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GooglealreadyhasawindowintooursoulsthroughourInternetsearchesanditnowhasinsightintoourailingbodiestoo.TheInternetgiantisusingitsvastdatabaseofindividualsearchtermsto1theemergenceoffluuptotwoweeks2governmentepidemiologists.GoogleFluTrendsusesthe3ofpeopletoseekonlinehelpfortheirhealthproblems.Bytracking4fortermssuchas"cough""fever"and"achesandpains"itclaimstobeableto5estimatewherefluis6. GoogletestedtheideainnineregionsoftheUSandfounditcouldaccuratelypredictflu7between7and14daysearlierthanthefederalcentresfordiseasecontrolandprevention.Googlehopestheideacouldalsobeusedtohelp8otherdiseases.FluTrendsislimited9theUS.JeremyGinsbergandMattMohebb.Twosoftwareengineers10intheprojectsaidthat11inGooglesearchqueriescanbevery12.Inablogpostontheprojecttheywrote:"Itturns13thattraditionalflusurveillancesystemstake1to2weekstocollectand14surveillancedatabutGooglesearchqueriescanbe15countedveryquickly.Bymakingourestimates16eachdayFluTrendsmayprovideanearly-warningsystemforoutbreaksofinfluenza."Theyexplainedthat17informationhealthwouldbekept18."FluTrendscanneverbeusedtoidentifyindividualusers19werelyonanonymisedaggregatedcountsofhowoftencertainsearchqueries20eachweek. 16
TheUnitedStatesisnotthankgoodnessaculturallyhomogeneouscountry.Itconsistsofmanydistinctmoralcommunities.Oncertainsocialissuessuchasabortionandhomosexualitypeopledon’tagreeandprobablyneverwill—andthesignalpoliticaladvantageofthefederalistsystemisthattheydon’thaveto.Individualsandgroupswhofindthevaluesorlawsofonestateobnoxioushavetherighttolivesomewhereelse.ThenationalizationofabortionpolicyintheSupremeCourt’s1973Roev.Wadedecisioncreatedatextbookexampleofwhatcanhappenwhenthisfederalistprincipleisignored.IftheSupremeCourthadnotsteppedinabortionwouldtodaybelegalinmoststatesbutnotall;pro-liferswouldhavethecomfortofknowingtheycouldliveinastatewhoselawwascompatiblewiththeirviews.InsteadofendlesslyconfrontingaculturalschismthataffectseverySupremeCourtnominationwewouldseeoccasionallocalflare-upsinstatelegislaturesorcourtrooms.Americaisastrongercountryforthemoraldiversitythatfederalismuniquelyallows.Morallawandfamilylawgovernthemostintimateandoftenthemostcontroversialspheresoflife.Forthesakeofdomestictranquilitydomesticlawisbestlefttoalevelofgovernmentthatisclosetohome.Sowellsuitedisthefederalistsystemtothegay-marriageissuethatitmightalmosthavebeensetuptohandleit.Inanewlandwhosecitizensfolloweddifferentreligioustraditionsitwouldhavemadenosensetocentralizemarriageorfamilylaw.AndsomarriagehasbeenthedomainoflocallawnotjustsincethedaysoftheFoundersbutsinceColonialtimesbeforethestateswerestates.Tomyknowledgethefederalgovernmenthasoverruledthestatesonmarriageonlytwice.ThefirsttimewaswhenitrequiredUtahtobanpolygamyasaconditionforjoiningtheUnion—andnotethatthisrulingwasissuedbeforeUtahbecameastate.Thesecondtimewasin1967whentheSupremeCourtinLovingv.Virginiastruckdownsixteenstates’bansoninterracialmarriage.HeretheCourtsaidnotthatmarriageshouldbedefinedbythefederalgovernmentbutonlythatstatescouldnotdefinemarriageinwaysthatviolatedcoreconstitutionalrights.OntheoneoccasionwhenCongressdirectlyaddressedsame-sexmarriageinthe1996DefenseofMarriageActitdecreedthatthefederalgovernmentwouldnotrecognizesame-sexmarriagesbuttookcarenottoimposethatruleonthestates.Wecanlearnfromthetextthat
Beingsmartisthemostexpensivethingwedo.Notintermsofmoneybutinacurrencythatisvitaltoalllivingthings:energy.Onestudyfoundthatnewbornhumansspendcloseto90percentoftheircaloriesonbuildingandrunningtheirbrains.Evenasadultsourbrainsconsumeasmuchasaquarterofourenergy.Ifduringchildhoodwhenthebrainisbeingbuiltsomeunexpectedenergycostcomesalongthebrainwillsuffer.Infectiousdiseaseisafactorthatmayroblargeamountsofenergyawayfromadevelopingbrain.AgreatdealofresearchhasshownthataverageIQvariesaroundtheworldbothacrossnationsandwithinthem.HigherIQpredictsawiderangeofimportantfactorsincludingbettergradesinschoolahigherlevelofeducationbetterhealthbetterjobperformancehigherwagesandreducedriskofobesity.Sohavingabetterunderstandingofvariationsinintelligencemightyieldagreaterunderstandingoftheseotherissuesaswell.Inastudyin2010itwasfoundthatamongallthefactorsthataffectintelligenceinfectiousdiseaseworksasthebestpredictorofthebunch.ArecentstudybyChristopherHassallandThomasSherrattrepeatedthestudyusingmoresophisticatedstatisticalmethodsandconcludedthatinfectiousdiseasemaybetheonlyreallyimportantpredictorofaveragenationalIQ.Supportforthishypothesiscomesnotonlyfromcross-nationalstudiesbutfromstudiesofindividuals.TherehavebeenmanystudiesforexampleshowingthatchildreninfectedwithintestinalwormshavelowerIQlaterinlife.AnotherstudybyAtheendarVenkataramanifoundthatregionsinMexicothatwerethetargetofmalariaeradicationprogramshadhigheraverageIQthanthosethatwerenot.Inpracticaltermshoweverthismeansthathumanintelligenceismutable.IfdifferencesinIQacrosstheworldarelargelyduetoexposuretoinfectiousdiseaseduringchildhoodthenreducingexposuretodiseaseshouldincreaseIQ.Despitethestrengthofthefindingsthestudywasnotwithoutitslimitations.Theresearchersdidtheirbesttocontrolfortheeffectsofeducation.Butwhattheyreallyneededwastorepeattheiranalysisacrossregionswithinasinglenationpreferablyonewithstandardizedcompulsoryeducation.ThenationtheychosewastheUnitedStates.AverageIQvariesinthestates.AgaininfectiousdiseasewasanexcellentpredictorofaveragestateIQ.ThestateswiththefivelowestaverageIQallhavehigherlevelsofinfectiousdiseasethanthestateswiththefivehighestaverageIQandtherelationshipwasgoodacrossallofthestatesinbetween.Sofartheevidencesuggeststhatinfectiousdiseaseisaprimarycauseoftheglobalvariationinhumanintelligence.Sincethisisadevelopmentalcauseratherthanageneticoneit’sgoodnewsforanyonewhoisinterestedinreducingglobalinequalityassociatedwithIQ.ItwillallowpeopleinterestedinusingthisinformationtoraisetheIQofpeoplearoundtheworldtotargettheireffortsmosteffectivelyandefficiently.Thefindingoftheresearchesisbeneficialinthat
GooglealreadyhasawindowintooursoulsthroughourInternetsearchesanditnowhasinsightintoourailingbodiestoo.TheInternetgiantisusingitsvastdatabaseofindividualsearchtermsto1theemergenceoffluuptotwoweeks2governmentepidemiologists.GoogleFluTrendsusesthe3ofpeopletoseekonlinehelpfortheirhealthproblems.Bytracking4fortermssuchas"cough""fever"and"achesandpains"itclaimstobeableto5estimatewherefluis6. GoogletestedtheideainnineregionsoftheUSandfounditcouldaccuratelypredictflu7between7and14daysearlierthanthefederalcentresfordiseasecontrolandprevention.Googlehopestheideacouldalsobeusedtohelp8otherdiseases.FluTrendsislimited9theUS.JeremyGinsbergandMattMohebb.Twosoftwareengineers10intheprojectsaidthat11inGooglesearchqueriescanbevery12.Inablogpostontheprojecttheywrote:"Itturns13thattraditionalflusurveillancesystemstake1to2weekstocollectand14surveillancedatabutGooglesearchqueriescanbe15countedveryquickly.Bymakingourestimates16eachdayFluTrendsmayprovideanearly-warningsystemforoutbreaksofinfluenza."Theyexplainedthat17informationhealthwouldbekept18."FluTrendscanneverbeusedtoidentifyindividualusers19werelyonanonymisedaggregatedcountsofhowoftencertainsearchqueries20eachweek. 20
EverywhereyoulookincontemporaryAmericayouseeapeopleengagedinthepursuitofhappiness.Youcanseeitinworkhabits.AmericansonaveragenotonlyworklongerandharderthanmostEuropeansbutendurelengthycommutestoandfromwork.Youcanseeitingeographicalmobility.About40mofthemmoveeveryyear.Theyareremarkablywillingtotravelhugedistancesinpursuitofthingslikebowlingconventionsandsoon.Andyoucanseeitinthecountry’sgeneralhopefulness:two-thirdsofAmericansareoptimisticaboutthefuture.SinceAmericansareenergeticevenindeconstructingtheirownfoundingprinciplesthereisnoshortageofpeoplewhohavetakenexceptiontothehappinesspursuit.TheyrangefromconservativeslikeRobertBorkbelievingthephrasesummarizestheemptinessattheheartofAmericanideologytoliberalswhothinkthatitisajustificationforanacquisitivesociety.Onecriticismisthatthepursuitisself-defeating.Themoreyoupursuetheillusionofhappinessthemoreyousacrificetherealthing.Theothersideofmobilityisturmoilandanxietybrokenmarriagesandunhappychildren.Americanshavelessjobsecuritythaneverbefore.Theyevenreporthavingfewerclosefriendsthanafewdecadesago.AndinternationalstudiesofhappinesssuggestthatpeopleincertainpoorcountriessuchasMexicoareapparentlyhappierthanAmericans.AnothercriticismisthatAmericanshaveconfusedhappinesswithmaterialpossessions.ItisnotablethatThomasJefferson’scallechoesAdamSmith’sphraseaboutlifelibertyandthepursuitofproperty.DoallthosepairsofManoloBlahnikshoesreallymakeyouhappyOraretheyjustacompensationforemptyliveslikeinthesoapoperaSexintheCityIfopinionpollsonsuchmattersmeananything—andthatisdubious—theysuggestthatboththesecriticismsareflawed.A2006PewResearchCentrestudy—Arewehappyyet—claimsthat84%ofAmericansareeitherveryhappyorprettyhappy.TheHarrisPoll’s2004feelgoodindexfoundthat95%arepleasedwiththeirhomesand91%arepleasedwiththeirsociallives.ThePewAboutsponsorshippollsshowthatmoneydoesindeedgosomewaytowardsbuyinghappiness.TheyalsosuggestthatAmericansdevotiontoreligionmakesthemhappierstill.ThepursuitofhappinessaccountsforallsortsofpeculiaritiesofAmericanlife:fromthe$700/mspentonself-helpbooksperyeartotheirritatingdinnerguestsconstantlylookingattheirBlackBerrycellphones.Thispursuitmayevenhelptoexplainthesurgeofanti-Americanism.ManypeopledislikeitpreciselybecauseitisdoingexactlywhatJeffersonintended.ForsomeEuropeansthepursuitofhappinessintheformofmonstercarsandmansionsisobjectionableoneverypossibleground.Youcannotpursuehappinesswithsuchconspicuousenthusiasmwithoutmakingquitealotofpeoplearoundtheworldratherunhappy.Whatisthepassagemainlyabout
Theideathatmusicmakesyousmarterhasreceivedconsiderableattentionfromscholarsandthemedia.Currentinterestin1betweenmusicandintelligencestemsfromtwoindependentareasofresearch.Onefocusesonshort-termeffectsof2listeningtomusic.Theotherisonaseperate3ofresearchwhichexamineswhethermusiclessonshave4benefitsthatextendtonon-musicalareasofcognition.Such5couldbeuniquetochildrenwhotakemusiclessonsforlongperiodsoftime6theirexperiencesdiffersubstantiallyfromthoseofotherchildren.Musiclessons7longperiodsoffocusedattentionmemorizationof8musicalpassageslearningaboutavarietyofmusicalstructuresand9masteryoftechnicalskillsandtheconventions10theexpressionofemotionsinperformance.This11ofexperiencescouldhaveapositiveimpactoncognitionparticularlyduringthechildhoodyearswhenbraindevolopmentishighly12andsensitivetoenvironmentalinfluence. Previousfindingsare13withthehypothesisthatmusiclessonspromoteintellectualdevelopment.Forexamplenaturalmusicalgiftsisassociatedwithliteracy.14correlationalandexperimentalstudies15thatmusiclessonshavepositiverelationswithverbalmemoryreadingabilityselectiveattentionandmathematicsachievement.16thesimplestexplanationofthese17relationsisthattheycomefromacommoncomponentsuchasgeneralintelligence.Putsimplychildren18highIQsaremorelikelythanotherchildrentotakemusiclessons.ToconcludethatmusiclessonshaveacasualrelationwithIQthatis19tomusiconemustrule20potentiallyconfusingfactorssuchassocioeconomicstatusandeducationanddemonstratethatnon-musicalextracurricularactivitiesdonothavecomparableeffectsonIQ. 16
TheUnitedStatesisnotthankgoodnessaculturallyhomogeneouscountry.Itconsistsofmanydistinctmoralcommunities.Oncertainsocialissuessuchasabortionandhomosexualitypeopledon’tagreeandprobablyneverwill—andthesignalpoliticaladvantageofthefederalistsystemisthattheydon’thaveto.Individualsandgroupswhofindthevaluesorlawsofonestateobnoxioushavetherighttolivesomewhereelse.ThenationalizationofabortionpolicyintheSupremeCourt’s1973Roev.Wadedecisioncreatedatextbookexampleofwhatcanhappenwhenthisfederalistprincipleisignored.IftheSupremeCourthadnotsteppedinabortionwouldtodaybelegalinmoststatesbutnotall;pro-liferswouldhavethecomfortofknowingtheycouldliveinastatewhoselawwascompatiblewiththeirviews.InsteadofendlesslyconfrontingaculturalschismthataffectseverySupremeCourtnominationwewouldseeoccasionallocalflare-upsinstatelegislaturesorcourtrooms.Americaisastrongercountryforthemoraldiversitythatfederalismuniquelyallows.Morallawandfamilylawgovernthemostintimateandoftenthemostcontroversialspheresoflife.Forthesakeofdomestictranquilitydomesticlawisbestlefttoalevelofgovernmentthatisclosetohome.Sowellsuitedisthefederalistsystemtothegay-marriageissuethatitmightalmosthavebeensetuptohandleit.Inanewlandwhosecitizensfolloweddifferentreligioustraditionsitwouldhavemadenosensetocentralizemarriageorfamilylaw.AndsomarriagehasbeenthedomainoflocallawnotjustsincethedaysoftheFoundersbutsinceColonialtimesbeforethestateswerestates.Tomyknowledgethefederalgovernmenthasoverruledthestatesonmarriageonlytwice.ThefirsttimewaswhenitrequiredUtahtobanpolygamyasaconditionforjoiningtheUnion—andnotethatthisrulingwasissuedbeforeUtahbecameastate.Thesecondtimewasin1967whentheSupremeCourtinLovingv.Virginiastruckdownsixteenstates’bansoninterracialmarriage.HeretheCourtsaidnotthatmarriageshouldbedefinedbythefederalgovernmentbutonlythatstatescouldnotdefinemarriageinwaysthatviolatedcoreconstitutionalrights.OntheoneoccasionwhenCongressdirectlyaddressedsame-sexmarriageinthe1996DefenseofMarriageActitdecreedthatthefederalgovernmentwouldnotrecognizesame-sexmarriagesbuttookcarenottoimposethatruleonthestates.Thelocalgovernmentisoftenresponsibleforlocaldomesticlawaffairsbecause
Youwouldthinkthatpeoplewithahistoryofbeingdiscriminatedagainstintheworkplacemightgivethosewhomtheyresembleabreak.Butagrowingbodyofresearchconfirmsexactlytheopposite:womenarejustaslikelyasmentoshowsexismtowardwomeninhiringpracticessalariesandprofessionalmentorship.OvertdisplaysofsexismarelargelypasseintheAmericanworkplace.Whatremainsunfortunatelyisasetofsubtlerandmoreingrainedcognitivebiasesdeeplyrootedinourevolutionaryandculturalpast.Gettingridofthemwillrequireanhonestreckoningwiththeinalienablefactthathumansareinclinedtomakeimpliciterrorsinperceptionandevengoodpeoplewhoactivelyavoidbiasmaynonethelessharborsubtleyetdamagingstereotypesofwhichtheyareunaware.InoneofthelateststudiesapsychologyexperimentpublishedintheProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesseniorsciencefacultyacrosstheU.S.werepresentedwithidenticalresumesforalab-managerjobapositionthatcanoftenleadtograduatestudythatdifferedonlyinthegenderofthehypotheticalapplicant.Theresumeraterswerestatisticallymorelikelytoratethemalecandidatehigheroncompetenceandhirabilityandwerealsomorelikelytoofferthemalecandidateabiggersalaryandgreaterprofessionalmentorship.Bycontrastthehypotheticalfemaleapplicantswereratedmorelikablebutlesshirable.Femalescientistswerejustaslikelytofavormalecandidatesaspotentialhiresasmalescientistswere.Therearecountlessexamplesofbiasagainstwomenbybothsexesinnonsciencefieldsincludingfamouslytheincreaseinwomenwhowerehiredfororchestraswhenmusiciansauditionedbehindablindscreen.It’shardtoimaginewhythiskindofcognitivebiaspersistsinthe21stcenturyespeciallywhentheachievementgapsbetweenmalesandfemalesarcclosingrapidly.Butthisonlyseemspuzzlingbecausewetendtothinkthatbiasisanevilwordinfectedwithuglyismsandthedeliberatediminishingofcertainkindsofpeople.Currentresearchisshowingthatallhumanbeingshaveunconsciouscognitivebiases—whatHarvardprofessorMahzarinBanajicallsmindbugs.Thesebiasesmayhavebeenadaptivethousandsofyearsagowhenpeoplelivedinsmallhomogeneouscommunitiesandin-groupfavoritismmighthavemadethedifferencebetweenlifeanddeath.Buttheyareproblematicinourglobal21stcenturyworld.Thepervasivenessofcognitivebiasisdepressing.It’smorecomfortabletothinkofsexismorracismorageismasasymptomofafewrottenapplesthanasafundamentalhumantrait.Butifwe’realldoingiteventoourselveshowonearthcanwemovebeyondthestereotypesIfwewanttoeliminatetheperceptionthatwomenarelesscompetentthanmenforcertainjobsheldbybothsexesit’snotenoughtohiremorewomenfortraditionallymale-dominatedjobs.Amorefundamentalproblemisthatcognitivebiasisrootednotonlyinourprimitivepastbutalsoinourcontemporaryculture.Wecan’tbesurprisedbyunconsciousstereotypesaboutwomenwhenwestillembraceacultureinfectedwithsexismineverythingfrompopularmoviestorecentcongressionaldebates.Intheauthor’sassessmentourcognitivebiases
Theideathatmusicmakesyousmarterhasreceivedconsiderableattentionfromscholarsandthemedia.Currentinterestin1betweenmusicandintelligencestemsfromtwoindependentareasofresearch.Onefocusesonshort-termeffectsof2listeningtomusic.Theotherisonaseperate3ofresearchwhichexamineswhethermusiclessonshave4benefitsthatextendtonon-musicalareasofcognition.Such5couldbeuniquetochildrenwhotakemusiclessonsforlongperiodsoftime6theirexperiencesdiffersubstantiallyfromthoseofotherchildren.Musiclessons7longperiodsoffocusedattentionmemorizationof8musicalpassageslearningaboutavarietyofmusicalstructuresand9masteryoftechnicalskillsandtheconventions10theexpressionofemotionsinperformance.This11ofexperiencescouldhaveapositiveimpactoncognitionparticularlyduringthechildhoodyearswhenbraindevolopmentishighly12andsensitivetoenvironmentalinfluence. Previousfindingsare13withthehypothesisthatmusiclessonspromoteintellectualdevelopment.Forexamplenaturalmusicalgiftsisassociatedwithliteracy.14correlationalandexperimentalstudies15thatmusiclessonshavepositiverelationswithverbalmemoryreadingabilityselectiveattentionandmathematicsachievement.16thesimplestexplanationofthese17relationsisthattheycomefromacommoncomponentsuchasgeneralintelligence.Putsimplychildren18highIQsaremorelikelythanotherchildrentotakemusiclessons.ToconcludethatmusiclessonshaveacasualrelationwithIQthatis19tomusiconemustrule20potentiallyconfusingfactorssuchassocioeconomicstatusandeducationanddemonstratethatnon-musicalextracurricularactivitiesdonothavecomparableeffectsonIQ. 18
Theideathatmusicmakesyousmarterhasreceivedconsiderableattentionfromscholarsandthemedia.Currentinterestin1betweenmusicandintelligencestemsfromtwoindependentareasofresearch.Onefocusesonshort-termeffectsof2listeningtomusic.Theotherisonaseperate3ofresearchwhichexamineswhethermusiclessonshave4benefitsthatextendtonon-musicalareasofcognition.Such5couldbeuniquetochildrenwhotakemusiclessonsforlongperiodsoftime6theirexperiencesdiffersubstantiallyfromthoseofotherchildren.Musiclessons7longperiodsoffocusedattentionmemorizationof8musicalpassageslearningaboutavarietyofmusicalstructuresand9masteryoftechnicalskillsandtheconventions10theexpressionofemotionsinperformance.This11ofexperiencescouldhaveapositiveimpactoncognitionparticularlyduringthechildhoodyearswhenbraindevolopmentishighly12andsensitivetoenvironmentalinfluence. Previousfindingsare13withthehypothesisthatmusiclessonspromoteintellectualdevelopment.Forexamplenaturalmusicalgiftsisassociatedwithliteracy.14correlationalandexperimentalstudies15thatmusiclessonshavepositiverelationswithverbalmemoryreadingabilityselectiveattentionandmathematicsachievement.16thesimplestexplanationofthese17relationsisthattheycomefromacommoncomponentsuchasgeneralintelligence.Putsimplychildren18highIQsaremorelikelythanotherchildrentotakemusiclessons.ToconcludethatmusiclessonshaveacasualrelationwithIQthatis19tomusiconemustrule20potentiallyconfusingfactorssuchassocioeconomicstatusandeducationanddemonstratethatnon-musicalextracurricularactivitiesdonothavecomparableeffectsonIQ. 10
Thegoodnewsmadeheadlinesnationwide:Deathsfromseveralkindsofcancerhavedeclinedsignificantlyinrecentyears.Butthenewshastobebittersweetformanycancerpatientsandtheirfamilies.Everyyearmorethan500000peopleintheUnitedStatesstilldieofcancer.Infactmorethanhalfofallpatientsdiagnosedwithcancerwilldieoftheirdiseasewithinafewyears.Andwhileitstruesurvivalislongertodaythaninthepastthequalityoflifeforthesepatientsisoftengreatlydiminished.Cancer—andmanyofthetreatmentsusedtofightit—causespainnauseafatigueandanxietythatroutinelygoundertreatedoruntreated.Inthenation’ssingle-mindedfocusoncuringcancerwehaveinadvertentlydevaluedthecriticalneedforpalliativecarewhichfocusesonalleviatingphysicalandpsychologicalsymptomsoverthecourseofthedisease.Nothingwouldhaveagreaterimpactonthedailylivesofcancerpatientsandtheirfamiliesthangoodsymptomcontrolandsupportivetherapy.YettheNationalCancerInstituteNCIthefederalgovernment’sleaderincancerresearchandtrainingspentlessthanonepercentofits1999budgetonanyaspectofresearchortraininginpalliativecare.Thenationneedstogetseriousaboutreducingneedlesssuffering.NCIshouldcommittoandfundresearchaimedatimprovingsymptomcontrolandpalliativecare.NCIalsocoulddesignatecentersofexcellenceamongthecancercentersitrecognizes.Togetthatdesignationcenterswoulddeliverinnovativetop-qualitypalliativecaretoallsegmentsofthepopulationsthecentersserve;trainprofessionalsinmedicinenursingpsychologysocialworkandotherdisciplinestoprovidepalliativecare;andconductresearch.Insurancecoverageforpalliativeandhospicecarealsocontributestotheproblembyforcingpeopletochoosebetweenactivetreatmentorhospicecare.Thiseither/orapproachdoesnotreadilyallowthesetwotypesofessentialcaretobeintegrated.TheMedicarehospicebenefitisdesignedspecificallyforpeopleinthefinalstagesofillnessandallowsenrollmentonlyifpatientsareexpectedtosurvivesixmonthsorless.Thebenefitexcludespatientsfromseekingbothpalliativecareandpotentiallylife-extendingtreatment.Thatmakeshospiceenrollmentanobviousdeterrentformanypatients.Andhospiceswhichmayhavethemostskilledpractitionersandthemostexperienceinadministeringpalliativecarecannotoffertheirservicestopeoplewhocouldreallybenefitbutstillarepursuingactivetreatment.Itisinnatelyhumantocomfortandprovidecaretothosesufferingfromcancerparticularlythoseclosetodeath.Yetwhatseemsself-evidentatanindividualpersonallevelhasnotguidedpolicyatthelevelofinstitutionsinthiscountry.Deathisinevitablebutseveresufferingisnot.Toofferhopeforalonglifeofthehighestpossiblequalityandtodeliverthebestqualitycancercarefromdiagnosistodeathourpublicinstitutionsneedtomovetowardpoliciesthatvalueandpromotepalliativecare.Accordingtotheauthorresearchonpalliativecareforcancer
EverywhereyoulookincontemporaryAmericayouseeapeopleengagedinthepursuitofhappiness.Youcanseeitinworkhabits.AmericansonaveragenotonlyworklongerandharderthanmostEuropeansbutendurelengthycommutestoandfromwork.Youcanseeitingeographicalmobility.About40mofthemmoveeveryyear.Theyareremarkablywillingtotravelhugedistancesinpursuitofthingslikebowlingconventionsandsoon.Andyoucanseeitinthecountry’sgeneralhopefulness:two-thirdsofAmericansareoptimisticaboutthefuture.SinceAmericansareenergeticevenindeconstructingtheirownfoundingprinciplesthereisnoshortageofpeoplewhohavetakenexceptiontothehappinesspursuit.TheyrangefromconservativeslikeRobertBorkbelievingthephrasesummarizestheemptinessattheheartofAmericanideologytoliberalswhothinkthatitisajustificationforanacquisitivesociety.Onecriticismisthatthepursuitisself-defeating.Themoreyoupursuetheillusionofhappinessthemoreyousacrificetherealthing.Theothersideofmobilityisturmoilandanxietybrokenmarriagesandunhappychildren.Americanshavelessjobsecuritythaneverbefore.Theyevenreporthavingfewerclosefriendsthanafewdecadesago.AndinternationalstudiesofhappinesssuggestthatpeopleincertainpoorcountriessuchasMexicoareapparentlyhappierthanAmericans.AnothercriticismisthatAmericanshaveconfusedhappinesswithmaterialpossessions.ItisnotablethatThomasJefferson’scallechoesAdamSmith’sphraseaboutlifelibertyandthepursuitofproperty.DoallthosepairsofManoloBlahnikshoesreallymakeyouhappyOraretheyjustacompensationforemptyliveslikeinthesoapoperaSexintheCityIfopinionpollsonsuchmattersmeananything—andthatisdubious—theysuggestthatboththesecriticismsareflawed.A2006PewResearchCentrestudy—Arewehappyyet—claimsthat84%ofAmericansareeitherveryhappyorprettyhappy.TheHarrisPoll’s2004feelgoodindexfoundthat95%arepleasedwiththeirhomesand91%arepleasedwiththeirsociallives.ThePewAboutsponsorshippollsshowthatmoneydoesindeedgosomewaytowardsbuyinghappiness.TheyalsosuggestthatAmericansdevotiontoreligionmakesthemhappierstill.ThepursuitofhappinessaccountsforallsortsofpeculiaritiesofAmericanlife:fromthe$700/mspentonself-helpbooksperyeartotheirritatingdinnerguestsconstantlylookingattheirBlackBerrycellphones.Thispursuitmayevenhelptoexplainthesurgeofanti-Americanism.ManypeopledislikeitpreciselybecauseitisdoingexactlywhatJeffersonintended.ForsomeEuropeansthepursuitofhappinessintheformofmonstercarsandmansionsisobjectionableoneverypossibleground.Youcannotpursuehappinesswithsuchconspicuousenthusiasmwithoutmakingquitealotofpeoplearoundtheworldratherunhappy.TheauthormentionedRobertBorkto
Theideathatmusicmakesyousmarterhasreceivedconsiderableattentionfromscholarsandthemedia.Currentinterestin1betweenmusicandintelligencestemsfromtwoindependentareasofresearch.Onefocusesonshort-termeffectsof2listeningtomusic.Theotherisonaseperate3ofresearchwhichexamineswhethermusiclessonshave4benefitsthatextendtonon-musicalareasofcognition.Such5couldbeuniquetochildrenwhotakemusiclessonsforlongperiodsoftime6theirexperiencesdiffersubstantiallyfromthoseofotherchildren.Musiclessons7longperiodsoffocusedattentionmemorizationof8musicalpassageslearningaboutavarietyofmusicalstructuresand9masteryoftechnicalskillsandtheconventions10theexpressionofemotionsinperformance.This11ofexperiencescouldhaveapositiveimpactoncognitionparticularlyduringthechildhoodyearswhenbraindevolopmentishighly12andsensitivetoenvironmentalinfluence. Previousfindingsare13withthehypothesisthatmusiclessonspromoteintellectualdevelopment.Forexamplenaturalmusicalgiftsisassociatedwithliteracy.14correlationalandexperimentalstudies15thatmusiclessonshavepositiverelationswithverbalmemoryreadingabilityselectiveattentionandmathematicsachievement.16thesimplestexplanationofthese17relationsisthattheycomefromacommoncomponentsuchasgeneralintelligence.Putsimplychildren18highIQsaremorelikelythanotherchildrentotakemusiclessons.ToconcludethatmusiclessonshaveacasualrelationwithIQthatis19tomusiconemustrule20potentiallyconfusingfactorssuchassocioeconomicstatusandeducationanddemonstratethatnon-musicalextracurricularactivitiesdonothavecomparableeffectsonIQ. 4
EverywhereyoulookincontemporaryAmericayouseeapeopleengagedinthepursuitofhappiness.Youcanseeitinworkhabits.AmericansonaveragenotonlyworklongerandharderthanmostEuropeansbutendurelengthycommutestoandfromwork.Youcanseeitingeographicalmobility.About40mofthemmoveeveryyear.Theyareremarkablywillingtotravelhugedistancesinpursuitofthingslikebowlingconventionsandsoon.Andyoucanseeitinthecountry’sgeneralhopefulness:two-thirdsofAmericansareoptimisticaboutthefuture.SinceAmericansareenergeticevenindeconstructingtheirownfoundingprinciplesthereisnoshortageofpeoplewhohavetakenexceptiontothehappinesspursuit.TheyrangefromconservativeslikeRobertBorkbelievingthephrasesummarizestheemptinessattheheartofAmericanideologytoliberalswhothinkthatitisajustificationforanacquisitivesociety.Onecriticismisthatthepursuitisself-defeating.Themoreyoupursuetheillusionofhappinessthemoreyousacrificetherealthing.Theothersideofmobilityisturmoilandanxietybrokenmarriagesandunhappychildren.Americanshavelessjobsecuritythaneverbefore.Theyevenreporthavingfewerclosefriendsthanafewdecadesago.AndinternationalstudiesofhappinesssuggestthatpeopleincertainpoorcountriessuchasMexicoareapparentlyhappierthanAmericans.AnothercriticismisthatAmericanshaveconfusedhappinesswithmaterialpossessions.ItisnotablethatThomasJefferson’scallechoesAdamSmith’sphraseaboutlifelibertyandthepursuitofproperty.DoallthosepairsofManoloBlahnikshoesreallymakeyouhappyOraretheyjustacompensationforemptyliveslikeinthesoapoperaSexintheCityIfopinionpollsonsuchmattersmeananything—andthatisdubious—theysuggestthatboththesecriticismsareflawed.A2006PewResearchCentrestudy—Arewehappyyet—claimsthat84%ofAmericansareeitherveryhappyorprettyhappy.TheHarrisPoll’s2004feelgoodindexfoundthat95%arepleasedwiththeirhomesand91%arepleasedwiththeirsociallives.ThePewAboutsponsorshippollsshowthatmoneydoesindeedgosomewaytowardsbuyinghappiness.TheyalsosuggestthatAmericansdevotiontoreligionmakesthemhappierstill.ThepursuitofhappinessaccountsforallsortsofpeculiaritiesofAmericanlife:fromthe$700/mspentonself-helpbooksperyeartotheirritatingdinnerguestsconstantlylookingattheirBlackBerrycellphones.Thispursuitmayevenhelptoexplainthesurgeofanti-Americanism.ManypeopledislikeitpreciselybecauseitisdoingexactlywhatJeffersonintended.ForsomeEuropeansthepursuitofhappinessintheformofmonstercarsandmansionsisobjectionableoneverypossibleground.Youcannotpursuehappinesswithsuchconspicuousenthusiasmwithoutmakingquitealotofpeoplearoundtheworldratherunhappy.WecaninferthatThomasJeffersonandAdamSmith
Theideathatmusicmakesyousmarterhasreceivedconsiderableattentionfromscholarsandthemedia.Currentinterestin1betweenmusicandintelligencestemsfromtwoindependentareasofresearch.Onefocusesonshort-termeffectsof2listeningtomusic.Theotherisonaseperate3ofresearchwhichexamineswhethermusiclessonshave4benefitsthatextendtonon-musicalareasofcognition.Such5couldbeuniquetochildrenwhotakemusiclessonsforlongperiodsoftime6theirexperiencesdiffersubstantiallyfromthoseofotherchildren.Musiclessons7longperiodsoffocusedattentionmemorizationof8musicalpassageslearningaboutavarietyofmusicalstructuresand9masteryoftechnicalskillsandtheconventions10theexpressionofemotionsinperformance.This11ofexperiencescouldhaveapositiveimpactoncognitionparticularlyduringthechildhoodyearswhenbraindevolopmentishighly12andsensitivetoenvironmentalinfluence. Previousfindingsare13withthehypothesisthatmusiclessonspromoteintellectualdevelopment.Forexamplenaturalmusicalgiftsisassociatedwithliteracy.14correlationalandexperimentalstudies15thatmusiclessonshavepositiverelationswithverbalmemoryreadingabilityselectiveattentionandmathematicsachievement.16thesimplestexplanationofthese17relationsisthattheycomefromacommoncomponentsuchasgeneralintelligence.Putsimplychildren18highIQsaremorelikelythanotherchildrentotakemusiclessons.ToconcludethatmusiclessonshaveacasualrelationwithIQthatis19tomusiconemustrule20potentiallyconfusingfactorssuchassocioeconomicstatusandeducationanddemonstratethatnon-musicalextracurricularactivitiesdonothavecomparableeffectsonIQ. 6
TheUnitedStatesisnotthankgoodnessaculturallyhomogeneouscountry.Itconsistsofmanydistinctmoralcommunities.Oncertainsocialissuessuchasabortionandhomosexualitypeopledon’tagreeandprobablyneverwill—andthesignalpoliticaladvantageofthefederalistsystemisthattheydon’thaveto.Individualsandgroupswhofindthevaluesorlawsofonestateobnoxioushavetherighttolivesomewhereelse.ThenationalizationofabortionpolicyintheSupremeCourt’s1973Roev.Wadedecisioncreatedatextbookexampleofwhatcanhappenwhenthisfederalistprincipleisignored.IftheSupremeCourthadnotsteppedinabortionwouldtodaybelegalinmoststatesbutnotall;pro-liferswouldhavethecomfortofknowingtheycouldliveinastatewhoselawwascompatiblewiththeirviews.InsteadofendlesslyconfrontingaculturalschismthataffectseverySupremeCourtnominationwewouldseeoccasionallocalflare-upsinstatelegislaturesorcourtrooms.Americaisastrongercountryforthemoraldiversitythatfederalismuniquelyallows.Morallawandfamilylawgovernthemostintimateandoftenthemostcontroversialspheresoflife.Forthesakeofdomestictranquilitydomesticlawisbestlefttoalevelofgovernmentthatisclosetohome.Sowellsuitedisthefederalistsystemtothegay-marriageissuethatitmightalmosthavebeensetuptohandleit.Inanewlandwhosecitizensfolloweddifferentreligioustraditionsitwouldhavemadenosensetocentralizemarriageorfamilylaw.AndsomarriagehasbeenthedomainoflocallawnotjustsincethedaysoftheFoundersbutsinceColonialtimesbeforethestateswerestates.Tomyknowledgethefederalgovernmenthasoverruledthestatesonmarriageonlytwice.ThefirsttimewaswhenitrequiredUtahtobanpolygamyasaconditionforjoiningtheUnion—andnotethatthisrulingwasissuedbeforeUtahbecameastate.Thesecondtimewasin1967whentheSupremeCourtinLovingv.Virginiastruckdownsixteenstates’bansoninterracialmarriage.HeretheCourtsaidnotthatmarriageshouldbedefinedbythefederalgovernmentbutonlythatstatescouldnotdefinemarriageinwaysthatviolatedcoreconstitutionalrights.OntheoneoccasionwhenCongressdirectlyaddressedsame-sexmarriageinthe1996DefenseofMarriageActitdecreedthatthefederalgovernmentwouldnotrecognizesame-sexmarriagesbuttookcarenottoimposethatruleonthestates.Thepoliticaladvantagesofafederalistsystemisthat
Theteenagersareclusteredaroundlunchtableswolfingdownheapsofbeansontoastorpastawithaspicyeggplantsaucebutteringtheirbreadpeelingoranges.Thesekidsarerefueling.Itismidwaythroughweekfiveofasix-weeksportscampandtheyhavespentthemorningrunninganddoingbasketballdrills.That—alongwiththefactthattheyareafterallteenagers—meanstheyarehungry.BasedatLeedsMetropolitanUniversitytheCarnegieInternationalCampisBritain’sfirstsummerweight-lossprogramforchildrenandtheircounselorsknowexactlyhowmanycaloriesareonthoselunchplates.Some40boysandgirls11to17pay$550aweektobeputonmonitoredmealplansattendnutritionclasseshavetheirbodyfatmeasuredandeverydayexerciseuntiltheyarereadytodrop—oratleastfeignkneeinjuries.Allofthesekidshadtobearound35%abovetheWorldHealthOrganization’smeanrecommendedweighttobeacceptedandchosetospendtheirsummervacationsthisway.Itisnicesomeofthecamperssaytobesomeplacewheretheyarenotoutcasts:wheresomeofthemforthefirsttimeevercanmakefriendsgoondatesandgetspecialattentioninsportsclassesratherthangetchosenlast.Bysummer’sendtheweightlosseswerenotdramatic.Mostcampersshedaround2kgaweek.ThatslowsteadylossratherthansomedramaticdisappearanceofpoundsthatwillreappearbyChristmasisexactlywhatPaulGatelythecamp’sfounderandalecturerinexercisephysiologyandhealthattheuniversityintended.Themainaimistoencouragethemtobeactiveandcompetentatsportsandthenthey’llgetconfidenthesays.Andifyougetthemearlyyoucanpreventdiseaseslaterinlife.Inourweight-obsessedsocietyitissometimeseasytoforgetthatmorethanacosmeticissuefatisalsoapressinghealthconcern.GatelyisamemberasmallEuropeancommunityofhealthandmedicalprofessionalswhoarefocusingononeoftheregionsmostseriousandmostmisunderstoodhealthproblems:obesity.ObesityisdefinedbyWHOasabodymassindexBMI—one’sweightinkilogramsdividedbythesquareofone’sheightinmeters—equaltoorgreaterthan30.Aperson1.78rntallandtippingthescalesat125kgforexamplewouldhaveaBMIof39.5definitelyobese.Itisariskfactorforawiderangeofseriousmedicalconditionsincludingdiabetesheartdiseasestrokeandcertainformsofcancergallbladderdiseaseandjointproblems.TheauthormentionstheCarnegieInternationalCamptoillustratethat
Theideathatmusicmakesyousmarterhasreceivedconsiderableattentionfromscholarsandthemedia.Currentinterestin1betweenmusicandintelligencestemsfromtwoindependentareasofresearch.Onefocusesonshort-termeffectsof2listeningtomusic.Theotherisonaseperate3ofresearchwhichexamineswhethermusiclessonshave4benefitsthatextendtonon-musicalareasofcognition.Such5couldbeuniquetochildrenwhotakemusiclessonsforlongperiodsoftime6theirexperiencesdiffersubstantiallyfromthoseofotherchildren.Musiclessons7longperiodsoffocusedattentionmemorizationof8musicalpassageslearningaboutavarietyofmusicalstructuresand9masteryoftechnicalskillsandtheconventions10theexpressionofemotionsinperformance.This11ofexperiencescouldhaveapositiveimpactoncognitionparticularlyduringthechildhoodyearswhenbraindevolopmentishighly12andsensitivetoenvironmentalinfluence. Previousfindingsare13withthehypothesisthatmusiclessonspromoteintellectualdevelopment.Forexamplenaturalmusicalgiftsisassociatedwithliteracy.14correlationalandexperimentalstudies15thatmusiclessonshavepositiverelationswithverbalmemoryreadingabilityselectiveattentionandmathematicsachievement.16thesimplestexplanationofthese17relationsisthattheycomefromacommoncomponentsuchasgeneralintelligence.Putsimplychildren18highIQsaremorelikelythanotherchildrentotakemusiclessons.ToconcludethatmusiclessonshaveacasualrelationwithIQthatis19tomusiconemustrule20potentiallyconfusingfactorssuchassocioeconomicstatusandeducationanddemonstratethatnon-musicalextracurricularactivitiesdonothavecomparableeffectsonIQ. 14
Beingsmartisthemostexpensivethingwedo.Notintermsofmoneybutinacurrencythatisvitaltoalllivingthings:energy.Onestudyfoundthatnewbornhumansspendcloseto90percentoftheircaloriesonbuildingandrunningtheirbrains.Evenasadultsourbrainsconsumeasmuchasaquarterofourenergy.Ifduringchildhoodwhenthebrainisbeingbuiltsomeunexpectedenergycostcomesalongthebrainwillsuffer.Infectiousdiseaseisafactorthatmayroblargeamountsofenergyawayfromadevelopingbrain.AgreatdealofresearchhasshownthataverageIQvariesaroundtheworldbothacrossnationsandwithinthem.HigherIQpredictsawiderangeofimportantfactorsincludingbettergradesinschoolahigherlevelofeducationbetterhealthbetterjobperformancehigherwagesandreducedriskofobesity.Sohavingabetterunderstandingofvariationsinintelligencemightyieldagreaterunderstandingoftheseotherissuesaswell.Inastudyin2010itwasfoundthatamongallthefactorsthataffectintelligenceinfectiousdiseaseworksasthebestpredictorofthebunch.ArecentstudybyChristopherHassallandThomasSherrattrepeatedthestudyusingmoresophisticatedstatisticalmethodsandconcludedthatinfectiousdiseasemaybetheonlyreallyimportantpredictorofaveragenationalIQ.Supportforthishypothesiscomesnotonlyfromcross-nationalstudiesbutfromstudiesofindividuals.TherehavebeenmanystudiesforexampleshowingthatchildreninfectedwithintestinalwormshavelowerIQlaterinlife.AnotherstudybyAtheendarVenkataramanifoundthatregionsinMexicothatwerethetargetofmalariaeradicationprogramshadhigheraverageIQthanthosethatwerenot.Inpracticaltermshoweverthismeansthathumanintelligenceismutable.IfdifferencesinIQacrosstheworldarelargelyduetoexposuretoinfectiousdiseaseduringchildhoodthenreducingexposuretodiseaseshouldincreaseIQ.Despitethestrengthofthefindingsthestudywasnotwithoutitslimitations.Theresearchersdidtheirbesttocontrolfortheeffectsofeducation.Butwhattheyreallyneededwastorepeattheiranalysisacrossregionswithinasinglenationpreferablyonewithstandardizedcompulsoryeducation.ThenationtheychosewastheUnitedStates.AverageIQvariesinthestates.AgaininfectiousdiseasewasanexcellentpredictorofaveragestateIQ.ThestateswiththefivelowestaverageIQallhavehigherlevelsofinfectiousdiseasethanthestateswiththefivehighestaverageIQandtherelationshipwasgoodacrossallofthestatesinbetween.Sofartheevidencesuggeststhatinfectiousdiseaseisaprimarycauseoftheglobalvariationinhumanintelligence.Sincethisisadevelopmentalcauseratherthanageneticoneit’sgoodnewsforanyonewhoisinterestedinreducingglobalinequalityassociatedwithIQ.ItwillallowpeopleinterestedinusingthisinformationtoraisetheIQofpeoplearoundtheworldtotargettheireffortsmosteffectivelyandefficiently.Wecanlearnfromthefirstparagraphthat
Beingsmartisthemostexpensivethingwedo.Notintermsofmoneybutinacurrencythatisvitaltoalllivingthings:energy.Onestudyfoundthatnewbornhumansspendcloseto90percentoftheircaloriesonbuildingandrunningtheirbrains.Evenasadultsourbrainsconsumeasmuchasaquarterofourenergy.Ifduringchildhoodwhenthebrainisbeingbuiltsomeunexpectedenergycostcomesalongthebrainwillsuffer.Infectiousdiseaseisafactorthatmayroblargeamountsofenergyawayfromadevelopingbrain.AgreatdealofresearchhasshownthataverageIQvariesaroundtheworldbothacrossnationsandwithinthem.HigherIQpredictsawiderangeofimportantfactorsincludingbettergradesinschoolahigherlevelofeducationbetterhealthbetterjobperformancehigherwagesandreducedriskofobesity.Sohavingabetterunderstandingofvariationsinintelligencemightyieldagreaterunderstandingoftheseotherissuesaswell.Inastudyin2010itwasfoundthatamongallthefactorsthataffectintelligenceinfectiousdiseaseworksasthebestpredictorofthebunch.ArecentstudybyChristopherHassallandThomasSherrattrepeatedthestudyusingmoresophisticatedstatisticalmethodsandconcludedthatinfectiousdiseasemaybetheonlyreallyimportantpredictorofaveragenationalIQ.Supportforthishypothesiscomesnotonlyfromcross-nationalstudiesbutfromstudiesofindividuals.TherehavebeenmanystudiesforexampleshowingthatchildreninfectedwithintestinalwormshavelowerIQlaterinlife.AnotherstudybyAtheendarVenkataramanifoundthatregionsinMexicothatwerethetargetofmalariaeradicationprogramshadhigheraverageIQthanthosethatwerenot.Inpracticaltermshoweverthismeansthathumanintelligenceismutable.IfdifferencesinIQacrosstheworldarelargelyduetoexposuretoinfectiousdiseaseduringchildhoodthenreducingexposuretodiseaseshouldincreaseIQ.Despitethestrengthofthefindingsthestudywasnotwithoutitslimitations.Theresearchersdidtheirbesttocontrolfortheeffectsofeducation.Butwhattheyreallyneededwastorepeattheiranalysisacrossregionswithinasinglenationpreferablyonewithstandardizedcompulsoryeducation.ThenationtheychosewastheUnitedStates.AverageIQvariesinthestates.AgaininfectiousdiseasewasanexcellentpredictorofaveragestateIQ.ThestateswiththefivelowestaverageIQallhavehigherlevelsofinfectiousdiseasethanthestateswiththefivehighestaverageIQandtherelationshipwasgoodacrossallofthestatesinbetween.Sofartheevidencesuggeststhatinfectiousdiseaseisaprimarycauseoftheglobalvariationinhumanintelligence.Sincethisisadevelopmentalcauseratherthanageneticoneit’sgoodnewsforanyonewhoisinterestedinreducingglobalinequalityassociatedwithIQ.ItwillallowpeopleinterestedinusingthisinformationtoraisetheIQofpeoplearoundtheworldtotargettheireffortsmosteffectivelyandefficiently.ThewordmutablePara.4isclosestinmeaningto
Theideathatmusicmakesyousmarterhasreceivedconsiderableattentionfromscholarsandthemedia.Currentinterestin1betweenmusicandintelligencestemsfromtwoindependentareasofresearch.Onefocusesonshort-termeffectsof2listeningtomusic.Theotherisonaseperate3ofresearchwhichexamineswhethermusiclessonshave4benefitsthatextendtonon-musicalareasofcognition.Such5couldbeuniquetochildrenwhotakemusiclessonsforlongperiodsoftime6theirexperiencesdiffersubstantiallyfromthoseofotherchildren.Musiclessons7longperiodsoffocusedattentionmemorizationof8musicalpassageslearningaboutavarietyofmusicalstructuresand9masteryoftechnicalskillsandtheconventions10theexpressionofemotionsinperformance.This11ofexperiencescouldhaveapositiveimpactoncognitionparticularlyduringthechildhoodyearswhenbraindevolopmentishighly12andsensitivetoenvironmentalinfluence. Previousfindingsare13withthehypothesisthatmusiclessonspromoteintellectualdevelopment.Forexamplenaturalmusicalgiftsisassociatedwithliteracy.14correlationalandexperimentalstudies15thatmusiclessonshavepositiverelationswithverbalmemoryreadingabilityselectiveattentionandmathematicsachievement.16thesimplestexplanationofthese17relationsisthattheycomefromacommoncomponentsuchasgeneralintelligence.Putsimplychildren18highIQsaremorelikelythanotherchildrentotakemusiclessons.ToconcludethatmusiclessonshaveacasualrelationwithIQthatis19tomusiconemustrule20potentiallyconfusingfactorssuchassocioeconomicstatusandeducationanddemonstratethatnon-musicalextracurricularactivitiesdonothavecomparableeffectsonIQ. 12
Theideathatmusicmakesyousmarterhasreceivedconsiderableattentionfromscholarsandthemedia.Currentinterestin1betweenmusicandintelligencestemsfromtwoindependentareasofresearch.Onefocusesonshort-termeffectsof2listeningtomusic.Theotherisonaseperate3ofresearchwhichexamineswhethermusiclessonshave4benefitsthatextendtonon-musicalareasofcognition.Such5couldbeuniquetochildrenwhotakemusiclessonsforlongperiodsoftime6theirexperiencesdiffersubstantiallyfromthoseofotherchildren.Musiclessons7longperiodsoffocusedattentionmemorizationof8musicalpassageslearningaboutavarietyofmusicalstructuresand9masteryoftechnicalskillsandtheconventions10theexpressionofemotionsinperformance.This11ofexperiencescouldhaveapositiveimpactoncognitionparticularlyduringthechildhoodyearswhenbraindevolopmentishighly12andsensitivetoenvironmentalinfluence. Previousfindingsare13withthehypothesisthatmusiclessonspromoteintellectualdevelopment.Forexamplenaturalmusicalgiftsisassociatedwithliteracy.14correlationalandexperimentalstudies15thatmusiclessonshavepositiverelationswithverbalmemoryreadingabilityselectiveattentionandmathematicsachievement.16thesimplestexplanationofthese17relationsisthattheycomefromacommoncomponentsuchasgeneralintelligence.Putsimplychildren18highIQsaremorelikelythanotherchildrentotakemusiclessons.ToconcludethatmusiclessonshaveacasualrelationwithIQthatis19tomusiconemustrule20potentiallyconfusingfactorssuchassocioeconomicstatusandeducationanddemonstratethatnon-musicalextracurricularactivitiesdonothavecomparableeffectsonIQ. 8
Theideathatmusicmakesyousmarterhasreceivedconsiderableattentionfromscholarsandthemedia.Currentinterestin1betweenmusicandintelligencestemsfromtwoindependentareasofresearch.Onefocusesonshort-termeffectsof2listeningtomusic.Theotherisonaseperate3ofresearchwhichexamineswhethermusiclessonshave4benefitsthatextendtonon-musicalareasofcognition.Such5couldbeuniquetochildrenwhotakemusiclessonsforlongperiodsoftime6theirexperiencesdiffersubstantiallyfromthoseofotherchildren.Musiclessons7longperiodsoffocusedattentionmemorizationof8musicalpassageslearningaboutavarietyofmusicalstructuresand9masteryoftechnicalskillsandtheconventions10theexpressionofemotionsinperformance.This11ofexperiencescouldhaveapositiveimpactoncognitionparticularlyduringthechildhoodyearswhenbraindevolopmentishighly12andsensitivetoenvironmentalinfluence. Previousfindingsare13withthehypothesisthatmusiclessonspromoteintellectualdevelopment.Forexamplenaturalmusicalgiftsisassociatedwithliteracy.14correlationalandexperimentalstudies15thatmusiclessonshavepositiverelationswithverbalmemoryreadingabilityselectiveattentionandmathematicsachievement.16thesimplestexplanationofthese17relationsisthattheycomefromacommoncomponentsuchasgeneralintelligence.Putsimplychildren18highIQsaremorelikelythanotherchildrentotakemusiclessons.ToconcludethatmusiclessonshaveacasualrelationwithIQthatis19tomusiconemustrule20potentiallyconfusingfactorssuchassocioeconomicstatusandeducationanddemonstratethatnon-musicalextracurricularactivitiesdonothavecomparableeffectsonIQ. 20
GooglealreadyhasawindowintooursoulsthroughourInternetsearchesanditnowhasinsightintoourailingbodiestoo.TheInternetgiantisusingitsvastdatabaseofindividualsearchtermsto1theemergenceoffluuptotwoweeks2governmentepidemiologists.GoogleFluTrendsusesthe3ofpeopletoseekonlinehelpfortheirhealthproblems.Bytracking4fortermssuchas"cough""fever"and"achesandpains"itclaimstobeableto5estimatewherefluis6. GoogletestedtheideainnineregionsoftheUSandfounditcouldaccuratelypredictflu7between7and14daysearlierthanthefederalcentresfordiseasecontrolandprevention.Googlehopestheideacouldalsobeusedtohelp8otherdiseases.FluTrendsislimited9theUS.JeremyGinsbergandMattMohebb.Twosoftwareengineers10intheprojectsaidthat11inGooglesearchqueriescanbevery12.Inablogpostontheprojecttheywrote:"Itturns13thattraditionalflusurveillancesystemstake1to2weekstocollectand14surveillancedatabutGooglesearchqueriescanbe15countedveryquickly.Bymakingourestimates16eachdayFluTrendsmayprovideanearly-warningsystemforoutbreaksofinfluenza."Theyexplainedthat17informationhealthwouldbekept18."FluTrendscanneverbeusedtoidentifyindividualusers19werelyonanonymisedaggregatedcountsofhowoftencertainsearchqueries20eachweek. 18
ThestretchofthePacificbetweenHawaiiandCaliforniaisvirtuallyempty.Therearenoislandsnoshippinglanesnohumanpresenceforthousandsofmiles—justseaskyandrubbish.Theprevailingcurrentscauseflotsamfromaroundtheworldtoaccumulateinavastbecalmedpatchofocean.Inplacesthereareamillionpiecesofplasticpersquarekilometre.Thatcanmeanasmuchas112timesmoreplasticthanplanktonthefirstlinkinthemarinefoodchain.Allthisaddsuptoperhaps100mtonnesoffloatinggarbageandmoreisarrivingeveryday.Whereverpeoplehavebeen—andsomeplaceswheretheyhavenot—theyhaveleftwastebehind.Litterlinestheworld’sroads;dumpsdotthelandscape;slurryandsewagesloshintoriversandstreams.UpabovethousandsoffragmentsofdefunctspacecraftcareenthroughspaceandoccasionallymoredebrisisproducedbycollisionssuchastheonethatdestroyedanAmericansatelliteinmid-February.KenNoguchiamountaineerestimatesthathehascollectedninetonnesofrubbishfromtheslopesofMountEverestduringfiveclean-upexpeditions.Thereisstillplentyleft.TheaverageWesternerproducesover500kgofmunicipalwasteayear—andthatisonlythemostobviousportionoftherichworld’sdiscards.InBritainforexamplemunicipalwastefromhouseholdsandbusinessesmakesupjust24%ofthetotal.Inadditionbothdevelopedanddevelopingcountriesgeneratevastquantitiesofconstructionanddemolitiondebrisindustrialeffluentminetailingssewageresidueandagriculturalwaste.Extractingenoughgoldtomakeatypicalweddingringforexamplecangeneratethreetonnesofminingwaste.Rubbishmaybeuniversalbutitislittlestudiedandpoorlyunderstood.Nobodyknowshowmuchofittheworldgeneratesorwhatitdoeswithit.Inmanyrichcountriesandmostpooronesonlythepatchiestofrecordsarekept.Thatmaybeunderstandable:bydefinitionwasteissomethingitsownernolongerwantsortakesmuchinterestin.IgnorancespawnsscaressuchasthefusssurroundingNewYork’sinfamousgarbagebargewhichin1987sailedtheAtlanticforsixmonthsinsearchofaplacetodumpitsloadgivingmanyAmericansthefalseimpressionthattheircountrylandfillshadrunoutofspace.Italsomakesithardtodrawupsensiblepolicies:justthinkoftheendlessdebateaboutwhetherrecyclingistheonlywaytosavetheplanetranexpensivewasteoftime.Thesecondparagraphmainlydemonstrates
Theteenagersareclusteredaroundlunchtableswolfingdownheapsofbeansontoastorpastawithaspicyeggplantsaucebutteringtheirbreadpeelingoranges.Thesekidsarerefueling.Itismidwaythroughweekfiveofasix-weeksportscampandtheyhavespentthemorningrunninganddoingbasketballdrills.That—alongwiththefactthattheyareafterallteenagers—meanstheyarehungry.BasedatLeedsMetropolitanUniversitytheCarnegieInternationalCampisBritain’sfirstsummerweight-lossprogramforchildrenandtheircounselorsknowexactlyhowmanycaloriesareonthoselunchplates.Some40boysandgirls11to17pay$550aweektobeputonmonitoredmealplansattendnutritionclasseshavetheirbodyfatmeasuredandeverydayexerciseuntiltheyarereadytodrop—oratleastfeignkneeinjuries.Allofthesekidshadtobearound35%abovetheWorldHealthOrganization’smeanrecommendedweighttobeacceptedandchosetospendtheirsummervacationsthisway.Itisnicesomeofthecamperssaytobesomeplacewheretheyarenotoutcasts:wheresomeofthemforthefirsttimeevercanmakefriendsgoondatesandgetspecialattentioninsportsclassesratherthangetchosenlast.Bysummer’sendtheweightlosseswerenotdramatic.Mostcampersshedaround2kgaweek.ThatslowsteadylossratherthansomedramaticdisappearanceofpoundsthatwillreappearbyChristmasisexactlywhatPaulGatelythecamp’sfounderandalecturerinexercisephysiologyandhealthattheuniversityintended.Themainaimistoencouragethemtobeactiveandcompetentatsportsandthenthey’llgetconfidenthesays.Andifyougetthemearlyyoucanpreventdiseaseslaterinlife.Inourweight-obsessedsocietyitissometimeseasytoforgetthatmorethanacosmeticissuefatisalsoapressinghealthconcern.GatelyisamemberasmallEuropeancommunityofhealthandmedicalprofessionalswhoarefocusingononeoftheregionsmostseriousandmostmisunderstoodhealthproblems:obesity.ObesityisdefinedbyWHOasabodymassindexBMI—one’sweightinkilogramsdividedbythesquareofone’sheightinmeters—equaltoorgreaterthan30.Aperson1.78rntallandtippingthescalesat125kgforexamplewouldhaveaBMIof39.5definitelyobese.Itisariskfactorforawiderangeofseriousmedicalconditionsincludingdiabetesheartdiseasestrokeandcertainformsofcancergallbladderdiseaseandjointproblems.Whichofthefollowingisnotoneoftheresultscausedbyoverweightaccordingtothispassage
ThestretchofthePacificbetweenHawaiiandCaliforniaisvirtuallyempty.Therearenoislandsnoshippinglanesnohumanpresenceforthousandsofmiles—justseaskyandrubbish.Theprevailingcurrentscauseflotsamfromaroundtheworldtoaccumulateinavastbecalmedpatchofocean.Inplacesthereareamillionpiecesofplasticpersquarekilometre.Thatcanmeanasmuchas112timesmoreplasticthanplanktonthefirstlinkinthemarinefoodchain.Allthisaddsuptoperhaps100mtonnesoffloatinggarbageandmoreisarrivingeveryday.Whereverpeoplehavebeen—andsomeplaceswheretheyhavenot—theyhaveleftwastebehind.Litterlinestheworld’sroads;dumpsdotthelandscape;slurryandsewagesloshintoriversandstreams.UpabovethousandsoffragmentsofdefunctspacecraftcareenthroughspaceandoccasionallymoredebrisisproducedbycollisionssuchastheonethatdestroyedanAmericansatelliteinmid-February.KenNoguchiamountaineerestimatesthathehascollectedninetonnesofrubbishfromtheslopesofMountEverestduringfiveclean-upexpeditions.Thereisstillplentyleft.TheaverageWesternerproducesover500kgofmunicipalwasteayear—andthatisonlythemostobviousportionoftherichworld’sdiscards.InBritainforexamplemunicipalwastefromhouseholdsandbusinessesmakesupjust24%ofthetotal.Inadditionbothdevelopedanddevelopingcountriesgeneratevastquantitiesofconstructionanddemolitiondebrisindustrialeffluentminetailingssewageresidueandagriculturalwaste.Extractingenoughgoldtomakeatypicalweddingringforexamplecangeneratethreetonnesofminingwaste.Rubbishmaybeuniversalbutitislittlestudiedandpoorlyunderstood.Nobodyknowshowmuchofittheworldgeneratesorwhatitdoeswithit.Inmanyrichcountriesandmostpooronesonlythepatchiestofrecordsarekept.Thatmaybeunderstandable:bydefinitionwasteissomethingitsownernolongerwantsortakesmuchinterestin.IgnorancespawnsscaressuchasthefusssurroundingNewYork’sinfamousgarbagebargewhichin1987sailedtheAtlanticforsixmonthsinsearchofaplacetodumpitsloadgivingmanyAmericansthefalseimpressionthattheircountrylandfillshadrunoutofspace.Italsomakesithardtodrawupsensiblepolicies:justthinkoftheendlessdebateaboutwhetherrecyclingistheonlywaytosavetheplanetranexpensivewasteoftime.Bymentioningthedefinitionofwastetheauthorintendsto
Theideathatmusicmakesyousmarterhasreceivedconsiderableattentionfromscholarsandthemedia.Currentinterestin1betweenmusicandintelligencestemsfromtwoindependentareasofresearch.Onefocusesonshort-termeffectsof2listeningtomusic.Theotherisonaseperate3ofresearchwhichexamineswhethermusiclessonshave4benefitsthatextendtonon-musicalareasofcognition.Such5couldbeuniquetochildrenwhotakemusiclessonsforlongperiodsoftime6theirexperiencesdiffersubstantiallyfromthoseofotherchildren.Musiclessons7longperiodsoffocusedattentionmemorizationof8musicalpassageslearningaboutavarietyofmusicalstructuresand9masteryoftechnicalskillsandtheconventions10theexpressionofemotionsinperformance.This11ofexperiencescouldhaveapositiveimpactoncognitionparticularlyduringthechildhoodyearswhenbraindevolopmentishighly12andsensitivetoenvironmentalinfluence. Previousfindingsare13withthehypothesisthatmusiclessonspromoteintellectualdevelopment.Forexamplenaturalmusicalgiftsisassociatedwithliteracy.14correlationalandexperimentalstudies15thatmusiclessonshavepositiverelationswithverbalmemoryreadingabilityselectiveattentionandmathematicsachievement.16thesimplestexplanationofthese17relationsisthattheycomefromacommoncomponentsuchasgeneralintelligence.Putsimplychildren18highIQsaremorelikelythanotherchildrentotakemusiclessons.ToconcludethatmusiclessonshaveacasualrelationwithIQthatis19tomusiconemustrule20potentiallyconfusingfactorssuchassocioeconomicstatusandeducationanddemonstratethatnon-musicalextracurricularactivitiesdonothavecomparableeffectsonIQ. 2
Youwouldthinkthatpeoplewithahistoryofbeingdiscriminatedagainstintheworkplacemightgivethosewhomtheyresembleabreak.Butagrowingbodyofresearchconfirmsexactlytheopposite:womenarejustaslikelyasmentoshowsexismtowardwomeninhiringpracticessalariesandprofessionalmentorship.OvertdisplaysofsexismarelargelypasseintheAmericanworkplace.Whatremainsunfortunatelyisasetofsubtlerandmoreingrainedcognitivebiasesdeeplyrootedinourevolutionaryandculturalpast.Gettingridofthemwillrequireanhonestreckoningwiththeinalienablefactthathumansareinclinedtomakeimpliciterrorsinperceptionandevengoodpeoplewhoactivelyavoidbiasmaynonethelessharborsubtleyetdamagingstereotypesofwhichtheyareunaware.InoneofthelateststudiesapsychologyexperimentpublishedintheProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesseniorsciencefacultyacrosstheU.S.werepresentedwithidenticalresumesforalab-managerjobapositionthatcanoftenleadtograduatestudythatdifferedonlyinthegenderofthehypotheticalapplicant.Theresumeraterswerestatisticallymorelikelytoratethemalecandidatehigheroncompetenceandhirabilityandwerealsomorelikelytoofferthemalecandidateabiggersalaryandgreaterprofessionalmentorship.Bycontrastthehypotheticalfemaleapplicantswereratedmorelikablebutlesshirable.Femalescientistswerejustaslikelytofavormalecandidatesaspotentialhiresasmalescientistswere.Therearecountlessexamplesofbiasagainstwomenbybothsexesinnonsciencefieldsincludingfamouslytheincreaseinwomenwhowerehiredfororchestraswhenmusiciansauditionedbehindablindscreen.It’shardtoimaginewhythiskindofcognitivebiaspersistsinthe21stcenturyespeciallywhentheachievementgapsbetweenmalesandfemalesarcclosingrapidly.Butthisonlyseemspuzzlingbecausewetendtothinkthatbiasisanevilwordinfectedwithuglyismsandthedeliberatediminishingofcertainkindsofpeople.Currentresearchisshowingthatallhumanbeingshaveunconsciouscognitivebiases—whatHarvardprofessorMahzarinBanajicallsmindbugs.Thesebiasesmayhavebeenadaptivethousandsofyearsagowhenpeoplelivedinsmallhomogeneouscommunitiesandin-groupfavoritismmighthavemadethedifferencebetweenlifeanddeath.Buttheyareproblematicinourglobal21stcenturyworld.Thepervasivenessofcognitivebiasisdepressing.It’smorecomfortabletothinkofsexismorracismorageismasasymptomofafewrottenapplesthanasafundamentalhumantrait.Butifwe’realldoingiteventoourselveshowonearthcanwemovebeyondthestereotypesIfwewanttoeliminatetheperceptionthatwomenarelesscompetentthanmenforcertainjobsheldbybothsexesit’snotenoughtohiremorewomenfortraditionallymale-dominatedjobs.Amorefundamentalproblemisthatcognitivebiasisrootednotonlyinourprimitivepastbutalsoinourcontemporaryculture.Wecan’tbesurprisedbyunconsciousstereotypesaboutwomenwhenwestillembraceacultureinfectedwithsexismineverythingfrompopularmoviestorecentcongressionaldebates.Toovercomecognitivebiasespeopleshouldstartby
Thegoodnewsmadeheadlinesnationwide:Deathsfromseveralkindsofcancerhavedeclinedsignificantlyinrecentyears.Butthenewshastobebittersweetformanycancerpatientsandtheirfamilies.Everyyearmorethan500000peopleintheUnitedStatesstilldieofcancer.Infactmorethanhalfofallpatientsdiagnosedwithcancerwilldieoftheirdiseasewithinafewyears.Andwhileitstruesurvivalislongertodaythaninthepastthequalityoflifeforthesepatientsisoftengreatlydiminished.Cancer—andmanyofthetreatmentsusedtofightit—causespainnauseafatigueandanxietythatroutinelygoundertreatedoruntreated.Inthenation’ssingle-mindedfocusoncuringcancerwehaveinadvertentlydevaluedthecriticalneedforpalliativecarewhichfocusesonalleviatingphysicalandpsychologicalsymptomsoverthecourseofthedisease.Nothingwouldhaveagreaterimpactonthedailylivesofcancerpatientsandtheirfamiliesthangoodsymptomcontrolandsupportivetherapy.YettheNationalCancerInstituteNCIthefederalgovernment’sleaderincancerresearchandtrainingspentlessthanonepercentofits1999budgetonanyaspectofresearchortraininginpalliativecare.Thenationneedstogetseriousaboutreducingneedlesssuffering.NCIshouldcommittoandfundresearchaimedatimprovingsymptomcontrolandpalliativecare.NCIalsocoulddesignatecentersofexcellenceamongthecancercentersitrecognizes.Togetthatdesignationcenterswoulddeliverinnovativetop-qualitypalliativecaretoallsegmentsofthepopulationsthecentersserve;trainprofessionalsinmedicinenursingpsychologysocialworkandotherdisciplinestoprovidepalliativecare;andconductresearch.Insurancecoverageforpalliativeandhospicecarealsocontributestotheproblembyforcingpeopletochoosebetweenactivetreatmentorhospicecare.Thiseither/orapproachdoesnotreadilyallowthesetwotypesofessentialcaretobeintegrated.TheMedicarehospicebenefitisdesignedspecificallyforpeopleinthefinalstagesofillnessandallowsenrollmentonlyifpatientsareexpectedtosurvivesixmonthsorless.Thebenefitexcludespatientsfromseekingbothpalliativecareandpotentiallylife-extendingtreatment.Thatmakeshospiceenrollmentanobviousdeterrentformanypatients.Andhospiceswhichmayhavethemostskilledpractitionersandthemostexperienceinadministeringpalliativecarecannotoffertheirservicestopeoplewhocouldreallybenefitbutstillarepursuingactivetreatment.Itisinnatelyhumantocomfortandprovidecaretothosesufferingfromcancerparticularlythoseclosetodeath.Yetwhatseemsself-evidentatanindividualpersonallevelhasnotguidedpolicyatthelevelofinstitutionsinthiscountry.Deathisinevitablebutseveresufferingisnot.Toofferhopeforalonglifeofthehighestpossiblequalityandtodeliverthebestqualitycancercarefromdiagnosistodeathourpublicinstitutionsneedtomovetowardpoliciesthatvalueandpromotepalliativecare.Hospicesoffercancerpatients
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