreandmoreonaneconomythatisdependentonservicesandintellectualproperty.Telecommunicationsandinformationnetworkswilldefineacity’sarchitectureshapeandcharacter.Proximityinthetelecitywillbedefinedbythespeedandbandwidthofnetworksasmuchasbygeographicalpropinquity.IntheageofthetelecityNewYorkandSingaporemaybecloserthansayNewYorkandArkadelphiaArkansas. Telecitieswillsupersedemegacitiesforseveralreasonsincludingthedrivetowardcleanairreducingpollutionenergyconservationmorejobsbasedonservicesandcopingwiththehighcostofurbanproperty.Nowwemustaddtheneedtocopewithterroristthreatsinahigh-technologyworld. Westernmind-setswereclearlyjoltedinthewakeoftheterroristattackontheWorldTradeCenterinNewYorkCityandattacksinIndonesiaSaudiArabiaandelsewhere.Buttherisksposedbytwentieth-centurypatternsofurbanizationandarchitecturehaveyetoregisterfullywithpoliticalfiguresandleadersofindustry.ThePentagonforexamplehasbeenrebuiltinsituationratherthandistributedtomultiplelocationsandconnectedbysecurelandlinesandbroadbandwirelesssystems.LikewisethereconstructionoftheWorldTradeCentercomplexstillrepresentsamassiveconcentrationofhumanityandinfrastructure.Thisisaremarkablyshortsightedanddangerousvisionofthefuture. Thesecurityriskseconomicexpensesandenvironmentalhazardsofover-centralizationareeverywhereandtheydonotstopwithskyscrapersandlargegovernmentalstructures.Therearerisksalsoatseaportsandairportsinfoodandwatersuppliesatnuclearpowerplantsandhydroelectricturbinesatmajordamsintransportationsystemsandininformationandcommunicationssystems. Thisvulnerabilityappliesnotonlytoterroristthreatsbutalsotohumanerrorsuchassystem-wideblackoutsinNorthAmericainAugust2003andinItalyinSeptember2003andnaturaldisasterssuchastyphoonshurricanesfloodsandearthquakes.Leadersandplannersareonlyslowlybecomingawarethatovercentralizedfacilitiesarethemostvulnerabletoattackorcatastrophicdestruction. Thereisalsogrowingawarenessthatnewbroadbandelectronicsystemsnowallowgovernmentsandcorporationstosafeguardtheirkeyassetsandpeopleinnewandinnovativeways.Sofarcorporationshavebeenquickesttoadjusttothesenewrealitiesandsomegovernmentshavebeguntoadjustaswell. Whichofthefollowingstatementsistrueaccordingtothepassage
WithAirbus’sgiantA380airlinerabouttotaketotheskiesyoumightthinkplanescouldnotgetmuchbiggerandyouwouldberight.Foragivendesignitturns1therecomesapointwherethewingsbecometooheavytogenerate2lifttocarrytheirownweight.3anewwayofdesigningandmakingmaterialscould4thatproblem.Twoengineers5UniversityCollegeLondonhavedevisedaninnovativewaytocustomiseandcontrolthe6ofamaterialthroughoutitsthreedimensionalstructure. Inthe7ofawingthiswouldmakepossibleamaterialthatisdensestrongandload-bearingatoneendclosetothefuselage8theextremitiescouldbemadelessdenselighterandmore9.Itislikemakingbespokematerials10youcancustomisethephysicalpropertiesofeverycubicmillimetreofastructure. Thenewtechniquecombinesexistingtechnologiesinan11way.Itstartsbyusingfinite-element-analysissoftwareofthetypecommonlyusedbyengineers12avirtualprototypeoftheobject.Thesoftwaremodelsthestressesandstrainsthattheobjectwillneedto13throughoutitsstructure.Usingthisinformationitisthen14tocalculatethepreciseforcesactingonmillionsofsmallersubsectionsofthestructure.15ofthesesubsectionsis16treatedasaseparateobjectwithitsownsetofforcesactingonit--andeachsubsection17foradifferentmicrostructuretoabsorbthoselocalforces. Designingsomanymicrostructuresmanually18beahugetasksotheresearchersapplyanoptimisationprogramcalledageneticalgorithm19.Thisusesaprocessofrandomisationandtrial-and-errortosearchthevastnumberofpossiblemicrostructurestofindthemost20designforeachsubsection. 4
Text4 Thetelecityisacitywhoselifedirectionandfunctioningarelargelyshapedbytelecommunications.Inthetwentyfirstcenturycitieswillbebasedmoreandmoreonaneconomythatisdependentonservicesandintellectualproperty.Telecommunicationsandinformationnetworkswilldefineacity’sarchitectureshapeandcharacter.Proximityinthetelecitywillbedefinedbythespeedandbandwidthofnetworksasmuchasbygeographicalpropinquity.IntheageofthetelecityNewYorkandSingaporemaybecloserthansayNewYorkandArkadelphiaArkansas. Telecitieswillsupersedemegacitiesforseveralreasonsincludingthedrivetowardcleanairreducingpollutionenergyconservationmorejobsbasedonservicesandcopingwiththehighcostofurbanproperty.Nowwemustaddtheneedtocopewithterroristthreatsinahigh-technologyworld. Westernmind-setswereclearlyjoltedinthewakeoftheterroristattackontheWorldTradeCenterinNewYorkCityandattacksinIndonesiaSaudiArabiaandelsewhere.Buttherisksposedbytwentieth-centurypatternsofurbanizationandarchitecturehaveyetoregisterfullywithpoliticalfiguresandleadersofindustry.ThePentagonforexamplehasbeenrebuiltinsituationratherthandistributedtomultiplelocationsandconnectedbysecurelandlinesandbroadbandwirelesssystems.LikewisethereconstructionoftheWorldTradeCentercomplexstillrepresentsamassiveconcentrationofhumanityandinfrastructure.Thisisaremarkablyshortsightedanddangerousvisionofthefuture. Thesecurityriskseconomicexpensesandenvironmentalhazardsofover-centralizationareeverywhereandtheydonotstopwithskyscrapersandlargegovernmentalstructures.Therearerisksalsoatseaportsandairportsinfoodandwatersuppliesatnuclearpowerplantsandhydroelectricturbinesatmajordamsintransportationsystemsandininformationandcommunicationssystems. Thisvulnerabilityappliesnotonlytoterroristthreatsbutalsotohumanerrorsuchassystem-wideblackoutsinNorthAmericainAugust2003andinItalyinSeptember2003andnaturaldisasterssuchastyphoonshurricanesfloodsandearthquakes.Leadersandplannersareonlyslowlybecomingawarethatovercentralizedfacilitiesarethemostvulnerabletoattackorcatastrophicdestruction. Thereisalsogrowingawarenessthatnewbroadbandelectronicsystemsnowallowgovernmentsandcorporationstosafeguardtheirkeyassetsandpeopleinnewandinnovativeways.Sofarcorporationshavebeenquickesttoadjusttothesenewrealitiesandsomegovernmentshavebeguntoadjustaswell. JudgingfromthecontextthewordtheyLine2Paragraph4mightreferto
Text2 Ifyouarewhatyoueatthenyouarealsowhatyoubuytoeat.Andmostlywhatpeoplebuyisscrawledontoagrocerylistthoseetherealscrapsofpaperthatrecordtheshorthandofwhereweshopandhowwefeedourselves.Mostgrocerylistsendupinthegarbage.ButifyouliveinSt.Louistheymighthaveahalf-lifeyouneverimagined:asaculturaldocumentpostedontheInternet. ForthepastdecadeBiilKeaggy33thefeaturesphotoeditoratTheSt.LouisPost-Dispatchhasbeencollectinggrocerylistsandsince1999hasbeenpostingthemonlineatwww.Grocerylistsorg.Thecollectionwhichnownumbersmorethan500listsisstrangelyaddictive.Thelistselicittwo-foldcuriosity--aboutthekindofmealthepersonwasplanningandthekindofpersonwhowouldmakesuchameal.WhatwastheshopperwithvodkalightersmilkandicecreamonhislistplanningtodowiththemInwhatorderwouldtheybeconsumedWasitaheorasheWhohadwritten"Tootiefoodkittenchowbirdfoodsticktoasterscramblescoffeedrinks"Someshoppersorganizetheirlistsbyaisle;othersstartwithdairygotocleaningsuppliesandthenbacktodairybeforeveeringofftoHomeDepot.Afewmeticulousonesnotethepriceofeveryitem.Oneshopperhadwritteninlargelettersonanenvelopesimply"Milk". Thethinlinesofinkandpenciljuttingandloopingacrosscrinkledandtornpiecesofpaperhaveapurelygraphicbeauty.Oneoflife’smostbanaldutiesviewedthroughthecuratoriallenscansomehowseempregnantwithpossibility.Itcanevenappearpoeticasinthelistthatreads"meatcigsbunstreats". OnethingKeaggydiscoveredisthatDanQuayleisnotalone--fewpeoplecanspellbananasandbagelsletalonepotato.Onelistcallsfor"suchi"and"strimp"."Somepeoplepassjudgmentonthethingstheybuy"Keaggysays.Attheendofonelisttheshopperwrote"BudLight"andthen"goodbeer".Anotherscribbled"goodloafofwhitebread".Somepassjudgmentonthemselvesliketheshopperwhowrote"readstayhomeorgosomewhereIactlikemymomgotoKentuckyunderwearlemon".Peoplesendmessagestooneanothertoo.Buriedinonelististhisstatement:"IfyoubuymorericeI’llpunchyou."Andplentyofshoppersliketheonewithbothicecreamanddietpillsonthelistrevealtheirvices. ThroughstudyinggrocerylistsBillKeaggyfindsthat
WithAirbus’sgiantA380airlinerabouttotaketotheskiesyoumightthinkplanescouldnotgetmuchbiggerandyouwouldberight.Foragivendesignitturns1therecomesapointwherethewingsbecometooheavytogenerate2lifttocarrytheirownweight.3anewwayofdesigningandmakingmaterialscould4thatproblem.Twoengineers5UniversityCollegeLondonhavedevisedaninnovativewaytocustomiseandcontrolthe6ofamaterialthroughoutitsthreedimensionalstructure. Inthe7ofawingthiswouldmakepossibleamaterialthatisdensestrongandload-bearingatoneendclosetothefuselage8theextremitiescouldbemadelessdenselighterandmore9.Itislikemakingbespokematerials10youcancustomisethephysicalpropertiesofeverycubicmillimetreofastructure. Thenewtechniquecombinesexistingtechnologiesinan11way.Itstartsbyusingfinite-element-analysissoftwareofthetypecommonlyusedbyengineers12avirtualprototypeoftheobject.Thesoftwaremodelsthestressesandstrainsthattheobjectwillneedto13throughoutitsstructure.Usingthisinformationitisthen14tocalculatethepreciseforcesactingonmillionsofsmallersubsectionsofthestructure.15ofthesesubsectionsis16treatedasaseparateobjectwithitsownsetofforcesactingonit--andeachsubsection17foradifferentmicrostructuretoabsorbthoselocalforces. Designingsomanymicrostructuresmanually18beahugetasksotheresearchersapplyanoptimisationprogramcalledageneticalgorithm19.Thisusesaprocessofrandomisationandtrial-and-errortosearchthevastnumberofpossiblemicrostructurestofindthemost20designforeachsubsection. 14
[A]Periodicalsininitialstage [B]Thefunctionofperiodicals [C]Newspapersandotherperiodicalsonline [D]Theintroductionofreviews [E]Featureso~periodicals [F]Theemergenceofmodernperiodicals Periodicalsrefertopublicationsreleasedonaregularbasisthatmayincludenewsfeaturearticlespoemsfictionalstoriesorothertypesofwriting.Manyperiodicalsalsoincludephotographsanddrawings.Periodicalsthatareaimedatageneralaudiencesuchasweeklynewsroundupsormonthlyspecial-interestpublicationsarealsocalledmagazines.Thosewithamorenarrowaudiencesuchaspublicationsofscholarlyorganizationscanbetermedjournals.Whilenewspapersareperiodicalsthetermgenerallyhascometorefertopublicationsotherthandailies. 41.______. Historicallymostperiodicalshavedifferedfromnewspapersintheirformatpublicationscheduleandcontent.Mostnewspapersdealwiththenewsofthedayandareissuedonpulppaperwithrelativelylargeunboundpages.Bycontrastothertypesofperiodicalsfocusonmorespecializedmaterialandwhentheydealwithnewstheytendtodosointheformofsummariesorcommentaries.Forcenturiestheseperiodicalsgenerallyhavebeenprintedonfinerpaperthannewspaperswithsmallerboundpagesandissuedatintervalslongerthanadayweeklyeverytwoweeksmonthlyquarterlyorevenannually. 42.______. Inthe1990swiththegrowthoftheInternetpublishersbegantoreleasenewspapersandotherperiodicalsonline.Thisdevelopmentblurredthelinebetweenthetwoformsbecausethegeneralformatanddesignofonlinenewspapersandperiodicalsaresimilarandthepublicationschedulesofbothformsbecamemoreflexible.Forexamplemanynewspaperpublishersupdatetheironlineversionsthroughoutthedayandsomeonlineperiodicalsdothesame.Despitethesetechnologicalchangesthetwoforms’differingemphasisinchoiceofcontentremainsadistinguishingfactor. 43.______. TheearliestperiodicalsincludetheGermanErbaulicheMonaths-UnterredungenEdifyingMonthlyDiscussions1663-1668theFrenchJournaldesSayahs1665;subsequentlytitledJournaldesSavantsandtheEnglishPhilosophicalTransactions1665oftheRoyalSocietyofLondon.Thesewereessentiallycollectionsofsummarieslateressaysondevelopmentsinartliteraturephilosophyandscience. 44.______. ThefirstperiodicalofthemoderngeneraltypedevotedtoamiscellanyofreadingentertainmentwastheEnglishpublicationTheGentleman’sMagazine1731-1907--thefirstinstanceoftheuseofthewordmagazinetodenoteaforumforentertainingreading.Itcontainedreportsofpoliticaldebatesessaysstoriesandpoemsandwaswidelyinfluential.ItservedasthemodelforthefirsttrueAmericanperiodicalsGeneralMagazineandHistoricalChronicleandAmericanMagazine.BothoftheseperiodicalsfirstappearedinPhiladelphiaPennsylvaniainJanuary1741asrivalpublications;neitherlastedmorethanafewmonthshowever.TheformerwasfoundedbytheAmericanstatesmanandscientistBenjaminFranklinandthelatterbytheAmericanprinterAndrewBradford. 45.______. MonthlyorquarterlyreviewsusuallypartisaninpolitiesandwitharticlescontributedbyeminentauthorsandpoliticianswereintroducedinBritainearlyinthe19thcentury.Ofthesetwobecameoutstanding.TheEdinburghReview1802-1929foundedinsupportoftheWhigPartywasoneofthemostinfluentialcriticaljournalsofitsdayandnumberedamongitscontributorstheEnglishwritersSirWalterScottThomasCarlyleMatthewArnoldandWilliamHazlitt.Blackwood’sEdinburghMagazine1817-1981aTorypublicationwasearlyinitscareernotedforitsserializationofScottishfictionanditssatiricalcommentariesonScottishaffairs. OneofthemostimportantseriousperiodicalsintheUnitedStatesinthe19thcenturywastheNorthAmericanReview1815-1940;revivedin1964.EditorsduringitslongandillustriouscareerincludedsuchliteraryfiguresasJamesRussellLowellCharlesEliotNortonandHenryAdams;contributorsincludedHenryJamesH.G.WellsandMarkTwain.AmongtheEuropeanequivalentsofsuchperiodicalsweretheFrenchRevuedesDeuxMondesandtheGermanLiterarischesWochenblatt. 44
Text4 AccordingtostudiescitedbytheNationalEatingDisordersAssociation42percentofgirlsinfirstthroughthirdgradewanttobethinner81percentof10-year-oldsarea{raidofbeingfatand51percentof9-and10-year-oldgirlsfeelbetteraboutthemselvesiftheyareonadiet. Inmanywaysthisfixationonweightateverearlieragescomesataninopportunetimephysiologically.AtarecentHadassahmeetingattheWoodlandsCommunityTempleinWhitePlainsDr.MarcieSchneiderthedirectorofadolescentmedicineatGreenwichHospitalandEricaLeonaregistereddietitianspokeaboutearlyadolescenceasatimewhenalittlehitofpudginessisnecessaryforpropergrowthandyoungsterswrestleconstantlywiththeirbodyimage. "Ican’ttellyouhowmanykidsI’veseenwho’vebeenontheAtkinsdietorontheSouthBeachdiet"Ms.Leonsaidaddingthatoverweightchildrenwhotrydietscanbeatriskofdevelopingeatingdisorders. AfterthepresentationthreemothersfromHartsdalewhowantedtohelptheirchildrenavoidsuchissuesspokeabouthowtheiryoungdaughtersarealreadybeginningtobecomeweight-conscious. Anorexiaisamentalillnessinwhichthevictimeatsbarelyenoughtosurvivebecauseherdistortedthinkingmakesherthinksheisfat.BulimiaamentalillnessinwhichsomeonebingesonlargeamountsoffoodthenpurgesitthroughvomitingortheabuseoflaxativesisontheriseandissurfacinginyoungerandyoungerpatientsmostlygirlssaidJudyScheelthedirectoroftheCenterforEatingDisorderRecoveryinMountKisco. About90percentofvictimsofeatingdisordersarefemaleandoftenthemalevictimsareonteamslikewrestlingandcrewwheretheymustkeeptheirweightlowforcompetitivereasons.Dr.Scheelbelievesthatwheregirlsclaimtheeatingdisorderenablesthemtobethinboystypicallystatetheirgoalistoachieveormaintainamuscularbutthinphysique.Theaverageonsetforbulimiausedtobe17buttoseeteenagersage14and15withbulimiaiscommonthesedaysDr.Scheelsaid. OtherpeoplebelievethedisordershavegeneticOrchemicalcomponentsandmanypeoplewitheatingdisordersrespondwelltoanti-depressantsforexample. Acertainamountofeducationisnecessarytohelpyoungpeopleavoidbecomingobsessedwiththeirbodyimage."Teachersneedtostayoutsideoftalkingaboutdiets"Dr.Scheelsaid."It’slikeaparentalwaystalkingabouttheirnextdiet.Youhavetohelpachildunderstandthatifyoueathealthilyandexerciseyourbodyisgoingtotakecareofitself." AndinrelativelyhomogenouspopulationslikeinsomeWestchesterschoolscompetitionrunshigh."Sotheyoungpeopledon’treallyseehowbeautifuldiversityis"shesaid"andtheytendtoallbecompetingforkindofthesamegoals." ThestudiescitedbytheNationalEatingDisordersAssociationaremadeamong
46Todaythere’sscarcelyanaspectofourlifethatisn’tbeingupendedbythetorrentofinformationavailableonthehundredsofmillionsofsitescrowdingtheInternetnottomentionitsabilitytokeepusinconstanttouchwitheachotherviaelectronicmail."Iftheautomobileandaerospacetechnologyhadexplodedatthesamepaceascomputerandinformationtechnology"saysMicrosoft"anewcarwouldcostabout＄2andgo600milesonathimbleofgas.AndyoucouldbuyaBoeing747forthecostofapizza." ProbablythebiggestpayoffhoweveristhebillionsofdollarstheInternetissavingcompaniesinproducinggoodsandservingtheneedsoftheircustomers.47NothinglikeithasbeenseensincethebeginningoftheIndustrialRevolutionwhenpower-drivenmachinesbeganproducingmoreinadaythanmencouldturnoutinnearlyayear. Allthetimespentonlinehasleftmanyyounginfotechworkerswithoutmuchtimeforlife--orlove--offline.48TheUSfreeenterprisesystemwhichreachesafrenzyinSiliconValleyhasrecognizedthatthelocalloveboatistakingonwaterandisrushingintosavetheday.Datingservicesareapproachingoverload.Seminarsandlovedoctorsareteachingtheserichbusyyoungsingleshowtofindandcapturetheirheart’sdesireinthisromanticwasteland.Anddot-comfacilitatorssuchasMatchmaker.comarestrugglingtobringthesexestogetheronline. Onerealitythatlosersinthislovebazaarmustfaceisthattheyweren’tpickedbecausetheywereoutofshape.ButnottoworrysincetheCyberAgehastheanswertothisonetoo.Computerizedfitnessprogramswithaudiovisualandcyberpersonaltrainersarcreadytoturnyourhomeandtreadmillintoyourownpersonalhealthclub.TurnoniFit.corn’s"OneOn-OneTraining"audioworkoutsandyoucanbendandstretchtoyourfavoritemusic.49Its"Adventure"seriesvideoworkoutswillautomaticallyadjustthespeedandinclineofyouriFit-compatibletreadmillasyougazeintoyourTVscreenandexperiencethe"beautifulrockformationsofUtah’sRedRock"or"thetropicalparadiseofHawaii". 50Americansspendmoreonentertainmentthanonclothingorhealthcareandtheconvergenceofcomputersandtelecommunicationsisgeneratingnewwaystoamuseourselvesundreamedofuntilnow.TheInternetisalandofendlessamusementsandamongthewildestistheSims--simulations.Theseareaboutcreatingmanagingandcontrollingthelivesoftinycomputerizedpeople. TheUSfreeenterprisesystemwhichreachesafrenzyinSiliconValleyhasrecognizedthatthelocalloveboatistakingonwaterandisrushingintosavetheday.
WithAirbus’sgiantA380airlinerabouttotaketotheskiesyoumightthinkplanescouldnotgetmuchbiggerandyouwouldberight.Foragivendesignitturns1therecomesapointwherethewingsbecometooheavytogenerate2lifttocarrytheirownweight.3anewwayofdesigningandmakingmaterialscould4thatproblem.Twoengineers5UniversityCollegeLondonhavedevisedaninnovativewaytocustomiseandcontrolthe6ofamaterialthroughoutitsthreedimensionalstructure. Inthe7ofawingthiswouldmakepossibleamaterialthatisdensestrongandload-bearingatoneendclosetothefuselage8theextremitiescouldbemadelessdenselighterandmore9.Itislikemakingbespokematerials10youcancustomisethephysicalpropertiesofeverycubicmillimetreofastructure. Thenewtechniquecombinesexistingtechnologiesinan11way.Itstartsbyusingfinite-element-analysissoftwareofthetypecommonlyusedbyengineers12avirtualprototypeoftheobject.Thesoftwaremodelsthestressesandstrainsthattheobjectwillneedto13throughoutitsstructure.Usingthisinformationitisthen14tocalculatethepreciseforcesactingonmillionsofsmallersubsectionsofthestructure.15ofthesesubsectionsis16treatedasaseparateobjectwithitsownsetofforcesactingonit--andeachsubsection17foradifferentmicrostructuretoabsorbthoselocalforces. Designingsomanymicrostructuresmanually18beahugetasksotheresearchersapplyanoptimisationprogramcalledageneticalgorithm19.Thisusesaprocessofrandomisationandtrial-and-errortosearchthevastnumberofpossiblemicrostructurestofindthemost20designforeachsubsection. 16
Text1 Theideaofhumanoidrobotsisnotnewofcourse.TheyhavebeenpartoftheimaginativelandscapeeversinceKarlCapekaCzechWriterfirstdreamedthemupforhis1921play"Rossum’sUniversalRobots".Theword"robot"comesfromtheCzechwordfordrudgeryrobota.SincethenHollywoodhasproducedcountlessvariationsonthethemefromthesultryFalseMariainFritzLang’ssilentmasterpiece"Metropolis"tothewitteringC3POin"StarWars"andtheruthlessassassinof"Terminator".Humanoidrobotshavewalkedintoourcollectivesubconsciouscolouringourviewsofthefuture. ButnowJapan’sindustrialgiantsarespendingbillionsofyentomakesuchrobotsareality.Theirnewhumanoidsrepresentimpressivefeatsofengineering:whenHondaintroducedAsimoafour-footrobotthathadbeenindevelopmentforsome15yearsitwalkedsofluidlythatitswhitearticulatedexteriorseemedtoconcealahuman.Hondacontinuestomakethemachinefasterfriendlierandmoreagile.LastOctoberwhenAMmowasinductedintotheRobotHallofFameinPittsburghitwalkedontothestageandaccepteditsownplaque. AttwoandahalffeettallSony’sQRIOissmallerandmoretolikethanAsimo.Itwalksunderstandsasmallnumberofvoicecommandsandcannavigateonitsown.Ifitfallsoveritgetsupandresumeswhereitleftoff.Itcanevenconnectwirelesslytotheinternetandbroadcastwhatitscameraeyescansee.In2003SonydemonstratedanupgradedQRIOthatcouldrun.HondarespondedlastDecemberwithaversionofAsimothatrunsattwicethespeed. In2004ToyotajoinedthefraywithitsownfamilyofrobotscalledPartneroneofwhichisafour-foothumanoidthatplaysthetrumpet.Itsfingersworktheinstrument’svalvesandithasmechanicallungsandartificiallips.Toyotahopestoofferacommercialversionoftherobotby2010.Thismonth50PartnerrobotswillactasguidesatExpo2005inAichiJapan. Despitetheirsuddenproliferationhoweverhumanoidsarestillamechanicalminority.Mostoftheworld’srobotsarefacelessfootlessandmute.Theyareboltedtothefloorsoffactoriesstampingoutcarpartsorweldingpiecesofmetalmachinesmakingmoremachines.AccordingtotheUnitedNationsbusinessordersforindustrialrobotsjumped18%inthefirsthalfof2004.Theymaysoonbeoutnumberedbydomesticrobotssuchasself-navigatingvacuumcleanerslawnmowersandwindowwasherswhicharesellingfast.Butneitherindustrialnordomesticrobotsarehumanoid. Inthefirstparagraphtheauthorintroduceshistopicbyrelating
46Todaythere’sscarcelyanaspectofourlifethatisn’tbeingupendedbythetorrentofinformationavailableonthehundredsofmillionsofsitescrowdingtheInternetnottomentionitsabilitytokeepusinconstanttouchwitheachotherviaelectronicmail."Iftheautomobileandaerospacetechnologyhadexplodedatthesamepaceascomputerandinformationtechnology"saysMicrosoft"anewcarwouldcostabout＄2andgo600milesonathimbleofgas.AndyoucouldbuyaBoeing747forthecostofapizza." ProbablythebiggestpayoffhoweveristhebillionsofdollarstheInternetissavingcompaniesinproducinggoodsandservingtheneedsoftheircustomers.47NothinglikeithasbeenseensincethebeginningoftheIndustrialRevolutionwhenpower-drivenmachinesbeganproducingmoreinadaythanmencouldturnoutinnearlyayear. Allthetimespentonlinehasleftmanyyounginfotechworkerswithoutmuchtimeforlife--orlove--offline.48TheUSfreeenterprisesystemwhichreachesafrenzyinSiliconValleyhasrecognizedthatthelocalloveboatistakingonwaterandisrushingintosavetheday.Datingservicesareapproachingoverload.Seminarsandlovedoctorsareteachingtheserichbusyyoungsingleshowtofindandcapturetheirheart’sdesireinthisromanticwasteland.Anddot-comfacilitatorssuchasMatchmaker.comarestrugglingtobringthesexestogetheronline. Onerealitythatlosersinthislovebazaarmustfaceisthattheyweren’tpickedbecausetheywereoutofshape.ButnottoworrysincetheCyberAgehastheanswertothisonetoo.Computerizedfitnessprogramswithaudiovisualandcyberpersonaltrainersarcreadytoturnyourhomeandtreadmillintoyourownpersonalhealthclub.TurnoniFit.corn’s"OneOn-OneTraining"audioworkoutsandyoucanbendandstretchtoyourfavoritemusic.49Its"Adventure"seriesvideoworkoutswillautomaticallyadjustthespeedandinclineofyouriFit-compatibletreadmillasyougazeintoyourTVscreenandexperiencethe"beautifulrockformationsofUtah’sRedRock"or"thetropicalparadiseofHawaii". 50Americansspendmoreonentertainmentthanonclothingorhealthcareandtheconvergenceofcomputersandtelecommunicationsisgeneratingnewwaystoamuseourselvesundreamedofuntilnow.TheInternetisalandofendlessamusementsandamongthewildestistheSims--simulations.Theseareaboutcreatingmanagingandcontrollingthelivesoftinycomputerizedpeople. Todaythere’sscarcelyanaspectofourlifethatisn’tbeingupendedbythetorrentofinformationavailableonthehundredsofmillionsofsitescrowdingtheInternetnottomentionitsabilitytokeepusinconstanttouchwitheachotherviaelectronicmail.
WithAirbus’sgiantA380airlinerabouttotaketotheskiesyoumightthinkplanescouldnotgetmuchbiggerandyouwouldberight.Foragivendesignitturns1therecomesapointwherethewingsbecometooheavytogenerate2lifttocarrytheirownweight.3anewwayofdesigningandmakingmaterialscould4thatproblem.Twoengineers5UniversityCollegeLondonhavedevisedaninnovativewaytocustomiseandcontrolthe6ofamaterialthroughoutitsthreedimensionalstructure. Inthe7ofawingthiswouldmakepossibleamaterialthatisdensestrongandload-bearingatoneendclosetothefuselage8theextremitiescouldbemadelessdenselighterandmore9.Itislikemakingbespokematerials10youcancustomisethephysicalpropertiesofeverycubicmillimetreofastructure. Thenewtechniquecombinesexistingtechnologiesinan11way.Itstartsbyusingfinite-element-analysissoftwareofthetypecommonlyusedbyengineers12avirtualprototypeoftheobject.Thesoftwaremodelsthestressesandstrainsthattheobjectwillneedto13throughoutitsstructure.Usingthisinformationitisthen14tocalculatethepreciseforcesactingonmillionsofsmallersubsectionsofthestructure.15ofthesesubsectionsis16treatedasaseparateobjectwithitsownsetofforcesactingonit--andeachsubsection17foradifferentmicrostructuretoabsorbthoselocalforces. Designingsomanymicrostructuresmanually18beahugetasksotheresearchersapplyanoptimisationprogramcalledageneticalgorithm19.Thisusesaprocessofrandomisationandtrial-and-errortosearchthevastnumberofpossiblemicrostructurestofindthemost20designforeachsubsection. 6
Text4 AccordingtostudiescitedbytheNationalEatingDisordersAssociation42percentofgirlsinfirstthroughthirdgradewanttobethinner81percentof10-year-oldsarea{raidofbeingfatand51percentof9-and10-year-oldgirlsfeelbetteraboutthemselvesiftheyareonadiet. Inmanywaysthisfixationonweightateverearlieragescomesataninopportunetimephysiologically.AtarecentHadassahmeetingattheWoodlandsCommunityTempleinWhitePlainsDr.MarcieSchneiderthedirectorofadolescentmedicineatGreenwichHospitalandEricaLeonaregistereddietitianspokeaboutearlyadolescenceasatimewhenalittlehitofpudginessisnecessaryforpropergrowthandyoungsterswrestleconstantlywiththeirbodyimage. "Ican’ttellyouhowmanykidsI’veseenwho’vebeenontheAtkinsdietorontheSouthBeachdiet"Ms.Leonsaidaddingthatoverweightchildrenwhotrydietscanbeatriskofdevelopingeatingdisorders. AfterthepresentationthreemothersfromHartsdalewhowantedtohelptheirchildrenavoidsuchissuesspokeabouthowtheiryoungdaughtersarealreadybeginningtobecomeweight-conscious. Anorexiaisamentalillnessinwhichthevictimeatsbarelyenoughtosurvivebecauseherdistortedthinkingmakesherthinksheisfat.BulimiaamentalillnessinwhichsomeonebingesonlargeamountsoffoodthenpurgesitthroughvomitingortheabuseoflaxativesisontheriseandissurfacinginyoungerandyoungerpatientsmostlygirlssaidJudyScheelthedirectoroftheCenterforEatingDisorderRecoveryinMountKisco. About90percentofvictimsofeatingdisordersarefemaleandoftenthemalevictimsareonteamslikewrestlingandcrewwheretheymustkeeptheirweightlowforcompetitivereasons.Dr.Scheelbelievesthatwheregirlsclaimtheeatingdisorderenablesthemtobethinboystypicallystatetheirgoalistoachieveormaintainamuscularbutthinphysique.Theaverageonsetforbulimiausedtobe17buttoseeteenagersage14and15withbulimiaiscommonthesedaysDr.Scheelsaid. OtherpeoplebelievethedisordershavegeneticOrchemicalcomponentsandmanypeoplewitheatingdisordersrespondwelltoanti-depressantsforexample. Acertainamountofeducationisnecessarytohelpyoungpeopleavoidbecomingobsessedwiththeirbodyimage."Teachersneedtostayoutsideoftalkingaboutdiets"Dr.Scheelsaid."It’slikeaparentalwaystalkingabouttheirnextdiet.Youhavetohelpachildunderstandthatifyoueathealthilyandexerciseyourbodyisgoingtotakecareofitself." AndinrelativelyhomogenouspopulationslikeinsomeWestchesterschoolscompetitionrunshigh."Sotheyoungpeopledon’treallyseehowbeautifuldiversityis"shesaid"andtheytendtoallbecompetingforkindofthesamegoals." AccordingtoDr.MarcieSchneiderandEricaLeon
WithAirbus’sgiantA380airlinerabouttotaketotheskiesyoumightthinkplanescouldnotgetmuchbiggerandyouwouldberight.Foragivendesignitturns1therecomesapointwherethewingsbecometooheavytogenerate2lifttocarrytheirownweight.3anewwayofdesigningandmakingmaterialscould4thatproblem.Twoengineers5UniversityCollegeLondonhavedevisedaninnovativewaytocustomiseandcontrolthe6ofamaterialthroughoutitsthreedimensionalstructure. Inthe7ofawingthiswouldmakepossibleamaterialthatisdensestrongandload-bearingatoneendclosetothefuselage8theextremitiescouldbemadelessdenselighterandmore9.Itislikemakingbespokematerials10youcancustomisethephysicalpropertiesofeverycubicmillimetreofastructure. Thenewtechniquecombinesexistingtechnologiesinan11way.Itstartsbyusingfinite-element-analysissoftwareofthetypecommonlyusedbyengineers12avirtualprototypeoftheobject.Thesoftwaremodelsthestressesandstrainsthattheobjectwillneedto13throughoutitsstructure.Usingthisinformationitisthen14tocalculatethepreciseforcesactingonmillionsofsmallersubsectionsofthestructure.15ofthesesubsectionsis16treatedasaseparateobjectwithitsownsetofforcesactingonit--andeachsubsection17foradifferentmicrostructuretoabsorbthoselocalforces. Designingsomanymicrostructuresmanually18beahugetasksotheresearchersapplyanoptimisationprogramcalledageneticalgorithm19.Thisusesaprocessofrandomisationandtrial-and-errortosearchthevastnumberofpossiblemicrostructurestofindthemost20designforeachsubsection. 8
Languagetheprincipalmeansusedbyhumanbeingstocommunicatewithoneanother.Languageisprimarilyspokenalthoughitcanbetransferredtoothermediasuchaswriting.Ifthespokenmeansofcommunicationisunavailableasmaybethecaseamongthedeafvisualmeanssuchassignlanguagecanbeused.Aprominentcharacteristicoflanguageisthattherelationbetweenalinguisticsignanditsmeaningisarbitrary. 41LanguageandLanguageAbilities Languagecanbeusedtodiscussawiderangeoftopicsacharacteristicthatdistinguishesitfromanimalcommunication.Thedancesofhoneybeesforexamplecanbeusedonlytocommunicatethelocationoffoodsources. 42TheSoundsofLanguage Becausemostlanguagesareprimarilyspokenanimportantpartoftheoverallunderstandingoflanguageinvolvesthestudyofthesoundsoflanguage. Mostsoundsintheworld’slanguages--andallsoundsinsomelanguagessuchasEnglish--areproducedbyexpellingairfromthelungsandmodifyingthevocaltractbetweenthelarynxandthelips. 43UnitsofMeaning Whilemanypeopleinfluencedbywritingtendtothinkofwordsasthebasicunitsofgrammaticalstructurelinguistsrecognizeasmallerunitthemorpheme.Thewordcatsforinstanceconsistsoftwoelementsormorphemes:catthemeaningofwhichcanberoughlycharacterizedas"felineanimal"and-sthemeaningofwhichcanberoughlycharacterizedas"morethanone". 44WordOrderandSentenceStructure Syntaxisthestudyofhowwordscombinetomakesentences.Theorderofwordsinsentencesvariesfromlanguagetolanguage.English-languagesyntaxforinstancegenerallyfollowsasubject-verb-objectorderasinthesentence"Thedogsubjectbitverbthemanobject".Thesentence"Thedogthemanbit"isnotacorrectconstructioninEnglishandthesentence"Themanbitthedog"hasaverydifferentmeaning.IncontrastJapanesehasabasicwordorderofsubject-objectverbasin"watakushi-wahon-okau"whichliterallytranslatesto"Ibookbuy". 45MeaninginLanguage Whilethefieldsoflanguagestudymentionedabovedealprimarilywiththeformoflinguisticelementssemanticsisthefieldofstudythatdealswiththemeaningoftheseelements.Aprominentpartofsemanticsdealswiththemeaningofindividualmorphemes. [A]Forinstancethesoundprequirescompleteclosureofthelipssothataircomingfromthelungsbuildsuppressureinthemouthgivingrisetothecharacteristicpoppingsoundwhenthelipclosureisreleased.ThesoundusedbyEnglishspeakerstoexpressannoyanceoftenspelledtskortutusesairtrappedinthespacebetweenthefrontofthetonguethebackofthetongueandthepalate. [B]Semanticsalsoinvolvesstudyingthemeaningoftheconstructionsthatlinkmorphemestoformphrasesandsentences.Forinstancethesentences"Thedogbittheman"and"Themanbitthedog"containexactlythesamemorphemesbuttheyhavedifferentmeanings.Thisisbecausethemorphemesenterintodifferentconstructionsineachsentencereflectedinthedifferentwordordersofthetwosentences. [C]Whilethelanguage-learningabilitiesofapeshavesurprisedmanyandtherecontinuestobecontroversyoverthepreciselimitsoftheseabilities--scientistsandscholarsgenerallyagreethatapesdonotprogressbeyondthelinguisticabilitiesofatwoyear-oldchild. [D]First-languageacquisitionisacomplexprocessthatlinguistsonlypartiallyunderstand.Youngchildrenhavecertaininnatecharacteristicsthatpredisposethemtolearnlanguage.Thesecharacteristicsincludethestructureofthevocaltractwhichenableschildrentomakethesoundsusedinlanguageandtheabilitytounderstandanumberofgeneralgrammaticalprinciplessuchasthehierarchicalnatureofsyntax. [E]Hixkaryanaspokenbyabout400peopleonatributaryoftheAmazonRiverinBrazilhasabasicwordorderofobject-verb-subject.Thesentence"toroyahosyekamara"whichliterallytranslatesto"Mangrabbedjaguar"actuallymeansthatthejaguargrabbedthemannotthatthemangrabbedthejaguar. [F]Thestudyofthesesmallestgrammaticalunitsandthewaysinwhichtheycombineintowordsiscalledmorphology. 44
WithAirbus’sgiantA380airlinerabouttotaketotheskiesyoumightthinkplanescouldnotgetmuchbiggerandyouwouldberight.Foragivendesignitturns1therecomesapointwherethewingsbecometooheavytogenerate2lifttocarrytheirownweight.3anewwayofdesigningandmakingmaterialscould4thatproblem.Twoengineers5UniversityCollegeLondonhavedevisedaninnovativewaytocustomiseandcontrolthe6ofamaterialthroughoutitsthreedimensionalstructure. Inthe7ofawingthiswouldmakepossibleamaterialthatisdensestrongandload-bearingatoneendclosetothefuselage8theextremitiescouldbemadelessdenselighterandmore9.Itislikemakingbespokematerials10youcancustomisethephysicalpropertiesofeverycubicmillimetreofastructure. Thenewtechniquecombinesexistingtechnologiesinan11way.Itstartsbyusingfinite-element-analysissoftwareofthetypecommonlyusedbyengineers12avirtualprototypeoftheobject.Thesoftwaremodelsthestressesandstrainsthattheobjectwillneedto13throughoutitsstructure.Usingthisinformationitisthen14tocalculatethepreciseforcesactingonmillionsofsmallersubsectionsofthestructure.15ofthesesubsectionsis16treatedasaseparateobjectwithitsownsetofforcesactingonit--andeachsubsection17foradifferentmicrostructuretoabsorbthoselocalforces. Designingsomanymicrostructuresmanually18beahugetasksotheresearchersapplyanoptimisationprogramcalledageneticalgorithm19.Thisusesaprocessofrandomisationandtrial-and-errortosearchthevastnumberofpossiblemicrostructurestofindthemost20designforeachsubsection. 12
Text4 AccordingtostudiescitedbytheNationalEatingDisordersAssociation42percentofgirlsinfirstthroughthirdgradewanttobethinner81percentof10-year-oldsarea{raidofbeingfatand51percentof9-and10-year-oldgirlsfeelbetteraboutthemselvesiftheyareonadiet. Inmanywaysthisfixationonweightateverearlieragescomesataninopportunetimephysiologically.AtarecentHadassahmeetingattheWoodlandsCommunityTempleinWhitePlainsDr.MarcieSchneiderthedirectorofadolescentmedicineatGreenwichHospitalandEricaLeonaregistereddietitianspokeaboutearlyadolescenceasatimewhenalittlehitofpudginessisnecessaryforpropergrowthandyoungsterswrestleconstantlywiththeirbodyimage. "Ican’ttellyouhowmanykidsI’veseenwho’vebeenontheAtkinsdietorontheSouthBeachdiet"Ms.Leonsaidaddingthatoverweightchildrenwhotrydietscanbeatriskofdevelopingeatingdisorders. AfterthepresentationthreemothersfromHartsdalewhowantedtohelptheirchildrenavoidsuchissuesspokeabouthowtheiryoungdaughtersarealreadybeginningtobecomeweight-conscious. Anorexiaisamentalillnessinwhichthevictimeatsbarelyenoughtosurvivebecauseherdistortedthinkingmakesherthinksheisfat.BulimiaamentalillnessinwhichsomeonebingesonlargeamountsoffoodthenpurgesitthroughvomitingortheabuseoflaxativesisontheriseandissurfacinginyoungerandyoungerpatientsmostlygirlssaidJudyScheelthedirectoroftheCenterforEatingDisorderRecoveryinMountKisco. About90percentofvictimsofeatingdisordersarefemaleandoftenthemalevictimsareonteamslikewrestlingandcrewwheretheymustkeeptheirweightlowforcompetitivereasons.Dr.Scheelbelievesthatwheregirlsclaimtheeatingdisorderenablesthemtobethinboystypicallystatetheirgoalistoachieveormaintainamuscularbutthinphysique.Theaverageonsetforbulimiausedtobe17buttoseeteenagersage14and15withbulimiaiscommonthesedaysDr.Scheelsaid. OtherpeoplebelievethedisordershavegeneticOrchemicalcomponentsandmanypeoplewitheatingdisordersrespondwelltoanti-depressantsforexample. Acertainamountofeducationisnecessarytohelpyoungpeopleavoidbecomingobsessedwiththeirbodyimage."Teachersneedtostayoutsideoftalkingaboutdiets"Dr.Scheelsaid."It’slikeaparentalwaystalkingabouttheirnextdiet.Youhavetohelpachildunderstandthatifyoueathealthilyandexerciseyourbodyisgoingtotakecareofitself." AndinrelativelyhomogenouspopulationslikeinsomeWestchesterschoolscompetitionrunshigh."Sotheyoungpeopledon’treallyseehowbeautifuldiversityis"shesaid"andtheytendtoallbecompetingforkindofthesamegoals." Itisimpliedinthelastparagraphthat
WithAirbus’sgiantA380airlinerabouttotaketotheskiesyoumightthinkplanescouldnotgetmuchbiggerandyouwouldberight.Foragivendesignitturns1therecomesapointwherethewingsbecometooheavytogenerate2lifttocarrytheirownweight.3anewwayofdesigningandmakingmaterialscould4thatproblem.Twoengineers5UniversityCollegeLondonhavedevisedaninnovativewaytocustomiseandcontrolthe6ofamaterialthroughoutitsthreedimensionalstructure. Inthe7ofawingthiswouldmakepossibleamaterialthatisdensestrongandload-bearingatoneendclosetothefuselage8theextremitiescouldbemadelessdenselighterandmore9.Itislikemakingbespokematerials10youcancustomisethephysicalpropertiesofeverycubicmillimetreofastructure. Thenewtechniquecombinesexistingtechnologiesinan11way.Itstartsbyusingfinite-element-analysissoftwareofthetypecommonlyusedbyengineers12avirtualprototypeoftheobject.Thesoftwaremodelsthestressesandstrainsthattheobjectwillneedto13throughoutitsstructure.Usingthisinformationitisthen14tocalculatethepreciseforcesactingonmillionsofsmallersubsectionsofthestructure.15ofthesesubsectionsis16treatedasaseparateobjectwithitsownsetofforcesactingonit--andeachsubsection17foradifferentmicrostructuretoabsorbthoselocalforces. Designingsomanymicrostructuresmanually18beahugetasksotheresearchersapplyanoptimisationprogramcalledageneticalgorithm19.Thisusesaprocessofrandomisationandtrial-and-errortosearchthevastnumberofpossiblemicrostructurestofindthemost20designforeachsubsection. 2
Text2 Ifyouarewhatyoueatthenyouarealsowhatyoubuytoeat.Andmostlywhatpeoplebuyisscrawledontoagrocerylistthoseetherealscrapsofpaperthatrecordtheshorthandofwhereweshopandhowwefeedourselves.Mostgrocerylistsendupinthegarbage.ButifyouliveinSt.Louistheymighthaveahalf-lifeyouneverimagined:asaculturaldocumentpostedontheInternet. ForthepastdecadeBiilKeaggy33thefeaturesphotoeditoratTheSt.LouisPost-Dispatchhasbeencollectinggrocerylistsandsince1999hasbeenpostingthemonlineatwww.Grocerylistsorg.Thecollectionwhichnownumbersmorethan500listsisstrangelyaddictive.Thelistselicittwo-foldcuriosity--aboutthekindofmealthepersonwasplanningandthekindofpersonwhowouldmakesuchameal.WhatwastheshopperwithvodkalightersmilkandicecreamonhislistplanningtodowiththemInwhatorderwouldtheybeconsumedWasitaheorasheWhohadwritten"Tootiefoodkittenchowbirdfoodsticktoasterscramblescoffeedrinks"Someshoppersorganizetheirlistsbyaisle;othersstartwithdairygotocleaningsuppliesandthenbacktodairybeforeveeringofftoHomeDepot.Afewmeticulousonesnotethepriceofeveryitem.Oneshopperhadwritteninlargelettersonanenvelopesimply"Milk". Thethinlinesofinkandpenciljuttingandloopingacrosscrinkledandtornpiecesofpaperhaveapurelygraphicbeauty.Oneoflife’smostbanaldutiesviewedthroughthecuratoriallenscansomehowseempregnantwithpossibility.Itcanevenappearpoeticasinthelistthatreads"meatcigsbunstreats". OnethingKeaggydiscoveredisthatDanQuayleisnotalone--fewpeoplecanspellbananasandbagelsletalonepotato.Onelistcallsfor"suchi"and"strimp"."Somepeoplepassjudgmentonthethingstheybuy"Keaggysays.Attheendofonelisttheshopperwrote"BudLight"andthen"goodbeer".Anotherscribbled"goodloafofwhitebread".Somepassjudgmentonthemselvesliketheshopperwhowrote"readstayhomeorgosomewhereIactlikemymomgotoKentuckyunderwearlemon".Peoplesendmessagestooneanothertoo.Buriedinonelististhisstatement:"IfyoubuymorericeI’llpunchyou."Andplentyofshoppersliketheonewithbothicecreamanddietpillsonthelistrevealtheirvices. WasitaheorasheLine7Paragraph2maybereplacedby
WithAirbus’sgiantA380airlinerabouttotaketotheskiesyoumightthinkplanescouldnotgetmuchbiggerandyouwouldberight.Foragivendesignitturns1therecomesapointwherethewingsbecometooheavytogenerate2lifttocarrytheirownweight.3anewwayofdesigningandmakingmaterialscould4thatproblem.Twoengineers5UniversityCollegeLondonhavedevisedaninnovativewaytocustomiseandcontrolthe6ofamaterialthroughoutitsthreedimensionalstructure. Inthe7ofawingthiswouldmakepossibleamaterialthatisdensestrongandload-bearingatoneendclosetothefuselage8theextremitiescouldbemadelessdenselighterandmore9.Itislikemakingbespokematerials10youcancustomisethephysicalpropertiesofeverycubicmillimetreofastructure. Thenewtechniquecombinesexistingtechnologiesinan11way.Itstartsbyusingfinite-element-analysissoftwareofthetypecommonlyusedbyengineers12avirtualprototypeoftheobject.Thesoftwaremodelsthestressesandstrainsthattheobjectwillneedto13throughoutitsstructure.Usingthisinformationitisthen14tocalculatethepreciseforcesactingonmillionsofsmallersubsectionsofthestructure.15ofthesesubsectionsis16treatedasaseparateobjectwithitsownsetofforcesactingonit--andeachsubsection17foradifferentmicrostructuretoabsorbthoselocalforces. Designingsomanymicrostructuresmanually18beahugetasksotheresearchersapplyanoptimisationprogramcalledageneticalgorithm19.Thisusesaprocessofrandomisationandtrial-and-errortosearchthevastnumberofpossiblemicrostructurestofindthemost20designforeachsubsection. 18
Text3 WhenIwasachildinSundayschoolIwouldasksearchingquestionslike"Angelscanflyupinheavenbuthowdocloudsholduppianos"andgetthesamepuzzlingresponseabouthowthatwasnotimportantwhatwasimportantwasthatJesusdiedforoursinsandifweacceptedhimasoursaviorwhenwediedwewouldgotoheavenwherewe’dgeteverythingwewanted.Somechildreninmyclasswonderedwhyanyonewouldhangonacrosswithnailsstuckthroughhishandstohelpanyoneelse;IwonderedhowSantaClausknewwhatIwantedforChristmaseventhoughIneverwrotehimaletter.Maybehehadataperecorderhiddenineverychimneyintheworld. Thisliteral-mindednesshasstuckwithme;oneresultofitisthatIamunabletobelieveinGod.MostoftheotheratheistsIknowseemtofeelfreedorproudoftheirunbeliefasifthey’vecleverlyrefusedtobesoldsnakeoil.MyhusbandwhowasrearedinadevoutCatholicfamilyandservedasanaltarboyisalsofirmlygroundedonthisearth.Hedoesn’tevenhavethedesiretobelieve.Sootherthanbaptizingoursontoreassureourfamilieswe’veskatedovertheissueoffaith. Somepeoplebelievefaithisagift;forothersit’sachoiceamatterofspiritualdiscipline.Ihaveafriendwhowasrearedtobelieveandhedoes.Buthisfaithhaswavered.Hehasstruggledtohangontoitandtopassitalongtohischildren.Anotherfriendofminenevergoestochurchbecauseshe’sasinglemotherwhodoesn’thavethegasmoney.Butsheoncetoldmeaboutadaywhenshewaswashingorangesasthesunstreamedontothem.AsshepeeledonethesmellrosetoherfaceandshefeltshereceivedtheHolySpirit."Hesankintomybones"sherecounted."Iliftedmypalmsupwardfeelingfilledwithlove." BeingnotheologianandnotevenabelieverIamnotinapositiontoofferuptheoriesbutmineisthis:peoplewhoreceivefaithdirectlyasaspontaneouscombustionofthesoulhavefewerquestions.Theyhavebeensparkedwithafaiththatismoreunshakablethanthatofthosewhohavebeentaught. Itcanbeinferredfromthesecondparagraphthat
Text2 Ifyouarewhatyoueatthenyouarealsowhatyoubuytoeat.Andmostlywhatpeoplebuyisscrawledontoagrocerylistthoseetherealscrapsofpaperthatrecordtheshorthandofwhereweshopandhowwefeedourselves.Mostgrocerylistsendupinthegarbage.ButifyouliveinSt.Louistheymighthaveahalf-lifeyouneverimagined:asaculturaldocumentpostedontheInternet. ForthepastdecadeBiilKeaggy33thefeaturesphotoeditoratTheSt.LouisPost-Dispatchhasbeencollectinggrocerylistsandsince1999hasbeenpostingthemonlineatwww.Grocerylistsorg.Thecollectionwhichnownumbersmorethan500listsisstrangelyaddictive.Thelistselicittwo-foldcuriosity--aboutthekindofmealthepersonwasplanningandthekindofpersonwhowouldmakesuchameal.WhatwastheshopperwithvodkalightersmilkandicecreamonhislistplanningtodowiththemInwhatorderwouldtheybeconsumedWasitaheorasheWhohadwritten"Tootiefoodkittenchowbirdfoodsticktoasterscramblescoffeedrinks"Someshoppersorganizetheirlistsbyaisle;othersstartwithdairygotocleaningsuppliesandthenbacktodairybeforeveeringofftoHomeDepot.Afewmeticulousonesnotethepriceofeveryitem.Oneshopperhadwritteninlargelettersonanenvelopesimply"Milk". Thethinlinesofinkandpenciljuttingandloopingacrosscrinkledandtornpiecesofpaperhaveapurelygraphicbeauty.Oneoflife’smostbanaldutiesviewedthroughthecuratoriallenscansomehowseempregnantwithpossibility.Itcanevenappearpoeticasinthelistthatreads"meatcigsbunstreats". OnethingKeaggydiscoveredisthatDanQuayleisnotalone--fewpeoplecanspellbananasandbagelsletalonepotato.Onelistcallsfor"suchi"and"strimp"."Somepeoplepassjudgmentonthethingstheybuy"Keaggysays.Attheendofonelisttheshopperwrote"BudLight"andthen"goodbeer".Anotherscribbled"goodloafofwhitebread".Somepassjudgmentonthemselvesliketheshopperwhowrote"readstayhomeorgosomewhereIactlikemymomgotoKentuckyunderwearlemon".Peoplesendmessagestooneanothertoo.Buriedinonelististhisstatement:"IfyoubuymorericeI’llpunchyou."Andplentyofshoppersliketheonewithbothicecreamanddietpillsonthelistrevealtheirvices. Whatwouldpeopleusuallydowiththeirgrocerylistaftershopping
46Todaythere’sscarcelyanaspectofourlifethatisn’tbeingupendedbythetorrentofinformationavailableonthehundredsofmillionsofsitescrowdingtheInternetnottomentionitsabilitytokeepusinconstanttouchwitheachotherviaelectronicmail."Iftheautomobileandaerospacetechnologyhadexplodedatthesamepaceascomputerandinformationtechnology"saysMicrosoft"anewcarwouldcostabout＄2andgo600milesonathimbleofgas.AndyoucouldbuyaBoeing747forthecostofapizza." ProbablythebiggestpayoffhoweveristhebillionsofdollarstheInternetissavingcompaniesinproducinggoodsandservingtheneedsoftheircustomers.47NothinglikeithasbeenseensincethebeginningoftheIndustrialRevolutionwhenpower-drivenmachinesbeganproducingmoreinadaythanmencouldturnoutinnearlyayear. Allthetimespentonlinehasleftmanyyounginfotechworkerswithoutmuchtimeforlife--orlove--offline.48TheUSfreeenterprisesystemwhichreachesafrenzyinSiliconValleyhasrecognizedthatthelocalloveboatistakingonwaterandisrushingintosavetheday.Datingservicesareapproachingoverload.Seminarsandlovedoctorsareteachingtheserichbusyyoungsingleshowtofindandcapturetheirheart’sdesireinthisromanticwasteland.Anddot-comfacilitatorssuchasMatchmaker.comarestrugglingtobringthesexestogetheronline. Onerealitythatlosersinthislovebazaarmustfaceisthattheyweren’tpickedbecausetheywereoutofshape.ButnottoworrysincetheCyberAgehastheanswertothisonetoo.Computerizedfitnessprogramswithaudiovisualandcyberpersonaltrainersarcreadytoturnyourhomeandtreadmillintoyourownpersonalhealthclub.TurnoniFit.corn’s"OneOn-OneTraining"audioworkoutsandyoucanbendandstretchtoyourfavoritemusic.49Its"Adventure"seriesvideoworkoutswillautomaticallyadjustthespeedandinclineofyouriFit-compatibletreadmillasyougazeintoyourTVscreenandexperiencethe"beautifulrockformationsofUtah’sRedRock"or"thetropicalparadiseofHawaii". 50Americansspendmoreonentertainmentthanonclothingorhealthcareandtheconvergenceofcomputersandtelecommunicationsisgeneratingnewwaystoamuseourselvesundreamedofuntilnow.TheInternetisalandofendlessamusementsandamongthewildestistheSims--simulations.Theseareaboutcreatingmanagingandcontrollingthelivesoftinycomputerizedpeople. Americansspendmoreonentertainmentthanonclothingorhealthcareandtheconvergenceofcomputersandtelecommunicationsisgeneratingnewwaystoamuseourselvesundreamedofuntilnow.
Text1 Theideaofhumanoidrobotsisnotnewofcourse.TheyhavebeenpartoftheimaginativelandscapeeversinceKarlCapekaCzechWriterfirstdreamedthemupforhis1921play"Rossum’sUniversalRobots".Theword"robot"comesfromtheCzechwordfordrudgeryrobota.SincethenHollywoodhasproducedcountlessvariationsonthethemefromthesultryFalseMariainFritzLang’ssilentmasterpiece"Metropolis"tothewitteringC3POin"StarWars"andtheruthlessassassinof"Terminator".Humanoidrobotshavewalkedintoourcollectivesubconsciouscolouringourviewsofthefuture. ButnowJapan’sindustrialgiantsarespendingbillionsofyentomakesuchrobotsareality.Theirnewhumanoidsrepresentimpressivefeatsofengineering:whenHondaintroducedAsimoafour-footrobotthathadbeenindevelopmentforsome15yearsitwalkedsofluidlythatitswhitearticulatedexteriorseemedtoconcealahuman.Hondacontinuestomakethemachinefasterfriendlierandmoreagile.LastOctoberwhenAMmowasinductedintotheRobotHallofFameinPittsburghitwalkedontothestageandaccepteditsownplaque. AttwoandahalffeettallSony’sQRIOissmallerandmoretolikethanAsimo.Itwalksunderstandsasmallnumberofvoicecommandsandcannavigateonitsown.Ifitfallsoveritgetsupandresumeswhereitleftoff.Itcanevenconnectwirelesslytotheinternetandbroadcastwhatitscameraeyescansee.In2003SonydemonstratedanupgradedQRIOthatcouldrun.HondarespondedlastDecemberwithaversionofAsimothatrunsattwicethespeed. In2004ToyotajoinedthefraywithitsownfamilyofrobotscalledPartneroneofwhichisafour-foothumanoidthatplaysthetrumpet.Itsfingersworktheinstrument’svalvesandithasmechanicallungsandartificiallips.Toyotahopestoofferacommercialversionoftherobotby2010.Thismonth50PartnerrobotswillactasguidesatExpo2005inAichiJapan. Despitetheirsuddenproliferationhoweverhumanoidsarestillamechanicalminority.Mostoftheworld’srobotsarefacelessfootlessandmute.Theyareboltedtothefloorsoffactoriesstampingoutcarpartsorweldingpiecesofmetalmachinesmakingmoremachines.AccordingtotheUnitedNationsbusinessordersforindustrialrobotsjumped18%inthefirsthalfof2004.Theymaysoonbeoutnumberedbydomesticrobotssuchasself-navigatingvacuumcleanerslawnmowersandwindowwasherswhicharesellingfast.Butneitherindustrialnordomesticrobotsarehumanoid. AccordingtothedescriptionoftheauthorAsimo
WithAirbus’sgiantA380airlinerabouttotaketotheskiesyoumightthinkplanescouldnotgetmuchbiggerandyouwouldberight.Foragivendesignitturns1therecomesapointwherethewingsbecometooheavytogenerate2lifttocarrytheirownweight.3anewwayofdesigningandmakingmaterialscould4thatproblem.Twoengineers5UniversityCollegeLondonhavedevisedaninnovativewaytocustomiseandcontrolthe6ofamaterialthroughoutitsthreedimensionalstructure. Inthe7ofawingthiswouldmakepossibleamaterialthatisdensestrongandload-bearingatoneendclosetothefuselage8theextremitiescouldbemadelessdenselighterandmore9.Itislikemakingbespokematerials10youcancustomisethephysicalpropertiesofeverycubicmillimetreofastructure. Thenewtechniquecombinesexistingtechnologiesinan11way.Itstartsbyusingfinite-element-analysissoftwareofthetypecommonlyusedbyengineers12avirtualprototypeoftheobject.Thesoftwaremodelsthestressesandstrainsthattheobjectwillneedto13throughoutitsstructure.Usingthisinformationitisthen14tocalculatethepreciseforcesactingonmillionsofsmallersubsectionsofthestructure.15ofthesesubsectionsis16treatedasaseparateobjectwithitsownsetofforcesactingonit--andeachsubsection17foradifferentmicrostructuretoabsorbthoselocalforces. Designingsomanymicrostructuresmanually18beahugetasksotheresearchersapplyanoptimisationprogramcalledageneticalgorithm19.Thisusesaprocessofrandomisationandtrial-and-errortosearchthevastnumberofpossiblemicrostructurestofindthemost20designforeachsubsection. 10
Languagetheprincipalmeansusedbyhumanbeingstocommunicatewithoneanother.Languageisprimarilyspokenalthoughitcanbetransferredtoothermediasuchaswriting.Ifthespokenmeansofcommunicationisunavailableasmaybethecaseamongthedeafvisualmeanssuchassignlanguagecanbeused.Aprominentcharacteristicoflanguageisthattherelationbetweenalinguisticsignanditsmeaningisarbitrary. 41LanguageandLanguageAbilities Languagecanbeusedtodiscussawiderangeoftopicsacharacteristicthatdistinguishesitfromanimalcommunication.Thedancesofhoneybeesforexamplecanbeusedonlytocommunicatethelocationoffoodsources. 42TheSoundsofLanguage Becausemostlanguagesareprimarilyspokenanimportantpartoftheoverallunderstandingoflanguageinvolvesthestudyofthesoundsoflanguage. Mostsoundsintheworld’slanguages--andallsoundsinsomelanguagessuchasEnglish--areproducedbyexpellingairfromthelungsandmodifyingthevocaltractbetweenthelarynxandthelips. 43UnitsofMeaning Whilemanypeopleinfluencedbywritingtendtothinkofwordsasthebasicunitsofgrammaticalstructurelinguistsrecognizeasmallerunitthemorpheme.Thewordcatsforinstanceconsistsoftwoelementsormorphemes:catthemeaningofwhichcanberoughlycharacterizedas"felineanimal"and-sthemeaningofwhichcanberoughlycharacterizedas"morethanone". 44WordOrderandSentenceStructure Syntaxisthestudyofhowwordscombinetomakesentences.Theorderofwordsinsentencesvariesfromlanguagetolanguage.English-languagesyntaxforinstancegenerallyfollowsasubject-verb-objectorderasinthesentence"Thedogsubjectbitverbthemanobject".Thesentence"Thedogthemanbit"isnotacorrectconstructioninEnglishandthesentence"Themanbitthedog"hasaverydifferentmeaning.IncontrastJapanesehasabasicwordorderofsubject-objectverbasin"watakushi-wahon-okau"whichliterallytranslatesto"Ibookbuy". 45MeaninginLanguage Whilethefieldsoflanguagestudymentionedabovedealprimarilywiththeformoflinguisticelementssemanticsisthefieldofstudythatdealswiththemeaningoftheseelements.Aprominentpartofsemanticsdealswiththemeaningofindividualmorphemes. [A]Forinstancethesoundprequirescompleteclosureofthelipssothataircomingfromthelungsbuildsuppressureinthemouthgivingrisetothecharacteristicpoppingsoundwhenthelipclosureisreleased.ThesoundusedbyEnglishspeakerstoexpressannoyanceoftenspelledtskortutusesairtrappedinthespacebetweenthefrontofthetonguethebackofthetongueandthepalate. [B]Semanticsalsoinvolvesstudyingthemeaningoftheconstructionsthatlinkmorphemestoformphrasesandsentences.Forinstancethesentences"Thedogbittheman"and"Themanbitthedog"containexactlythesamemorphemesbuttheyhavedifferentmeanings.Thisisbecausethemorphemesenterintodifferentconstructionsineachsentencereflectedinthedifferentwordordersofthetwosentences. [C]Whilethelanguage-learningabilitiesofapeshavesurprisedmanyandtherecontinuestobecontroversyoverthepreciselimitsoftheseabilities--scientistsandscholarsgenerallyagreethatapesdonotprogressbeyondthelinguisticabilitiesofatwoyear-oldchild. [D]First-languageacquisitionisacomplexprocessthatlinguistsonlypartiallyunderstand.Youngchildrenhavecertaininnatecharacteristicsthatpredisposethemtolearnlanguage.Thesecharacteristicsincludethestructureofthevocaltractwhichenableschildrentomakethesoundsusedinlanguageandtheabilitytounderstandanumberofgeneralgrammaticalprinciplessuchasthehierarchicalnatureofsyntax. [E]Hixkaryanaspokenbyabout400peopleonatributaryoftheAmazonRiverinBrazilhasabasicwordorderofobject-verb-subject.Thesentence"toroyahosyekamara"whichliterallytranslatesto"Mangrabbedjaguar"actuallymeansthatthejaguargrabbedthemannotthatthemangrabbedthejaguar. [F]Thestudyofthesesmallestgrammaticalunitsandthewaysinwhichtheycombineintowordsiscalledmorphology. 42
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