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46) A "scientific’ view of language was dominant among philosophers and linguists who affected to...
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46Ascientificviewoflanguagewasdominantamongphil
46Ascientificviewoflanguagewasdominantamongphil
46Ascientificviewoflanguagewasdominantamongphil
Ascientificviewoflanguagewasdominantamongphilos
Inviewofallsortsofrumorsandguessesexpertscarriedou
A. blamed
discounted
attended
charged
46Ascientificviewoflanguagewasdominantamongphil
46Ascientificviewoflanguagewasdominantamongphil
46Ascientificviewoflanguagewasdominantamongphil
Frommypointofviewthetheorythat______bythescientist
was risen
brought up
had been raised
was put forward
46Ascientificviewoflanguagewasdominantamongphil
Inviewofallsortsofrumorsandguessesexpertscarriedou
A. blamed
discounted
attended
charged
46Ascientific’viewoflanguagewasdominantamongphi
46Ascientificviewoflanguagewasdominantamongphil
46Ascientificviewoflanguagewasdominantamongphil
46Ascientificviewoflanguagewasdominantamongphil
46Ascientific’viewoflanguagewasdominantamongphi
46Ascientificviewoflanguagewasdominantamongphil
46Ascientific’viewoflanguagewasdominantamongphi
Frommypointofviewthetheorythatbythescientistisnotq
was risen
brought up
had been raised
was put forward
46Ascientificviewoflanguagewasdominantamongphil
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Between1900and1912thenationsofEuropewereatpeace.Buttherewerehostilitiesrivalriesandconflictsbrewingthatwouldsoontearthewholecontinentapart.ThegreatconflictwasWorldWarⅠ.1justpriortothatwarthereweretwo2conflictsintheBalkanPeninsula.Thesetwoshortwarstookplacein1912and1913.Their3resultwastoendthe4oftheTurkishOttomanEmpireinEurope.Themoretragic5oftheBalkanWarswastoheightenthealreadyfierceinternationaltensionsthatwere6thenationsofEuropetowardWorldWarⅠ. In1912theBalkannations7ofBosniaHerzegovinaMontenegroSerbiaRomaniaBulgariaandGreece.TheMacedonianregioninnorthernGreecewasunderthe8oftheTurks.TheBalkanlandswerealsopeopledbymanyintenselynationalisticethnicgroups.AmongthesewereSerbsCroatsSlovenesBulgarsandMacedonians.Thesepeopleshadlongbeenfiercerivalsforterritoryandpolitical9.Religious10betweenRomanCatholicsandEasternOrthodoxChristianswithinthesegroupsfurtheraddedtotheirdisputes.Theserivalriesstill11. SerbiaBulgariaGreeceandMontenegroformedtheBalkanLeaguein1912.InOctober1912theBalkanLeague12war13theOttomanTurks.TheBalkan14werequicklyvictorious.Theywonbattles15SkopjeMonastirandothercities.ThewarendedinDecember.InMay1913atreatysignedinLondonformally16theconflict.TheTurkslostmostoftheirEuropean17. 18thepeacedidnotlast.InJune1913BulgariaattackedSerbiaandGreece.This19conflictwasendedbya20signedinBucharestinAugust1913. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSERSHEET1.3
Between1900and1912thenationsofEuropewereatpeace.Buttherewerehostilitiesrivalriesandconflictsbrewingthatwouldsoontearthewholecontinentapart.ThegreatconflictwasWorldWarⅠ.1justpriortothatwarthereweretwo2conflictsintheBalkanPeninsula.Thesetwoshortwarstookplacein1912and1913.Their3resultwastoendthe4oftheTurkishOttomanEmpireinEurope.Themoretragic5oftheBalkanWarswastoheightenthealreadyfierceinternationaltensionsthatwere6thenationsofEuropetowardWorldWarⅠ. In1912theBalkannations7ofBosniaHerzegovinaMontenegroSerbiaRomaniaBulgariaandGreece.TheMacedonianregioninnorthernGreecewasunderthe8oftheTurks.TheBalkanlandswerealsopeopledbymanyintenselynationalisticethnicgroups.AmongthesewereSerbsCroatsSlovenesBulgarsandMacedonians.Thesepeopleshadlongbeenfiercerivalsforterritoryandpolitical9.Religious10betweenRomanCatholicsandEasternOrthodoxChristianswithinthesegroupsfurtheraddedtotheirdisputes.Theserivalriesstill11. SerbiaBulgariaGreeceandMontenegroformedtheBalkanLeaguein1912.InOctober1912theBalkanLeague12war13theOttomanTurks.TheBalkan14werequicklyvictorious.Theywonbattles15SkopjeMonastirandothercities.ThewarendedinDecember.InMay1913atreatysignedinLondonformally16theconflict.TheTurkslostmostoftheirEuropean17. 18thepeacedidnotlast.InJune1913BulgariaattackedSerbiaandGreece.This19conflictwasendedbya20signedinBucharestinAugust1913. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSERSHEET1.15
Between1900and1912thenationsofEuropewereatpeace.Buttherewerehostilitiesrivalriesandconflictsbrewingthatwouldsoontearthewholecontinentapart.ThegreatconflictwasWorldWarⅠ.1justpriortothatwarthereweretwo2conflictsintheBalkanPeninsula.Thesetwoshortwarstookplacein1912and1913.Their3resultwastoendthe4oftheTurkishOttomanEmpireinEurope.Themoretragic5oftheBalkanWarswastoheightenthealreadyfierceinternationaltensionsthatwere6thenationsofEuropetowardWorldWarⅠ. In1912theBalkannations7ofBosniaHerzegovinaMontenegroSerbiaRomaniaBulgariaandGreece.TheMacedonianregioninnorthernGreecewasunderthe8oftheTurks.TheBalkanlandswerealsopeopledbymanyintenselynationalisticethnicgroups.AmongthesewereSerbsCroatsSlovenesBulgarsandMacedonians.Thesepeopleshadlongbeenfiercerivalsforterritoryandpolitical9.Religious10betweenRomanCatholicsandEasternOrthodoxChristianswithinthesegroupsfurtheraddedtotheirdisputes.Theserivalriesstill11. SerbiaBulgariaGreeceandMontenegroformedtheBalkanLeaguein1912.InOctober1912theBalkanLeague12war13theOttomanTurks.TheBalkan14werequicklyvictorious.Theywonbattles15SkopjeMonastirandothercities.ThewarendedinDecember.InMay1913atreatysignedinLondonformally16theconflict.TheTurkslostmostoftheirEuropean17. 18thepeacedidnotlast.InJune1913BulgariaattackedSerbiaandGreece.This19conflictwasendedbya20signedinBucharestinAugust1913. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSERSHEET1.13
46Classicalphysicsdefinesthevacuumasastateofabsencewhichissaidtoexistinaregionofspaceifthereisnothinginit.Inthequantumfieldtheoriesthatdescribethephysicsofelementaryparticlesthevacuumbecomessomewhatmorecomplicated.Eveninemptyspaceparticlescanappearspontaneouslyasaresultoffluctuationsofthevacuum.Forexampleanelectronandapositronoranti-electroncanbecreatedoutofthevoid.Particlescreatedinthiswayhaveonlyafleetingexistence;theyareannihilatedalmostassoonastheyappearandtheirpresencecanneverbedetecteddirectly.47Theyarecalledvirtualparticlesinordertodistinguishthemfromrealparticleswhoselifetimesarenotconstrainedinthesamewayandwhichcanbedetected.Thusitisstillpossibletodefinethatvacuumasaspacethathasnorealparticlesinit. Onemightexpectthatthevacuumwouldalwaysbethestateoflowestpossibleenergyforagivenregionofspace.Ifanareaisinitiallyemptyandarealparticleisputintoitthetotalenergyitseemsshouldberaisedbyatleasttheenergyequivalentofthemassoftheaddedparticle.48Asurprisingresultofsomerecenttheoreticalinvestigationsisthatthisassumptionisnotinvariablytrueandthereareconditionsunderwhichtheintroductionofarealparticleoffinitemassintoanemptyregionofspacecanreducethetotalenergy.Ifthereductioninenergyisgreatenoughanelectronandapositronwillbespontaneouslycreated.Undertheseconditionstheelectronandpositronarenotaresultofvacuumfluctuationsbutarerealparticleswhichexistindefinitelyandcanbedetected.Inotherwordsundertheseconditionsthevacuumisanunstablestateandcandecayintoastateoflowerenergy;i.e.oneinwhichrealparticlesarecreated. Theessentialconditionforthedecayofthevacuumisthepresenceofanintenseelectricfield.49Asaresultofthedecayofthevacuumthespacepermeatedbysuchafieldcanbesaidtoacquireanelectricchargeanditcanbecalledachargedvacuum.Theparticlesthatmaterializeinthespacemakethechargemanifest.Anelectricfieldofsufficientintensitytocreateachargedvacuumislikelytobefoundinonlyoneplace:intheimmediatevicinityofasuperheavyatomicnucleusonewithabouttwiceasmanyprotonsastheheaviestnaturalnucleiknown.50Anucleusthatlargecannotbestablebutitmightbepossibletoassembleonenexttoavacuumforlongenoughtoobservethedecayofthevacuum.Experimentsattemptingtoachievethisarenowunderway. Theyarecalledvirtualparticlesinordertodistinguishthemfromrealparticleswhoselifetimesarenotconstrainedinthesamewayandwhichcanbedetected.
MichaelPorterwhohasmadehisnamethroughoutthebusinesscommunitybyadvocatinghistheoriesofcompetitiveadvantagesisnowswimmingintoevenmoreshark-infestedwatersarguingthatcompetitioncansaveevenAmerica’stroubledhealth-caresystemthelargestintheworld.Mr.PorterarguesinRedefiningHealthCarethatcompetitionifproperlyappliedcanalsofixwhatailsthissector.ThatisaboldclaimgiventhehorriblestateofAmerica’shealth-caresystem.Justconsiderafewofitsfailings:Americapaysmorepercapitaforhealthcarethanmostcountriesbutitstillhassome45mcitizenswithnohealthinsuranceatall.Whileafewreceiveoutstandingtreatmentheshowsinheart-wrenchingdetailthatmostdonot.Thesystemwasteshugeresourcesonpaperworkignorespreventivecareandaboveallhasperverseincentivesthatencourageshiftingcostsratherthancuttingthemoutright.Heconcludesthatitisonadangerouspathwithatoxiccombinationofhighcostsunevenqualityfrequenterrorsandlimitedaccesstocare.Manyobserverswouldagreewiththisdiagnosisbutmanywouldundoubtedlydisagreewiththisadvocacyofmoremarketforces.Doctorshaveanintuitivedistrustofcompetitionwhichtheyoftenequatewithgreedwhilemanypublic-policythinkersarguethattheonlywaytofixAmerica’sproblemistoquashtheprivatesector’srolealtogetherandinsteadsetupagovernmentmonopolylikeBritain’sNationalHealthService.Mr.Porterstronglydisagrees.HestartsbyacknowledgingthatcompetitionasithasbeenintroducedtoAmerica’shealthsystemhasinfactdonemoreharmthangood.Buthearguesthatcompetitionhasbeenintroducedpiecemealinincoherentandcounter-productivewaysthatleadtoperverseincentivesandworseoutcomes:health-carecompetitionisnotfocusedondeliveringvalueforpatientshesays.Mr.Porteroffersamixofsolutionstofixthismessandtherebytoputthesectoronagenuinelycompetitivefooting.Firstcomestheseeminglyobviousbutasyetunrealizedgoalofdatatransparency.Secondisaredirectionofcompetitionfromthelevelofhealthplansdoctorsclinicsandhospitalstocompetitionatthelevelofmedicalconditionswhichisallbutabsent.Theauthorsarguethattherightmeasureofvalueforthehealthsectorshouldbehowwellapatientwithagivenhealthconditionfaresovertheentirecycleoftreatmentandwhatthecostisforthatentirecycle.Thatrightlyemphasizestheroleofearlydetectionandpreventivecareovertechno-fixespriceypillsandtheotherfallingsoftoday’ssystem.Ifthereisafailinginthisargumentitisthathesometimesstraystowardnaiveoptimism.Mr.Porterarguesforexamplethathissolutionsaresocommonsensicalthatprivateactorsinthehealthsystemcouldforgeaheadwiththemprofitablywithoutwaitingforthegovernmenttofixitspolicymistakes.Thatisatemptingnotionbutitfallsintoatrapthateconomistscallthefallacyofthe$20billonthestreet.Iftherereallywereeasymoneyonthepavementgoestheargumentsurelypreviouspassers-bywouldhavebentoverandpickeditupbynow.InthesameveinifMr.Porter’sprescriptionsaresosensiblethatcompaniescanmakemoneyevennowintheabsenceofgovernmentpolicychangeswhyintheworldhavetheynotdonesoalreadyOnereasonmaybethattheycanmakemoremoneyinthecurrentsub-optimalequilibriumthaninaperfectlycompetitivemarket—whichiswhygovernmentactionisprobablyneededtosweepasidethemanyobstaclesinthewayofMr.Porter’spowerfulvision.Thewordperverseline4paragraph2isclosestinmeaningto
Inmostpartsoftheworldclimatechangeisaworryingsubject.NotsoinCalifornia.Atarecentgatheringofgreenluminaries—inafilmstar’shousenaturallyforthatishowseriousnessisoftenestablishedinLosAngeles—thedominantnotewasself-satisfactionatwhatthestatehasalreadyachieved.AndperhapsnobodyismorecomplacentthanArnoldSchwarzenegger.UnlikeA1GoreapresidentialcandidateturnedprophetofenvironmentaldoomCalifornia’sgovernorsoundscheerfulwhentalkingaboutclimatechange.Aswellhemight:ithasmadehispoliticalcareer.AlthoughCaliforniahaslongbeenanenvironmentally-consciousstateuntilrecentlygreenswereconcernedaboveallwithsmogandredwoodtrees.CoastofDreamsKevinStag’sauthoritativehistoryofcontemporaryCaliforniapublishedin2004doesnotmentionclimatechange.Inthatyearthoughthenewly-electedMr.Schwarzeneggermadehisfirsttentativecallforwesternstatestoseekalternativestofossilfuels.Graduallyhenoticedthathiseffortstotackleclimatechangemetwithlessresistanceandmoreacclaimthanjustaboutallhisotherpolicies.Thesedaysitcanseemasthoughheworksonnothingelse.Mr.Schwarzenegger’stransformationfromscreenwarriortoeco-warriorwascompletedlastyearwhenhesignedabillimposinglegally-enforceablelimitsongreenhouse—gasemissions—afirstforAmerica.ThanksmostlytoitslackofcoalandheavyindustryCaliforniaisarelativelycleanstate.Ifitwereacountryitwouldbetheworld’seighth-biggesteconomybutonlyits16th-biggestpolluter.Itsbigproblemistransport—meaningmostlycarsandtruckswhichaccountformorethan40%ofitsgreenhouse-gasemissionscomparedwith32%inAmericaasawhole.Thestatewantstoratchetdownemissionslimitsonnewvehiclesbeginningin2009.Mr.Schwarzeneggerhasalsoorderedthatby2020vehiclefuelmustproduce10%lesscarbon:intheproductionaswellastheburningsoasimpleswitchtocorn-basedethanolisprobablyout.ThanksinparttoCalifornia’sexamplemostofthewesternstateshaveadoptedclimateactionplans.WhenitcomestosettingemissiontargetsthescenecanresembleaposedownataMr.Olympiacontest.Arizona’sclimate-changescholarsdecidedtosetatargetofcuttingthestate’semissionsto2000levelsby2020.ButJanetNapolitanothegovernorwasdeterminednottobeout-muscledbyCalifornia.ShehasdeclaredthatArizonawilltrytoreturnto2000emissionlevelsby2012.Californiahasnotjustinspiredotherstates;ithascreatedavanguardthatoughttobeabletoprodthefederalgovernmentintostrongernationalstandardsthanitwouldotherwiseconsider.ButCaliforniaisfindingiteasiertoexportitspoliciesthantoputthemintopracticeathome.InonewayCalifornia’sself-confidenceisfullyjustified.Ithasdonemorethananyotherstate—letalonethefederalgovernment—tofixAmerica’sattentiononclimatechange.Ithasalsomadeitseemasthoughtheproblemcanbesolved.Whichiswhyfailurewouldbesuchbadnews.AtthemomentCaliforniaisabeacontootherstates.Ifitfailsitwillbecomeanexcuseforinaction.Corn-basedethanolmightnotbechosenasanalternativebecause
Itishardtopredicthowscienceisgoingtoturnoutandifitisreallygoodscienceitisimpossibletopredict.Ifthethingstobefoundareactuallynewtheyarebydefinitionunknowninadvance.Youcannotmakechoicesinthismatter.46Youeitherhavescienceoryoudon’tandifyouhaveityouareobligedtoacceptthesurprisinganddisturbingpiecesofinformationalongwiththeneatandpromptlyusefulbits. TheonlysolidpieceofscientifictruthaboutwhichIfeeltotallyconfidentisthatweaxeprofoundlyignorantaboutnature.IndeedIregardthisasthemajordiscoveryofthepasthundredyearsofbiology.Itisinitswayanilluminatingpieceofnews.47Itwouldhaveamazedthebrightestmindsofthe18thcenturyEnlightenmenttobetoldbyanyofushowlittleweknowandhowbewilderingseemsthewayahead.48Itisthissuddenconfrontationwiththedepthandscopeofignorancethatrepresentsthemostsignificantcontributionofthe20thcenturysciencetothehumanintellect.Inearliertimesweeitherpretendedtounderstandhowthingsworkedorignoredtheproblemorsimplymadeupstoriestofillthegaps.Nowthatwehavebegunexploringinearnestwearegettingglimpsesofhowhugethequestionsareandhowfarfrombeinganswered.Becauseofthiswearedepressed.49Itisnotsobadbeingignorantifyouaretotallyignorant;thehardthingisknowinginsomedetailtherealityofignorancetheworstspotsandhereandtherethenot-so-badspotsbutnotruelightattheendofthetunnelnorevenanytunnelsthatcanyetbetrusted. Butwearemakingabeginningandthereoughttobesomesatisfaction.Thereareprobablynoquestionswecanthinkupthatcan’tbeansweredsoonerorlaterincludingeventhematterofconsciousness.50Tobesuretheremaywellbequestionswecan’tthinkupeverandthereforelimitstothereachofhumanintellectbutthatisanothermatter.Withinourlimitsweshouldbeabletoworkourwaythroughtoallouranswersifwekeepatitlongenoughandpayattention. Itwouldhaveamazedthebrightestmindsofthe18thcenturyEnlightenmenttobetoldbyanyofushowlittleweknowandhowbewilderingseemsthewayahead
Between1900and1912thenationsofEuropewereatpeace.Buttherewerehostilitiesrivalriesandconflictsbrewingthatwouldsoontearthewholecontinentapart.ThegreatconflictwasWorldWarⅠ.1justpriortothatwarthereweretwo2conflictsintheBalkanPeninsula.Thesetwoshortwarstookplacein1912and1913.Their3resultwastoendthe4oftheTurkishOttomanEmpireinEurope.Themoretragic5oftheBalkanWarswastoheightenthealreadyfierceinternationaltensionsthatwere6thenationsofEuropetowardWorldWarⅠ. In1912theBalkannations7ofBosniaHerzegovinaMontenegroSerbiaRomaniaBulgariaandGreece.TheMacedonianregioninnorthernGreecewasunderthe8oftheTurks.TheBalkanlandswerealsopeopledbymanyintenselynationalisticethnicgroups.AmongthesewereSerbsCroatsSlovenesBulgarsandMacedonians.Thesepeopleshadlongbeenfiercerivalsforterritoryandpolitical9.Religious10betweenRomanCatholicsandEasternOrthodoxChristianswithinthesegroupsfurtheraddedtotheirdisputes.Theserivalriesstill11. SerbiaBulgariaGreeceandMontenegroformedtheBalkanLeaguein1912.InOctober1912theBalkanLeague12war13theOttomanTurks.TheBalkan14werequicklyvictorious.Theywonbattles15SkopjeMonastirandothercities.ThewarendedinDecember.InMay1913atreatysignedinLondonformally16theconflict.TheTurkslostmostoftheirEuropean17. 18thepeacedidnotlast.InJune1913BulgariaattackedSerbiaandGreece.This19conflictwasendedbya20signedinBucharestinAugust1913. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSERSHEET1.9
Itishardtopredicthowscienceisgoingtoturnoutandifitisreallygoodscienceitisimpossibletopredict.Ifthethingstobefoundareactuallynewtheyarebydefinitionunknowninadvance.Youcannotmakechoicesinthismatter.46Youeitherhavescienceoryoudon’tandifyouhaveityouareobligedtoacceptthesurprisinganddisturbingpiecesofinformationalongwiththeneatandpromptlyusefulbits. TheonlysolidpieceofscientifictruthaboutwhichIfeeltotallyconfidentisthatweaxeprofoundlyignorantaboutnature.IndeedIregardthisasthemajordiscoveryofthepasthundredyearsofbiology.Itisinitswayanilluminatingpieceofnews.47Itwouldhaveamazedthebrightestmindsofthe18thcenturyEnlightenmenttobetoldbyanyofushowlittleweknowandhowbewilderingseemsthewayahead.48Itisthissuddenconfrontationwiththedepthandscopeofignorancethatrepresentsthemostsignificantcontributionofthe20thcenturysciencetothehumanintellect.Inearliertimesweeitherpretendedtounderstandhowthingsworkedorignoredtheproblemorsimplymadeupstoriestofillthegaps.Nowthatwehavebegunexploringinearnestwearegettingglimpsesofhowhugethequestionsareandhowfarfrombeinganswered.Becauseofthiswearedepressed.49Itisnotsobadbeingignorantifyouaretotallyignorant;thehardthingisknowinginsomedetailtherealityofignorancetheworstspotsandhereandtherethenot-so-badspotsbutnotruelightattheendofthetunnelnorevenanytunnelsthatcanyetbetrusted. Butwearemakingabeginningandthereoughttobesomesatisfaction.Thereareprobablynoquestionswecanthinkupthatcan’tbeansweredsoonerorlaterincludingeventhematterofconsciousness.50Tobesuretheremaywellbequestionswecan’tthinkupeverandthereforelimitstothereachofhumanintellectbutthatisanothermatter.Withinourlimitsweshouldbeabletoworkourwaythroughtoallouranswersifwekeepatitlongenoughandpayattention. Itisnotsobadbeingignorantifyouaretotallyignorant;thehardthingisknowinginsomedetailtherealityofignorancetheworstspotsandhereandtherethenot-so-badspotsbutnotruelightattheendofthetunnelnorevenanytunnelsthatcanyetbetrusted.
Between1900and1912thenationsofEuropewereatpeace.Buttherewerehostilitiesrivalriesandconflictsbrewingthatwouldsoontearthewholecontinentapart.ThegreatconflictwasWorldWarⅠ.1justpriortothatwarthereweretwo2conflictsintheBalkanPeninsula.Thesetwoshortwarstookplacein1912and1913.Their3resultwastoendthe4oftheTurkishOttomanEmpireinEurope.Themoretragic5oftheBalkanWarswastoheightenthealreadyfierceinternationaltensionsthatwere6thenationsofEuropetowardWorldWarⅠ. In1912theBalkannations7ofBosniaHerzegovinaMontenegroSerbiaRomaniaBulgariaandGreece.TheMacedonianregioninnorthernGreecewasunderthe8oftheTurks.TheBalkanlandswerealsopeopledbymanyintenselynationalisticethnicgroups.AmongthesewereSerbsCroatsSlovenesBulgarsandMacedonians.Thesepeopleshadlongbeenfiercerivalsforterritoryandpolitical9.Religious10betweenRomanCatholicsandEasternOrthodoxChristianswithinthesegroupsfurtheraddedtotheirdisputes.Theserivalriesstill11. SerbiaBulgariaGreeceandMontenegroformedtheBalkanLeaguein1912.InOctober1912theBalkanLeague12war13theOttomanTurks.TheBalkan14werequicklyvictorious.Theywonbattles15SkopjeMonastirandothercities.ThewarendedinDecember.InMay1913atreatysignedinLondonformally16theconflict.TheTurkslostmostoftheirEuropean17. 18thepeacedidnotlast.InJune1913BulgariaattackedSerbiaandGreece.This19conflictwasendedbya20signedinBucharestinAugust1913. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSERSHEET1.7
IfyouareatouristinterestedinseeingabaseballgamewhileinNewYorkyoucanfindoutwhichofitsteamsareintownsimplybysendingamessagetoAskForCents.com.Inafewminutestheanswercomesbackapparentlysuppliedbyamachinebutactuallycomposedbyahuman.Usinghumanstoprocessinformationinamachine-likewayisnotnew:itwaspioneeredbytheMechanicalTurkafamed18th-centurychess-playingmachinethatwasoperatedbyahiddenchessmaster.Butwhilecomputershavesincesurpassedthehumanbrainatchessmanytasksstillbaffleeventhemostpowerfulelectronicbrain.ForinstancecomputerscanfindyouabaseballschedulebuttheycannottellyoudirectlyiftheYankeesareintown.Norcantheytellyouwhethersittinginthebleachersisagoodideaonafirstdate.AskForCentscanbecauseitsanswerscomefrompeople.Whateverquestionyoucancomeupwiththere’sapersonthatcanprovidetheanswer—youdon’thavetheinflexibilityofanalgorithm-drivensystemsaysJesseHeitlerwhodevelopedAskForCents.Mr.HeitlerwasabletodothisthankstoanewsoftwaretooldevelopedbyAmazontheonlineretailerthatallowscomputingtaskstobefarmedouttopeopleovertheinternet.AptlyenoughAmazon’ssystemiscalledMechanicalTurk.Amazon’sTurkisparttoolkitforsoftwaredevelopersandpartonlinebazaar:anyonewithintemetaccesscanregisterasaTurkuserandstartperformingtheHumanIntelligenceTasksHITslistedontheTurkwebsitemturk.com.CompaniescanbecomerequestersbysettingupaseparateaccounttiedtoabankaccountthatwillpayoutfeesandthenpostingtheirHITs.MostHITspaybetweenonecentand$5.Sofarpeoplefrommorethan100countrieshaveperformedHITsthoughonlythosewithAmericanbankaccountscanreceivemoneyfortheirwork;othersarepaidinAmazongiftcertificates.Mr.Heitlersayshehadpreviouslytriedtobuildasimilartoolbutconcludedthatthein-frastucturewouldbedifficulttooperateprofitably.AmazonalreadyhasanextensivesoftwareinfrastructuredesignedforlinkingbuyerswithsellershoweverandtheTurksimplyextendsthatexistingmodel.LastNovemberAmazonunveiledaprototypeofthesystemwhichitcallsartificialartificialintelligence.ThepremiseisthathumansarevastlysuperiortocomputersattaskssuchaspatternrecognitionsaysPeterCohendirectoroftheprojectatAmazonsowhynotletsoftwaretakeadvantageofhumanstrengthsMr.CohencreditsAmazon’sbossJeffBezoswiththeconceptfortheTurk.Otherpeoplehavehadsimilarideas.EricBonabeauofIcosystemanAmericanfirmthatbuildssoftwaretoolsmodeledonnaturalsystemshasbuiltwhathecallstheHunchEnginetocombinehumanintelligencewithcomputeranalysis.TheFrenchpostalserviceforexamplehasusedittohelpitsworkerschoosethebestdeliveryroutesandpharmaceuticalresearchersareusingittodeterminemolecularstructuresbycombiningtheirgutinstinctswithknownresultsstoredinadatabase.AndafirmcalledSeriosityhopestotapthecollectivebrainpowerofthelegionsofobsessiveplayersofmultiplayeronlinegamessuchasWorldofWar-craftbygettingthemtoperformsmallreal-worldtaskssuchassortingphotographswhileplayingandpayingtheminthegame’sowncurrency.Thelastsentenceofthefirstparagraphmeans
Between1900and1912thenationsofEuropewereatpeace.Buttherewerehostilitiesrivalriesandconflictsbrewingthatwouldsoontearthewholecontinentapart.ThegreatconflictwasWorldWarⅠ.1justpriortothatwarthereweretwo2conflictsintheBalkanPeninsula.Thesetwoshortwarstookplacein1912and1913.Their3resultwastoendthe4oftheTurkishOttomanEmpireinEurope.Themoretragic5oftheBalkanWarswastoheightenthealreadyfierceinternationaltensionsthatwere6thenationsofEuropetowardWorldWarⅠ. In1912theBalkannations7ofBosniaHerzegovinaMontenegroSerbiaRomaniaBulgariaandGreece.TheMacedonianregioninnorthernGreecewasunderthe8oftheTurks.TheBalkanlandswerealsopeopledbymanyintenselynationalisticethnicgroups.AmongthesewereSerbsCroatsSlovenesBulgarsandMacedonians.Thesepeopleshadlongbeenfiercerivalsforterritoryandpolitical9.Religious10betweenRomanCatholicsandEasternOrthodoxChristianswithinthesegroupsfurtheraddedtotheirdisputes.Theserivalriesstill11. SerbiaBulgariaGreeceandMontenegroformedtheBalkanLeaguein1912.InOctober1912theBalkanLeague12war13theOttomanTurks.TheBalkan14werequicklyvictorious.Theywonbattles15SkopjeMonastirandothercities.ThewarendedinDecember.InMay1913atreatysignedinLondonformally16theconflict.TheTurkslostmostoftheirEuropean17. 18thepeacedidnotlast.InJune1913BulgariaattackedSerbiaandGreece.This19conflictwasendedbya20signedinBucharestinAugust1913. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSERSHEET1.11
MarkTwainonceobservedthatgivingupsmokingiseasy.Heknewbecausehe’ddoneithundredsoftimeshimself.Givingupforeverisatriflemoredifficultapparentlyanditiswellknownthatitismuchmoredifficultforsomepeoplethanforothers.WhyisthissoFewdoctorsbelieveanylongerthatitissimplyaquestionofwillpower.Andforthosepeoplethatcontinuetoviewaddictsasmerelyweakrecentgeneticresearchmayforcearethink.AstudyconductedbyJacquelineVinkoftheFreeUniversityofAmsterdamusedadatabasecalledtheNetherlandsTwinRegistertoanalyzethesmokinghabitsoftwins.HerresultspublishedinthePharmacogenomicsJournalsuggestthatanindividual’sdegreeofnicotinedependenceandeventhenumberofcigaretteshesmokesperdayarestronglygeneticallyinfluenced.TheNetherlandsTwinRegisterisavoluntarydatabasethatcontainsdetailsofsome7000pairsofadulttwinsagedbetween15and70and28000pairsofchildhoodtwins.Suchdatabasesareprizedbygeneticistsbecausetheyallowthecomparisonofidenticaltwinswhosharealltheirgeneswithfraternaltwinswhosharehalf.InthiscasehoweverDr.Vinkdidnotmakeuseofthatfact.Forherthedatabasewasmerelyaconvenientrepositoryofinformation.Insteadofcomparingidenticalandfraternaltwinssheconcentratedontheadultfraternaltwinsmostofwhomhadcompletedquestionnairesabouttheirhabitsincludingsmokingand536ofwhomhadgivenDNAsamplestotheregister.Thehumangenomeishuge.ItconsistsofbillionsofDNAletterssomeofwhichcanbestrungtogethertomakesensethegenesbutmanyofwhichhaveeithernofunctionoranunknownfunction.Tofollowwhatisgoingongeneticistsrelyonmarkerstheyhaveidentifiedwithinthegenome.Theseareplaceswherethegeneticlettersmayvarybetweenindividuals.Ifaparticularvariantisroutinelyassociatedwithaparticularphysicalfeatureorabehaviorpatternitsuggeststhataparticularversionofanearbygeneisinfluencingthatfeatureorbehavior.Dr.Vinkfoundfourmarkerswhichseemedtobeassociatedwithsmoking.Theywereonchromosomes3610and14suggestingthatatleastfourgenesareinvolved.Dr.Vinkhopesthatfindinggenesresponsiblefornicotinedependencewillmakeitpossibletoidentifythecausesofsuchdependence.Thatwillhelptoclassifysmokersbettersomearesocialsmokerswhileothersarephysicallyaddictedandthusenablequittingprogramstobecustomized.ResultssuchasDr.Vink’smustbeinterpretedwithcare.Associationstudiesassuchprojectsareknownhaveadisturbinghabitofdisappearingasitwereinapuffofsmokewhensomeonetriestoreplicatethem.ButifDr.VinkreallyhasexposedageneticlinkwithaddictionthenMarkTwain’sproblemmayeventuallybecomeathingofthepast.ThemajordifferencebetweenDr.Vinkandothergeneticistsisthat
Inmostpartsoftheworldclimatechangeisaworryingsubject.NotsoinCalifornia.Atarecentgatheringofgreenluminaries—inafilmstar’shousenaturallyforthatishowseriousnessisoftenestablishedinLosAngeles—thedominantnotewasself-satisfactionatwhatthestatehasalreadyachieved.AndperhapsnobodyismorecomplacentthanArnoldSchwarzenegger.UnlikeA1GoreapresidentialcandidateturnedprophetofenvironmentaldoomCalifornia’sgovernorsoundscheerfulwhentalkingaboutclimatechange.Aswellhemight:ithasmadehispoliticalcareer.AlthoughCaliforniahaslongbeenanenvironmentally-consciousstateuntilrecentlygreenswereconcernedaboveallwithsmogandredwoodtrees.CoastofDreamsKevinStag’sauthoritativehistoryofcontemporaryCaliforniapublishedin2004doesnotmentionclimatechange.Inthatyearthoughthenewly-electedMr.Schwarzeneggermadehisfirsttentativecallforwesternstatestoseekalternativestofossilfuels.Graduallyhenoticedthathiseffortstotackleclimatechangemetwithlessresistanceandmoreacclaimthanjustaboutallhisotherpolicies.Thesedaysitcanseemasthoughheworksonnothingelse.Mr.Schwarzenegger’stransformationfromscreenwarriortoeco-warriorwascompletedlastyearwhenhesignedabillimposinglegally-enforceablelimitsongreenhouse—gasemissions—afirstforAmerica.ThanksmostlytoitslackofcoalandheavyindustryCaliforniaisarelativelycleanstate.Ifitwereacountryitwouldbetheworld’seighth-biggesteconomybutonlyits16th-biggestpolluter.Itsbigproblemistransport—meaningmostlycarsandtruckswhichaccountformorethan40%ofitsgreenhouse-gasemissionscomparedwith32%inAmericaasawhole.Thestatewantstoratchetdownemissionslimitsonnewvehiclesbeginningin2009.Mr.Schwarzeneggerhasalsoorderedthatby2020vehiclefuelmustproduce10%lesscarbon:intheproductionaswellastheburningsoasimpleswitchtocorn-basedethanolisprobablyout.ThanksinparttoCalifornia’sexamplemostofthewesternstateshaveadoptedclimateactionplans.WhenitcomestosettingemissiontargetsthescenecanresembleaposedownataMr.Olympiacontest.Arizona’sclimate-changescholarsdecidedtosetatargetofcuttingthestate’semissionsto2000levelsby2020.ButJanetNapolitanothegovernorwasdeterminednottobeout-muscledbyCalifornia.ShehasdeclaredthatArizonawilltrytoreturnto2000emissionlevelsby2012.Californiahasnotjustinspiredotherstates;ithascreatedavanguardthatoughttobeabletoprodthefederalgovernmentintostrongernationalstandardsthanitwouldotherwiseconsider.ButCaliforniaisfindingiteasiertoexportitspoliciesthantoputthemintopracticeathome.InonewayCalifornia’sself-confidenceisfullyjustified.Ithasdonemorethananyotherstate—letalonethefederalgovernment—tofixAmerica’sattentiononclimatechange.Ithasalsomadeitseemasthoughtheproblemcanbesolved.Whichiswhyfailurewouldbesuchbadnews.AtthemomentCaliforniaisabeacontootherstates.Ifitfailsitwillbecomeanexcuseforinaction.Itcanbeinferredfromthetextthat
[A]Itisalsousedtohelpstudentsgaintransitionskills:Studentswithautismordevelopmentaldelay canvisitavirtualsupermarkettakepublictransportationcrossthestreetororganizehis orherday.Studentsinwheelchairscanlearnhowtonavigatebuildings.Andthebeautyisthesestudentscanmakeanynumberofmistakeswithoutendangeringthemselves. [B]Forexamplevirtualrealityhasbeenusedeffectivelytoassessstudents’depthperceptionwiththeresultsbeingquitedifferentfromthoseobtainedfromtraditionalpaperandpenciltests. [C]Thenwegraduallybeginshrinkingthesignandaddingotherenvironmentalelements.Oncethestudenthasmasteredthisvirtuallyheorshetransferstheknowledgetotherealworld.Intheendthisisthemostimportantfunctionofvirtualrealityprogramsforspecialstudents. [D]Virtualrealityevenallowsustotailortheworldtomeetachild’sneeds.Let’ssaywe’reteachingachildtocrossthestreetbypayingattentiontotrafficsigns.Educatorshavefoundthatitisoftendifficultforthechildtolocatethetrafficsigninabusyenvironment.Withvirtualrealitywecanblowupthe"walksign"sothestudentknowswhatitlookslike. [E]Anditisexpectedthatfutureteacherswillbeexposedtovirtualclassescompletewith"difficultstudents"tohelpthemmasterbehaviormanagementtechniques. [F]Infactoneofthebiggestvirtuesofvirtualrealityisthatitallowsstudentstolearninasafeenvironmentandthisholdstrueforstudentswithbehaviordisorders.Afterastudenthaslearnedanappropriatebehaviororwayofcontrollinghisorherangerthestudentisputinprogressivelymoredifficultvirtualsocialsituationswhereheorshecanpracticethenewtechnique.[ G]Someoftoday’smostcutting-edgetechnologyisnowbeingusedtohelpstudentswithspecialneeds.Nolongerjusttheprovinceofgamesfor"videoneeds"virtualrealityhascomeintoitsownasatoolforspecialeducationteachersandtherapists.AssuchitisusedforassessmentteachingandpracticeaccordingtoSkipRizzoresearchassistant/professorattheUniversityofSouthernCalifornia. 45
Between1900and1912thenationsofEuropewereatpeace.Buttherewerehostilitiesrivalriesandconflictsbrewingthatwouldsoontearthewholecontinentapart.ThegreatconflictwasWorldWarⅠ.1justpriortothatwarthereweretwo2conflictsintheBalkanPeninsula.Thesetwoshortwarstookplacein1912and1913.Their3resultwastoendthe4oftheTurkishOttomanEmpireinEurope.Themoretragic5oftheBalkanWarswastoheightenthealreadyfierceinternationaltensionsthatwere6thenationsofEuropetowardWorldWarⅠ. In1912theBalkannations7ofBosniaHerzegovinaMontenegroSerbiaRomaniaBulgariaandGreece.TheMacedonianregioninnorthernGreecewasunderthe8oftheTurks.TheBalkanlandswerealsopeopledbymanyintenselynationalisticethnicgroups.AmongthesewereSerbsCroatsSlovenesBulgarsandMacedonians.Thesepeopleshadlongbeenfiercerivalsforterritoryandpolitical9.Religious10betweenRomanCatholicsandEasternOrthodoxChristianswithinthesegroupsfurtheraddedtotheirdisputes.Theserivalriesstill11. SerbiaBulgariaGreeceandMontenegroformedtheBalkanLeaguein1912.InOctober1912theBalkanLeague12war13theOttomanTurks.TheBalkan14werequicklyvictorious.Theywonbattles15SkopjeMonastirandothercities.ThewarendedinDecember.InMay1913atreatysignedinLondonformally16theconflict.TheTurkslostmostoftheirEuropean17. 18thepeacedidnotlast.InJune1913BulgariaattackedSerbiaandGreece.This19conflictwasendedbya20signedinBucharestinAugust1913. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSERSHEET1.1
[A]Heisunlikelytoproducesuchabighitinthenearfuturesomoreofhisattentionisdirectedtorevisingtheoldsongandsellingittomorepeople. [B]Backinthe1950shesaysperformersgotonlyone-tenthoftheshareofroyaltiesthattheydonow.Foryearsartistshavewithgoodreasonaccusedbigrecordlabelsofrippingthemoff. [C]ThismonthearlyrecordingsbyElvishimselfstartedtoenterEurope’spublicdomain.OverthenextfewdecadesatorrentofthemostpopulartracksfromtheBeatlestheRollingStonesandmanyotherartistswillbecomepublicpropertyinEurope—tothepleasureoffansandtheconsternationofthemusicindustry. [D]ThemusicindustryalsopointsoutthatAmericagivesartistsalmosttwiceasmuchcopyrightprotectionasEurope.AmericahasrepeatedlylengthenedcopyrighttermswiththelatestreprievetheSonnyBonoCopyrightTermExtensionActof1998givingperformersprotectionfor95yearsafterpublication. [E]ButwhentheattentionisshiftedfromEuropetoAmericaartistsshouldfeelmuchbetterbecausethelengthofcopyrightprotectionthereisevenshorter.ItseemsthattheAmericangovernmentismoreinterestedinservingthepublicthanthealreadyveryrichartists. [F]MusicexecutiveswanttheEuropeanCommissiontoprotectthemfromsuchunwelcomecomecompetitionbyextendingthecopyrightterm [G]Andthatestimateaccountsonlyforsongsuptotheendofthe1950s.Farmorewillbeatriskasmusicfromthe1960sand1970smovesoutofcopyright. "Everythreemonthsfromthebeginningof2008"saysCliffRichardwhowasonceBritain’sanswertoElvisPresley"Iwillloseasong."ThereasonisthatinmostEuropeancountriescopyrightprotectiononsoundrecordingslastsfor50yearsandnowSirCliffrecordedhisfirsthitsingle"MoveIt"in1958.41______ Oneofthebigfourmusicfirmsestimatesthatabout100m"deepcatalogue"ieoldalbumsnowsoldinEuropeeachyearwillhaveenteredthepublicdomainbytheendof2010.Assumingacurrentwholesalepriceof$10thatcouldjeopardise$1billionofrevenuesorabout3%ofannualrecordedmusicsales.42______ EvenoncemuchofthebackcataloguehasenteredthepublicdomainthebigmusicfirmscancarryonsellingitonCD.Theywillevenbenefitfromnothavingtopayanythingtotheartistortohisestate.Theywillinmanycasesstillowncopyrightontheoriginalcoverart.ButtheywillfacenewcompetitionfromahostofprovidersofCDswhomayundercutthem.Andontheinternetpublicdomainmusicislikelytobefreeasmuchofthecopyrightedstuffalreadyisonpeer-to-peernetworks. 43______Artistshaveralliedtothecause:U2StatusQuoandCharlesAznavourallwantthe50-yearlimitincreased.Manymoreactswillsignapetitionthisspring.SirCliffhasspenthourscomplainingtothecommissionthatcomposersofsongsgetcopyrightfor70yearsaftertheirdeath:morethanperformers. 44______ ManypeoplebelievethatAmericahasgonetoofarinprotectingcopyrightattheexpenseofthepublicgoodincludingitseemsthecommissionwhichsaidlastyearthatitsawnoneedtoliftitsown50-yearlimit.Itsdeadlineforproposalsoncopyrightlawhasslippedfromthisyearto2006.Butgovernmentsarelikelytoweighinontheissue.FranceItalyandPortugalhaveindicatedthattheysupportanextensionofthetermandBritainislikelytostickupforitsownmusicmajorEMI. AlthoughartistsandtheirestateswantlongercopyrightthebigmusicfirmswouldbenefitfromitthemostespeciallyinthenextcoupleofdecadessaysStephenKingchairmanoftheAssociationofUnitedRecordingArtistsandmanageroftheLibertines.45______Nowtheyhavewisedupaboutmakingdeals.Thebestguaranteeoffinancialsecurity—saferthanclingingontocopyright—ishiringagoodlawyerearlyon. 41
IfyouareatouristinterestedinseeingabaseballgamewhileinNewYorkyoucanfindoutwhichofitsteamsareintownsimplybysendingamessagetoAskForCents.com.Inafewminutestheanswercomesbackapparentlysuppliedbyamachinebutactuallycomposedbyahuman.Usinghumanstoprocessinformationinamachine-likewayisnotnew:itwaspioneeredbytheMechanicalTurkafamed18th-centurychess-playingmachinethatwasoperatedbyahiddenchessmaster.Butwhilecomputershavesincesurpassedthehumanbrainatchessmanytasksstillbaffleeventhemostpowerfulelectronicbrain.ForinstancecomputerscanfindyouabaseballschedulebuttheycannottellyoudirectlyiftheYankeesareintown.Norcantheytellyouwhethersittinginthebleachersisagoodideaonafirstdate.AskForCentscanbecauseitsanswerscomefrompeople.Whateverquestionyoucancomeupwiththere’sapersonthatcanprovidetheanswer—youdon’thavetheinflexibilityofanalgorithm-drivensystemsaysJesseHeitlerwhodevelopedAskForCents.Mr.HeitlerwasabletodothisthankstoanewsoftwaretooldevelopedbyAmazontheonlineretailerthatallowscomputingtaskstobefarmedouttopeopleovertheinternet.AptlyenoughAmazon’ssystemiscalledMechanicalTurk.Amazon’sTurkisparttoolkitforsoftwaredevelopersandpartonlinebazaar:anyonewithintemetaccesscanregisterasaTurkuserandstartperformingtheHumanIntelligenceTasksHITslistedontheTurkwebsitemturk.com.CompaniescanbecomerequestersbysettingupaseparateaccounttiedtoabankaccountthatwillpayoutfeesandthenpostingtheirHITs.MostHITspaybetweenonecentand$5.Sofarpeoplefrommorethan100countrieshaveperformedHITsthoughonlythosewithAmericanbankaccountscanreceivemoneyfortheirwork;othersarepaidinAmazongiftcertificates.Mr.Heitlersayshehadpreviouslytriedtobuildasimilartoolbutconcludedthatthein-frastucturewouldbedifficulttooperateprofitably.AmazonalreadyhasanextensivesoftwareinfrastructuredesignedforlinkingbuyerswithsellershoweverandtheTurksimplyextendsthatexistingmodel.LastNovemberAmazonunveiledaprototypeofthesystemwhichitcallsartificialartificialintelligence.ThepremiseisthathumansarevastlysuperiortocomputersattaskssuchaspatternrecognitionsaysPeterCohendirectoroftheprojectatAmazonsowhynotletsoftwaretakeadvantageofhumanstrengthsMr.CohencreditsAmazon’sbossJeffBezoswiththeconceptfortheTurk.Otherpeoplehavehadsimilarideas.EricBonabeauofIcosystemanAmericanfirmthatbuildssoftwaretoolsmodeledonnaturalsystemshasbuiltwhathecallstheHunchEnginetocombinehumanintelligencewithcomputeranalysis.TheFrenchpostalserviceforexamplehasusedittohelpitsworkerschoosethebestdeliveryroutesandpharmaceuticalresearchersareusingittodeterminemolecularstructuresbycombiningtheirgutinstinctswithknownresultsstoredinadatabase.AndafirmcalledSeriosityhopestotapthecollectivebrainpowerofthelegionsofobsessiveplayersofmultiplayeronlinegamessuchasWorldofWar-craftbygettingthemtoperformsmallreal-worldtaskssuchassortingphotographswhileplayingandpayingtheminthegame’sowncurrency.Seriosityismentionedinthepassageto
MarkTwainonceobservedthatgivingupsmokingiseasy.Heknewbecausehe’ddoneithundredsoftimeshimself.Givingupforeverisatriflemoredifficultapparentlyanditiswellknownthatitismuchmoredifficultforsomepeoplethanforothers.WhyisthissoFewdoctorsbelieveanylongerthatitissimplyaquestionofwillpower.Andforthosepeoplethatcontinuetoviewaddictsasmerelyweakrecentgeneticresearchmayforcearethink.AstudyconductedbyJacquelineVinkoftheFreeUniversityofAmsterdamusedadatabasecalledtheNetherlandsTwinRegistertoanalyzethesmokinghabitsoftwins.HerresultspublishedinthePharmacogenomicsJournalsuggestthatanindividual’sdegreeofnicotinedependenceandeventhenumberofcigaretteshesmokesperdayarestronglygeneticallyinfluenced.TheNetherlandsTwinRegisterisavoluntarydatabasethatcontainsdetailsofsome7000pairsofadulttwinsagedbetween15and70and28000pairsofchildhoodtwins.Suchdatabasesareprizedbygeneticistsbecausetheyallowthecomparisonofidenticaltwinswhosharealltheirgeneswithfraternaltwinswhosharehalf.InthiscasehoweverDr.Vinkdidnotmakeuseofthatfact.Forherthedatabasewasmerelyaconvenientrepositoryofinformation.Insteadofcomparingidenticalandfraternaltwinssheconcentratedontheadultfraternaltwinsmostofwhomhadcompletedquestionnairesabouttheirhabitsincludingsmokingand536ofwhomhadgivenDNAsamplestotheregister.Thehumangenomeishuge.ItconsistsofbillionsofDNAletterssomeofwhichcanbestrungtogethertomakesensethegenesbutmanyofwhichhaveeithernofunctionoranunknownfunction.Tofollowwhatisgoingongeneticistsrelyonmarkerstheyhaveidentifiedwithinthegenome.Theseareplaceswherethegeneticlettersmayvarybetweenindividuals.Ifaparticularvariantisroutinelyassociatedwithaparticularphysicalfeatureorabehaviorpatternitsuggeststhataparticularversionofanearbygeneisinfluencingthatfeatureorbehavior.Dr.Vinkfoundfourmarkerswhichseemedtobeassociatedwithsmoking.Theywereonchromosomes3610and14suggestingthatatleastfourgenesareinvolved.Dr.Vinkhopesthatfindinggenesresponsiblefornicotinedependencewillmakeitpossibletoidentifythecausesofsuchdependence.Thatwillhelptoclassifysmokersbettersomearesocialsmokerswhileothersarephysicallyaddictedandthusenablequittingprogramstobecustomized.ResultssuchasDr.Vink’smustbeinterpretedwithcare.Associationstudiesassuchprojectsareknownhaveadisturbinghabitofdisappearingasitwereinapuffofsmokewhensomeonetriestoreplicatethem.ButifDr.VinkreallyhasexposedageneticlinkwithaddictionthenMarkTwain’sproblemmayeventuallybecomeathingofthepast.TheultimatepurposeofDr.Vink’sresearchisto
Between1900and1912thenationsofEuropewereatpeace.Buttherewerehostilitiesrivalriesandconflictsbrewingthatwouldsoontearthewholecontinentapart.ThegreatconflictwasWorldWarⅠ.1justpriortothatwarthereweretwo2conflictsintheBalkanPeninsula.Thesetwoshortwarstookplacein1912and1913.Their3resultwastoendthe4oftheTurkishOttomanEmpireinEurope.Themoretragic5oftheBalkanWarswastoheightenthealreadyfierceinternationaltensionsthatwere6thenationsofEuropetowardWorldWarⅠ. In1912theBalkannations7ofBosniaHerzegovinaMontenegroSerbiaRomaniaBulgariaandGreece.TheMacedonianregioninnorthernGreecewasunderthe8oftheTurks.TheBalkanlandswerealsopeopledbymanyintenselynationalisticethnicgroups.AmongthesewereSerbsCroatsSlovenesBulgarsandMacedonians.Thesepeopleshadlongbeenfiercerivalsforterritoryandpolitical9.Religious10betweenRomanCatholicsandEasternOrthodoxChristianswithinthesegroupsfurtheraddedtotheirdisputes.Theserivalriesstill11. SerbiaBulgariaGreeceandMontenegroformedtheBalkanLeaguein1912.InOctober1912theBalkanLeague12war13theOttomanTurks.TheBalkan14werequicklyvictorious.Theywonbattles15SkopjeMonastirandothercities.ThewarendedinDecember.InMay1913atreatysignedinLondonformally16theconflict.TheTurkslostmostoftheirEuropean17. 18thepeacedidnotlast.InJune1913BulgariaattackedSerbiaandGreece.This19conflictwasendedbya20signedinBucharestinAugust1913. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSERSHEET1.5
MichaelPorterwhohasmadehisnamethroughoutthebusinesscommunitybyadvocatinghistheoriesofcompetitiveadvantagesisnowswimmingintoevenmoreshark-infestedwatersarguingthatcompetitioncansaveevenAmerica’stroubledhealth-caresystemthelargestintheworld.Mr.PorterarguesinRedefiningHealthCarethatcompetitionifproperlyappliedcanalsofixwhatailsthissector.ThatisaboldclaimgiventhehorriblestateofAmerica’shealth-caresystem.Justconsiderafewofitsfailings:Americapaysmorepercapitaforhealthcarethanmostcountriesbutitstillhassome45mcitizenswithnohealthinsuranceatall.Whileafewreceiveoutstandingtreatmentheshowsinheart-wrenchingdetailthatmostdonot.Thesystemwasteshugeresourcesonpaperworkignorespreventivecareandaboveallhasperverseincentivesthatencourageshiftingcostsratherthancuttingthemoutright.Heconcludesthatitisonadangerouspathwithatoxiccombinationofhighcostsunevenqualityfrequenterrorsandlimitedaccesstocare.Manyobserverswouldagreewiththisdiagnosisbutmanywouldundoubtedlydisagreewiththisadvocacyofmoremarketforces.Doctorshaveanintuitivedistrustofcompetitionwhichtheyoftenequatewithgreedwhilemanypublic-policythinkersarguethattheonlywaytofixAmerica’sproblemistoquashtheprivatesector’srolealtogetherandinsteadsetupagovernmentmonopolylikeBritain’sNationalHealthService.Mr.Porterstronglydisagrees.HestartsbyacknowledgingthatcompetitionasithasbeenintroducedtoAmerica’shealthsystemhasinfactdonemoreharmthangood.Buthearguesthatcompetitionhasbeenintroducedpiecemealinincoherentandcounter-productivewaysthatleadtoperverseincentivesandworseoutcomes:health-carecompetitionisnotfocusedondeliveringvalueforpatientshesays.Mr.Porteroffersamixofsolutionstofixthismessandtherebytoputthesectoronagenuinelycompetitivefooting.Firstcomestheseeminglyobviousbutasyetunrealizedgoalofdatatransparency.Secondisaredirectionofcompetitionfromthelevelofhealthplansdoctorsclinicsandhospitalstocompetitionatthelevelofmedicalconditionswhichisallbutabsent.Theauthorsarguethattherightmeasureofvalueforthehealthsectorshouldbehowwellapatientwithagivenhealthconditionfaresovertheentirecycleoftreatmentandwhatthecostisforthatentirecycle.Thatrightlyemphasizestheroleofearlydetectionandpreventivecareovertechno-fixespriceypillsandtheotherfallingsoftoday’ssystem.Ifthereisafailinginthisargumentitisthathesometimesstraystowardnaiveoptimism.Mr.Porterarguesforexamplethathissolutionsaresocommonsensicalthatprivateactorsinthehealthsystemcouldforgeaheadwiththemprofitablywithoutwaitingforthegovernmenttofixitspolicymistakes.Thatisatemptingnotionbutitfallsintoatrapthateconomistscallthefallacyofthe$20billonthestreet.Iftherereallywereeasymoneyonthepavementgoestheargumentsurelypreviouspassers-bywouldhavebentoverandpickeditupbynow.InthesameveinifMr.Porter’sprescriptionsaresosensiblethatcompaniescanmakemoneyevennowintheabsenceofgovernmentpolicychangeswhyintheworldhavetheynotdonesoalreadyOnereasonmaybethattheycanmakemoremoneyinthecurrentsub-optimalequilibriumthaninaperfectlycompetitivemarket—whichiswhygovernmentactionisprobablyneededtosweepasidethemanyobstaclesinthewayofMr.Porter’spowerfulvision.WhichofthefollowingmightMr.Porterproposetosolvetheproblem
[A]Heisunlikelytoproducesuchabighitinthenearfuturesomoreofhisattentionisdirectedtorevisingtheoldsongandsellingittomorepeople. [B]Backinthe1950shesaysperformersgotonlyone-tenthoftheshareofroyaltiesthattheydonow.Foryearsartistshavewithgoodreasonaccusedbigrecordlabelsofrippingthemoff. [C]ThismonthearlyrecordingsbyElvishimselfstartedtoenterEurope’spublicdomain.OverthenextfewdecadesatorrentofthemostpopulartracksfromtheBeatlestheRollingStonesandmanyotherartistswillbecomepublicpropertyinEurope—tothepleasureoffansandtheconsternationofthemusicindustry. [D]ThemusicindustryalsopointsoutthatAmericagivesartistsalmosttwiceasmuchcopyrightprotectionasEurope.AmericahasrepeatedlylengthenedcopyrighttermswiththelatestreprievetheSonnyBonoCopyrightTermExtensionActof1998givingperformersprotectionfor95yearsafterpublication. [E]ButwhentheattentionisshiftedfromEuropetoAmericaartistsshouldfeelmuchbetterbecausethelengthofcopyrightprotectionthereisevenshorter.ItseemsthattheAmericangovernmentismoreinterestedinservingthepublicthanthealreadyveryrichartists. [F]MusicexecutiveswanttheEuropeanCommissiontoprotectthemfromsuchunwelcomecomecompetitionbyextendingthecopyrightterm [G]Andthatestimateaccountsonlyforsongsuptotheendofthe1950s.Farmorewillbeatriskasmusicfromthe1960sand1970smovesoutofcopyright. "Everythreemonthsfromthebeginningof2008"saysCliffRichardwhowasonceBritain’sanswertoElvisPresley"Iwillloseasong."ThereasonisthatinmostEuropeancountriescopyrightprotectiononsoundrecordingslastsfor50yearsandnowSirCliffrecordedhisfirsthitsingle"MoveIt"in1958.41______ Oneofthebigfourmusicfirmsestimatesthatabout100m"deepcatalogue"ieoldalbumsnowsoldinEuropeeachyearwillhaveenteredthepublicdomainbytheendof2010.Assumingacurrentwholesalepriceof$10thatcouldjeopardise$1billionofrevenuesorabout3%ofannualrecordedmusicsales.42______ EvenoncemuchofthebackcataloguehasenteredthepublicdomainthebigmusicfirmscancarryonsellingitonCD.Theywillevenbenefitfromnothavingtopayanythingtotheartistortohisestate.Theywillinmanycasesstillowncopyrightontheoriginalcoverart.ButtheywillfacenewcompetitionfromahostofprovidersofCDswhomayundercutthem.Andontheinternetpublicdomainmusicislikelytobefreeasmuchofthecopyrightedstuffalreadyisonpeer-to-peernetworks. 43______Artistshaveralliedtothecause:U2StatusQuoandCharlesAznavourallwantthe50-yearlimitincreased.Manymoreactswillsignapetitionthisspring.SirCliffhasspenthourscomplainingtothecommissionthatcomposersofsongsgetcopyrightfor70yearsaftertheirdeath:morethanperformers. 44______ ManypeoplebelievethatAmericahasgonetoofarinprotectingcopyrightattheexpenseofthepublicgoodincludingitseemsthecommissionwhichsaidlastyearthatitsawnoneedtoliftitsown50-yearlimit.Itsdeadlineforproposalsoncopyrightlawhasslippedfromthisyearto2006.Butgovernmentsarelikelytoweighinontheissue.FranceItalyandPortugalhaveindicatedthattheysupportanextensionofthetermandBritainislikelytostickupforitsownmusicmajorEMI. AlthoughartistsandtheirestateswantlongercopyrightthebigmusicfirmswouldbenefitfromitthemostespeciallyinthenextcoupleofdecadessaysStephenKingchairmanoftheAssociationofUnitedRecordingArtistsandmanageroftheLibertines.45______Nowtheyhavewisedupaboutmakingdeals.Thebestguaranteeoffinancialsecurity—saferthanclingingontocopyright—ishiringagoodlawyerearlyon. 43
Between1900and1912thenationsofEuropewereatpeace.Buttherewerehostilitiesrivalriesandconflictsbrewingthatwouldsoontearthewholecontinentapart.ThegreatconflictwasWorldWarⅠ.1justpriortothatwarthereweretwo2conflictsintheBalkanPeninsula.Thesetwoshortwarstookplacein1912and1913.Their3resultwastoendthe4oftheTurkishOttomanEmpireinEurope.Themoretragic5oftheBalkanWarswastoheightenthealreadyfierceinternationaltensionsthatwere6thenationsofEuropetowardWorldWarⅠ. In1912theBalkannations7ofBosniaHerzegovinaMontenegroSerbiaRomaniaBulgariaandGreece.TheMacedonianregioninnorthernGreecewasunderthe8oftheTurks.TheBalkanlandswerealsopeopledbymanyintenselynationalisticethnicgroups.AmongthesewereSerbsCroatsSlovenesBulgarsandMacedonians.Thesepeopleshadlongbeenfiercerivalsforterritoryandpolitical9.Religious10betweenRomanCatholicsandEasternOrthodoxChristianswithinthesegroupsfurtheraddedtotheirdisputes.Theserivalriesstill11. SerbiaBulgariaGreeceandMontenegroformedtheBalkanLeaguein1912.InOctober1912theBalkanLeague12war13theOttomanTurks.TheBalkan14werequicklyvictorious.Theywonbattles15SkopjeMonastirandothercities.ThewarendedinDecember.InMay1913atreatysignedinLondonformally16theconflict.TheTurkslostmostoftheirEuropean17. 18thepeacedidnotlast.InJune1913BulgariaattackedSerbiaandGreece.This19conflictwasendedbya20signedinBucharestinAugust1913. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSERSHEET1.17
Directions:Studythefollowinginformationcarefullyandwriteletterinatleast100words.YournameisLiMingastudentoftheDepartmentofAppliedPhysicsTsinghuaUniversity.YouhopetofurtheryourstudyinBostonUniversityMassachusettsUSAuponyourgraduationnextyear.NowyouarewritingtotheofficeofgraduateadmissionstoaskfortheApplicationFormandotherrelativematerials.Thefollowingpointsshouldalsobecoveredinyourletter:1yourpersonalinformation;2thereasonwhyyouchooseBostonuniversity;3abriefstudyplan.Youshouldwriteabout100wordsonANSWERSHEET2.
Inmostpartsoftheworldclimatechangeisaworryingsubject.NotsoinCalifornia.Atarecentgatheringofgreenluminaries—inafilmstar’shousenaturallyforthatishowseriousnessisoftenestablishedinLosAngeles—thedominantnotewasself-satisfactionatwhatthestatehasalreadyachieved.AndperhapsnobodyismorecomplacentthanArnoldSchwarzenegger.UnlikeA1GoreapresidentialcandidateturnedprophetofenvironmentaldoomCalifornia’sgovernorsoundscheerfulwhentalkingaboutclimatechange.Aswellhemight:ithasmadehispoliticalcareer.AlthoughCaliforniahaslongbeenanenvironmentally-consciousstateuntilrecentlygreenswereconcernedaboveallwithsmogandredwoodtrees.CoastofDreamsKevinStag’sauthoritativehistoryofcontemporaryCaliforniapublishedin2004doesnotmentionclimatechange.Inthatyearthoughthenewly-electedMr.Schwarzeneggermadehisfirsttentativecallforwesternstatestoseekalternativestofossilfuels.Graduallyhenoticedthathiseffortstotackleclimatechangemetwithlessresistanceandmoreacclaimthanjustaboutallhisotherpolicies.Thesedaysitcanseemasthoughheworksonnothingelse.Mr.Schwarzenegger’stransformationfromscreenwarriortoeco-warriorwascompletedlastyearwhenhesignedabillimposinglegally-enforceablelimitsongreenhouse—gasemissions—afirstforAmerica.ThanksmostlytoitslackofcoalandheavyindustryCaliforniaisarelativelycleanstate.Ifitwereacountryitwouldbetheworld’seighth-biggesteconomybutonlyits16th-biggestpolluter.Itsbigproblemistransport—meaningmostlycarsandtruckswhichaccountformorethan40%ofitsgreenhouse-gasemissionscomparedwith32%inAmericaasawhole.Thestatewantstoratchetdownemissionslimitsonnewvehiclesbeginningin2009.Mr.Schwarzeneggerhasalsoorderedthatby2020vehiclefuelmustproduce10%lesscarbon:intheproductionaswellastheburningsoasimpleswitchtocorn-basedethanolisprobablyout.ThanksinparttoCalifornia’sexamplemostofthewesternstateshaveadoptedclimateactionplans.WhenitcomestosettingemissiontargetsthescenecanresembleaposedownataMr.Olympiacontest.Arizona’sclimate-changescholarsdecidedtosetatargetofcuttingthestate’semissionsto2000levelsby2020.ButJanetNapolitanothegovernorwasdeterminednottobeout-muscledbyCalifornia.ShehasdeclaredthatArizonawilltrytoreturnto2000emissionlevelsby2012.Californiahasnotjustinspiredotherstates;ithascreatedavanguardthatoughttobeabletoprodthefederalgovernmentintostrongernationalstandardsthanitwouldotherwiseconsider.ButCaliforniaisfindingiteasiertoexportitspoliciesthantoputthemintopracticeathome.InonewayCalifornia’sself-confidenceisfullyjustified.Ithasdonemorethananyotherstate—letalonethefederalgovernment—tofixAmerica’sattentiononclimatechange.Ithasalsomadeitseemasthoughtheproblemcanbesolved.Whichiswhyfailurewouldbesuchbadnews.AtthemomentCaliforniaisabeacontootherstates.Ifitfailsitwillbecomeanexcuseforinaction.AccordingtotheauthorMr.ArnoldSchwarzeneggerischeerfulchieflybecause
IfyouareatouristinterestedinseeingabaseballgamewhileinNewYorkyoucanfindoutwhichofitsteamsareintownsimplybysendingamessagetoAskForCents.com.Inafewminutestheanswercomesbackapparentlysuppliedbyamachinebutactuallycomposedbyahuman.Usinghumanstoprocessinformationinamachine-likewayisnotnew:itwaspioneeredbytheMechanicalTurkafamed18th-centurychess-playingmachinethatwasoperatedbyahiddenchessmaster.Butwhilecomputershavesincesurpassedthehumanbrainatchessmanytasksstillbaffleeventhemostpowerfulelectronicbrain.ForinstancecomputerscanfindyouabaseballschedulebuttheycannottellyoudirectlyiftheYankeesareintown.Norcantheytellyouwhethersittinginthebleachersisagoodideaonafirstdate.AskForCentscanbecauseitsanswerscomefrompeople.Whateverquestionyoucancomeupwiththere’sapersonthatcanprovidetheanswer—youdon’thavetheinflexibilityofanalgorithm-drivensystemsaysJesseHeitlerwhodevelopedAskForCents.Mr.HeitlerwasabletodothisthankstoanewsoftwaretooldevelopedbyAmazontheonlineretailerthatallowscomputingtaskstobefarmedouttopeopleovertheinternet.AptlyenoughAmazon’ssystemiscalledMechanicalTurk.Amazon’sTurkisparttoolkitforsoftwaredevelopersandpartonlinebazaar:anyonewithintemetaccesscanregisterasaTurkuserandstartperformingtheHumanIntelligenceTasksHITslistedontheTurkwebsitemturk.com.CompaniescanbecomerequestersbysettingupaseparateaccounttiedtoabankaccountthatwillpayoutfeesandthenpostingtheirHITs.MostHITspaybetweenonecentand$5.Sofarpeoplefrommorethan100countrieshaveperformedHITsthoughonlythosewithAmericanbankaccountscanreceivemoneyfortheirwork;othersarepaidinAmazongiftcertificates.Mr.Heitlersayshehadpreviouslytriedtobuildasimilartoolbutconcludedthatthein-frastucturewouldbedifficulttooperateprofitably.AmazonalreadyhasanextensivesoftwareinfrastructuredesignedforlinkingbuyerswithsellershoweverandtheTurksimplyextendsthatexistingmodel.LastNovemberAmazonunveiledaprototypeofthesystemwhichitcallsartificialartificialintelligence.ThepremiseisthathumansarevastlysuperiortocomputersattaskssuchaspatternrecognitionsaysPeterCohendirectoroftheprojectatAmazonsowhynotletsoftwaretakeadvantageofhumanstrengthsMr.CohencreditsAmazon’sbossJeffBezoswiththeconceptfortheTurk.Otherpeoplehavehadsimilarideas.EricBonabeauofIcosystemanAmericanfirmthatbuildssoftwaretoolsmodeledonnaturalsystemshasbuiltwhathecallstheHunchEnginetocombinehumanintelligencewithcomputeranalysis.TheFrenchpostalserviceforexamplehasusedittohelpitsworkerschoosethebestdeliveryroutesandpharmaceuticalresearchersareusingittodeterminemolecularstructuresbycombiningtheirgutinstinctswithknownresultsstoredinadatabase.AndafirmcalledSeriosityhopestotapthecollectivebrainpowerofthelegionsofobsessiveplayersofmultiplayeronlinegamessuchasWorldofWar-craftbygettingthemtoperformsmallreal-worldtaskssuchassortingphotographswhileplayingandpayingtheminthegame’sowncurrency.WhichofthefollowingistrueaboutregisteredTurkusers
[A]Heisunlikelytoproducesuchabighitinthenearfuturesomoreofhisattentionisdirectedtorevisingtheoldsongandsellingittomorepeople. [B]Backinthe1950shesaysperformersgotonlyone-tenthoftheshareofroyaltiesthattheydonow.Foryearsartistshavewithgoodreasonaccusedbigrecordlabelsofrippingthemoff. [C]ThismonthearlyrecordingsbyElvishimselfstartedtoenterEurope’spublicdomain.OverthenextfewdecadesatorrentofthemostpopulartracksfromtheBeatlestheRollingStonesandmanyotherartistswillbecomepublicpropertyinEurope—tothepleasureoffansandtheconsternationofthemusicindustry. [D]ThemusicindustryalsopointsoutthatAmericagivesartistsalmosttwiceasmuchcopyrightprotectionasEurope.AmericahasrepeatedlylengthenedcopyrighttermswiththelatestreprievetheSonnyBonoCopyrightTermExtensionActof1998givingperformersprotectionfor95yearsafterpublication. [E]ButwhentheattentionisshiftedfromEuropetoAmericaartistsshouldfeelmuchbetterbecausethelengthofcopyrightprotectionthereisevenshorter.ItseemsthattheAmericangovernmentismoreinterestedinservingthepublicthanthealreadyveryrichartists. [F]MusicexecutiveswanttheEuropeanCommissiontoprotectthemfromsuchunwelcomecomecompetitionbyextendingthecopyrightterm [G]Andthatestimateaccountsonlyforsongsuptotheendofthe1950s.Farmorewillbeatriskasmusicfromthe1960sand1970smovesoutofcopyright. "Everythreemonthsfromthebeginningof2008"saysCliffRichardwhowasonceBritain’sanswertoElvisPresley"Iwillloseasong."ThereasonisthatinmostEuropeancountriescopyrightprotectiononsoundrecordingslastsfor50yearsandnowSirCliffrecordedhisfirsthitsingle"MoveIt"in1958.41______ Oneofthebigfourmusicfirmsestimatesthatabout100m"deepcatalogue"ieoldalbumsnowsoldinEuropeeachyearwillhaveenteredthepublicdomainbytheendof2010.Assumingacurrentwholesalepriceof$10thatcouldjeopardise$1billionofrevenuesorabout3%ofannualrecordedmusicsales.42______ EvenoncemuchofthebackcataloguehasenteredthepublicdomainthebigmusicfirmscancarryonsellingitonCD.Theywillevenbenefitfromnothavingtopayanythingtotheartistortohisestate.Theywillinmanycasesstillowncopyrightontheoriginalcoverart.ButtheywillfacenewcompetitionfromahostofprovidersofCDswhomayundercutthem.Andontheinternetpublicdomainmusicislikelytobefreeasmuchofthecopyrightedstuffalreadyisonpeer-to-peernetworks. 43______Artistshaveralliedtothecause:U2StatusQuoandCharlesAznavourallwantthe50-yearlimitincreased.Manymoreactswillsignapetitionthisspring.SirCliffhasspenthourscomplainingtothecommissionthatcomposersofsongsgetcopyrightfor70yearsaftertheirdeath:morethanperformers. 44______ ManypeoplebelievethatAmericahasgonetoofarinprotectingcopyrightattheexpenseofthepublicgoodincludingitseemsthecommissionwhichsaidlastyearthatitsawnoneedtoliftitsown50-yearlimit.Itsdeadlineforproposalsoncopyrightlawhasslippedfromthisyearto2006.Butgovernmentsarelikelytoweighinontheissue.FranceItalyandPortugalhaveindicatedthattheysupportanextensionofthetermandBritainislikelytostickupforitsownmusicmajorEMI. AlthoughartistsandtheirestateswantlongercopyrightthebigmusicfirmswouldbenefitfromitthemostespeciallyinthenextcoupleofdecadessaysStephenKingchairmanoftheAssociationofUnitedRecordingArtistsandmanageroftheLibertines.45______Nowtheyhavewisedupaboutmakingdeals.Thebestguaranteeoffinancialsecurity—saferthanclingingontocopyright—ishiringagoodlawyerearlyon. 45
[A]Itisalsousedtohelpstudentsgaintransitionskills:Studentswithautismordevelopmentaldelay canvisitavirtualsupermarkettakepublictransportationcrossthestreetororganizehis orherday.Studentsinwheelchairscanlearnhowtonavigatebuildings.Andthebeautyisthesestudentscanmakeanynumberofmistakeswithoutendangeringthemselves. [B]Forexamplevirtualrealityhasbeenusedeffectivelytoassessstudents’depthperceptionwiththeresultsbeingquitedifferentfromthoseobtainedfromtraditionalpaperandpenciltests. [C]Thenwegraduallybeginshrinkingthesignandaddingotherenvironmentalelements.Oncethestudenthasmasteredthisvirtuallyheorshetransferstheknowledgetotherealworld.Intheendthisisthemostimportantfunctionofvirtualrealityprogramsforspecialstudents. [D]Virtualrealityevenallowsustotailortheworldtomeetachild’sneeds.Let’ssaywe’reteachingachildtocrossthestreetbypayingattentiontotrafficsigns.Educatorshavefoundthatitisoftendifficultforthechildtolocatethetrafficsigninabusyenvironment.Withvirtualrealitywecanblowupthe"walksign"sothestudentknowswhatitlookslike. [E]Anditisexpectedthatfutureteacherswillbeexposedtovirtualclassescompletewith"difficultstudents"tohelpthemmasterbehaviormanagementtechniques. [F]Infactoneofthebiggestvirtuesofvirtualrealityisthatitallowsstudentstolearninasafeenvironmentandthisholdstrueforstudentswithbehaviordisorders.Afterastudenthaslearnedanappropriatebehaviororwayofcontrollinghisorherangerthestudentisputinprogressivelymoredifficultvirtualsocialsituationswhereheorshecanpracticethenewtechnique.[ G]Someoftoday’smostcutting-edgetechnologyisnowbeingusedtohelpstudentswithspecialneeds.Nolongerjusttheprovinceofgamesfor"videoneeds"virtualrealityhascomeintoitsownasatoolforspecialeducationteachersandtherapists.AssuchitisusedforassessmentteachingandpracticeaccordingtoSkipRizzoresearchassistant/professorattheUniversityofSouthernCalifornia. 43
Between1900and1912thenationsofEuropewereatpeace.Buttherewerehostilitiesrivalriesandconflictsbrewingthatwouldsoontearthewholecontinentapart.ThegreatconflictwasWorldWarⅠ.1justpriortothatwarthereweretwo2conflictsintheBalkanPeninsula.Thesetwoshortwarstookplacein1912and1913.Their3resultwastoendthe4oftheTurkishOttomanEmpireinEurope.Themoretragic5oftheBalkanWarswastoheightenthealreadyfierceinternationaltensionsthatwere6thenationsofEuropetowardWorldWarⅠ. In1912theBalkannations7ofBosniaHerzegovinaMontenegroSerbiaRomaniaBulgariaandGreece.TheMacedonianregioninnorthernGreecewasunderthe8oftheTurks.TheBalkanlandswerealsopeopledbymanyintenselynationalisticethnicgroups.AmongthesewereSerbsCroatsSlovenesBulgarsandMacedonians.Thesepeopleshadlongbeenfiercerivalsforterritoryandpolitical9.Religious10betweenRomanCatholicsandEasternOrthodoxChristianswithinthesegroupsfurtheraddedtotheirdisputes.Theserivalriesstill11. SerbiaBulgariaGreeceandMontenegroformedtheBalkanLeaguein1912.InOctober1912theBalkanLeague12war13theOttomanTurks.TheBalkan14werequicklyvictorious.Theywonbattles15SkopjeMonastirandothercities.ThewarendedinDecember.InMay1913atreatysignedinLondonformally16theconflict.TheTurkslostmostoftheirEuropean17. 18thepeacedidnotlast.InJune1913BulgariaattackedSerbiaandGreece.This19conflictwasendedbya20signedinBucharestinAugust1913. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSERSHEET1.19
46Classicalphysicsdefinesthevacuumasastateofabsencewhichissaidtoexistinaregionofspaceifthereisnothinginit.Inthequantumfieldtheoriesthatdescribethephysicsofelementaryparticlesthevacuumbecomessomewhatmorecomplicated.Eveninemptyspaceparticlescanappearspontaneouslyasaresultoffluctuationsofthevacuum.Forexampleanelectronandapositronoranti-electroncanbecreatedoutofthevoid.Particlescreatedinthiswayhaveonlyafleetingexistence;theyareannihilatedalmostassoonastheyappearandtheirpresencecanneverbedetecteddirectly.47Theyarecalledvirtualparticlesinordertodistinguishthemfromrealparticleswhoselifetimesarenotconstrainedinthesamewayandwhichcanbedetected.Thusitisstillpossibletodefinethatvacuumasaspacethathasnorealparticlesinit. Onemightexpectthatthevacuumwouldalwaysbethestateoflowestpossibleenergyforagivenregionofspace.Ifanareaisinitiallyemptyandarealparticleisputintoitthetotalenergyitseemsshouldberaisedbyatleasttheenergyequivalentofthemassoftheaddedparticle.48Asurprisingresultofsomerecenttheoreticalinvestigationsisthatthisassumptionisnotinvariablytrueandthereareconditionsunderwhichtheintroductionofarealparticleoffinitemassintoanemptyregionofspacecanreducethetotalenergy.Ifthereductioninenergyisgreatenoughanelectronandapositronwillbespontaneouslycreated.Undertheseconditionstheelectronandpositronarenotaresultofvacuumfluctuationsbutarerealparticleswhichexistindefinitelyandcanbedetected.Inotherwordsundertheseconditionsthevacuumisanunstablestateandcandecayintoastateoflowerenergy;i.e.oneinwhichrealparticlesarecreated. Theessentialconditionforthedecayofthevacuumisthepresenceofanintenseelectricfield.49Asaresultofthedecayofthevacuumthespacepermeatedbysuchafieldcanbesaidtoacquireanelectricchargeanditcanbecalledachargedvacuum.Theparticlesthatmaterializeinthespacemakethechargemanifest.Anelectricfieldofsufficientintensitytocreateachargedvacuumislikelytobefoundinonlyoneplace:intheimmediatevicinityofasuperheavyatomicnucleusonewithabouttwiceasmanyprotonsastheheaviestnaturalnucleiknown.50Anucleusthatlargecannotbestablebutitmightbepossibletoassembleonenexttoavacuumforlongenoughtoobservethedecayofthevacuum.Experimentsattemptingtoachievethisarenowunderway. Asaresultofthedecayofthevacuumthespacepermeatedbysuchafieldcanbesaidtoacquireanelectricchargeanditcanbecalledachargedvacuum.
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