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Write an essay of 160-200 words based on the following drawing. In your essay, you should 1) descri...
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Directions:Inthispartyouaretowriteanessayof160—200
Directions: Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwrite
PartB Directions: Youarerequiredtowriteanessayont
Directions:Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwritean
Directions: Writeanessayof160-200wordsbasedonthef
Directions: Studythepicturesabovecarefullyandwrit
Directions:Studythepicturesabovecarefullyandwritea
Writeanessayof160-200wordsbasedonthefollowingdrawi
Writeanessayof160-200wordsbasedonthefollowingdrawi
Directions: Writeanessayof160--200wordsbasedonthe
Directions:Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwritean
Directions: Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwrite
Directions:Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwritean
Directions: Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwrite
Directions: Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwrite
Directions: Youarerequiredtowriteanessayoffthetop
Directions:Studythetwopicturesabovecarefullyandwri
Directions:Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwritean
---Willittakemeatleastsixhourstowritethisessay?---
are not long for you
will be too long for you
is not long enough for you
was not long enough for you
Directions:Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwritean
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AFrenchmanthepsychologistAlfredBinetpublishedthefirststandardizedtestofhumanintelligencein1905.46ButitwasanAmericanLewisTermanapsychologyprofessoratStanfordwhothoughttodividea_testtaker’s"mentalage"asrevealedbythatscorebyhisorherbiologicalagetoderiveanumberthathecalled"IQ".Itwouldbehardtothinkofapop-scientificcoinagethathashadagreaterimpactonthewaypeoplethinkaboutthemselvesandothers. 47Nocountry:embracedtheIQmorethoroughlythantheU.S.wheremillionsofpeoplehavetheirIQmeasuredannuallymanywithadirectdescendantofBinet’soriginaltestalthoughnotnecessarilyforthepurposeBinetintended.Hedevelopedhistestasawayofidentifyingpublicschoolstudentswhoneededextrahelpinlearningandthatisstilloneofitsleadinguses. ButthebroaderandmorecontroversialuseofIQtestinghasitsrootsinatheoryofintelligence—partsciencepartsociology—thatdevelopedinthelate19thcenturybeforeBinet’sworkandentirelyseparatefromit.48ChampionedfirstbyCharlesDarwin’scousinFrancisGaltonitheldthatintelligencewasthemostvaluablehumanattributeandthatifpeoplewhohadalotofitcouldbeidentifiedandputinleadershippositionsallofsocietywouldbenefit. TermanbelievedIQtestsshouldbeusedtoconductagreatsortingoutofthepopulationsothatyoungpeoplewouldbeassignedonthebasisoftheirscorestoparticularlevelsintheschoolsystemwhichwouldleadtocorrespondingsocioeconomicdestinationsinadultlife.ThebeginningoftheIQ-testingmovementoverlappedwiththeeugenicsmovement—hugelypopularinAmericaandEuropeamongthe"bettersort". In1958aBritishsociologistnamedMichaelYoungcoinedtheword"meritocracy"todenoteasocietythatorganizesitselfaccordingtoIQ-testscores.TermanandmanyotherearlyadvocatesofIQtestinghadinmindthecreationofanAmericanmeritocracythoughtheworddidn’texistthen.49TheybelievedIQtestscouldbethemeanstocreateforthefirsttimeeverasocietyinwhichadvantagewouldgotothepeoplewhodeserveditratherthantothosewhohadbeenbornintoit. InordertobelievethisthoughyouhavetobelievethatmeritandascoreonanIQtestarethesamething.50LongbeforeIQwasinventedAmericaprideditselfonbeingacountrywithoutaclasssysteminwhichpeopleoftalentandindustrywouldriseandberewarded.TheadventofintelligencetestsdidnotdramaticallyaffectthedegreeofsocialmobilityintheU.S.—atleastnotenoughforanychangetoshowupinthesocial-sciencedata. 50LongbeforeIQwasinventedAmericaprideditselfonbeingacountrywithoutaclasssysteminwhichpeopleoftalentandindustrywouldriseandberewarded.
Largemultinationalcorporationsmaybethecompanieswhoseupsanddownsseizeheadlines.ButtoafargreaterextentthanmostAmericansrealizetheeconomy’svitalitydependsonthefortunesoftinyshopsandrestaurantsneighborhoodservicesandfactories.Smallbusinessesdefinedasthosewithfewerthan100workersnowemploynearly60percentoftheworkforceandareexpectedtogeneratehalfofailnewjobsbetweennowandtheyear2000.Some1.2millionsmallfirmshaveopenedtheirdoorsoverthepastsixyearsofeconomicgrowthand1989willseeanadditional200000entrepreneursstrikingoffontheirown.Toomanyofthesepioneershoweverwillblazeaheadunprepared.Idealistswilloverestimatetheclamorfortheirproductsorfailtofactorinthecompetition.Nearlyeveryonewillunderestimateoftenfatallythecapitalthatsuccessrequires.Midcareerexecutivesforcedbyatakeoverorarestructuringtoquitthecorporationandfindanotherwaytosupportthemselvesmaysavortheideaofbeingtheirownbossbutmayforgetthatentrepreneursmustalsoatleastforawhilebebookkeeperandreceptionisttoo.AccordingtoSmallBusinessAdministrationdata24ofevery100businessesstartingouttodayarelikelytohavedisappearedintwoyearsand27morewillhaveshuttheirdoorsfouryearsfromnow.By1995morethan60ofthose100start-upswillhavefolded.Anewstudyof3000smallbusinessessponsoredbyAmericanExpressandtheNationalFederationofIndependentBusinesssuggestsslightlybetterodds:Threeyearsafterstart-up77percentofthecompaniessurveyedwerestillalive.Mostcreditedtheirsuccessinlargeparttohavingpickedabusinesstheyalreadywerecomfortablein.Eightypercenthadworkedwiththesameproductorserviceintheirlastjobs.Thinkingthroughanenterprisebeforethelaunchisobviouslycritical.Butmanyentrepreneursforgetthatafirm’shealthinitsinfancymaybelittleindicationofhowwellitwillage.Youmasttenderlymonitoritspulse.Intheirzealtoexpandsmall-businessownersoftenignoreearlywarningsignsofastagnantmarketorofdecayingprofitability.Theyhopefullypourmoreandmoremoneyintotheenterprisepreferringnottoacknowledgeerodingprofitmarginsthatmeanthemarketfortheiringeniousserviceorproducthasevaporatedorthattheymustcutthepayrollorvacatetheirlavishoffices.Onlywhenthefinancialwellrunsdrydotheyseetheseriousnessoftheillnessandbythenthepatientisusuallytoofargonetosave.Frequentchecksofyourfirm’svitalsignswillalsoguideyoutoasensiblerateofgrowth.Tosnatchopportunityyoumustspotthesignalsthatitistimetoconquernewmarketsaddproductsorperhapsfranchiseyourhotidea.Whenopeningsmallbusinessesthemostimportantthingforsmall-businessownerstodois
Atthebeginningofthecenturymedicalscientistsmadeasurprisingdiscovery:thatweare1notjustoffleshandbloodbutalsooftime.Theywereableto2thatweallhaveaninternal"bodyclock"which3theriseandfallofourbodyenergiesmakingusdifferentfromonedaytothe5.Theseforcesbecameknownasbiorhythms:theycreatethe5inoureverydaylife. The6ofaninternal"bodyclock"shouldnotbetoosurprising7thelivesofmostlivingthingsaredominatedbythe24-hournight-and-daycycle.Themostobvious8ofthiscycleisthe9wefeeltiredandfallasleepatnightandbecomeawakeand10duringtheday.11the24-hourrhythmisinterruptedmostpeopleexperienceunpleasantsideeffects. 12internationalaeroplanetravelersoftenexperience"jetlag"whentravelingacrosstime13.Peoplewhoarenotusedto14workcanfindthatlackofsleepaffectstheirworkperformance. 15thedailyrhythmofsleepingandwakingwealsohaveotherrhythmswhich16.longerthanonedayandwhichinfluencewideareasofourlives.Mostofuswouldagreethatwefeelgoodon17daysandnetsogoodonothers.Sometimesweare18fingersandthumbsbutonotherdayswehaveexcellentcoordination.Therearetimeswhenweappeartobeaccident-proneorwhenourtemperseemstobeonashortfuse.Isn’titalsostrange19ideasseemtoflowonsomedaysbutatothertimesare20nonexistentMusicianspaintersandwritersoftentalkabout"dryspells". 8
Ifopen-sourcesoftwareissupposedtobefreehowdoesanyonesellingitmakeanymoneyIt’snotthatdifferentfromhowothersoftwarecompaniesmakemoney.You’dthinkthatasoftwarecompanywouldmakemostofitsmoneyfromwellsellingsoftware.Butyou’dbewrong.Foronethingcompaniesdon’tsellsoftwarestrictlyspeaking;theylicenseit.Theprofitmarginonasoftwarelicenseisnearly100percentwhichiswhyMicrosoftgushesbillionsofdollarseveryquarter.Butwhat’sthevalueofalicensetoacustomerAlicensedoesn’tdeliverthecodeprovidetheutilitiestogetapieceofsoftwarerunningoranswerthephonewhensomethinginevitablygoeswrong.Thevalueofsoftwareinshortdoesn’tlieinthesoftwarealone.Thevalueisinmakingsurethesoft-waredoesitsjob.Justasatravelershouldlookattheoverallpriceofavacationpackageinsteadofobsessingoverthepriceoftheplaneticketorhotelmomasmarttechbuyerwon’tfocusonhowmuchthelicensecostsandignorethesupportcontractorthemaintenanceagreement.Open-sourceisnotthatdifferent.Ifyouwantthesoftwaretoworkyouhavetopaytoensureitwillwork.Theopen-sourcecompanieshaverefinedthesoftwaremodelbysellingsubscriptions.TheyrolltogethersupportandmaintenanceandchargeanannualfeewhichisahealthymodelthoughnotquiteaswonderfulasMicrosoft’smoney-rakingone.TellinglyevenMicrosoftiscastinganenviouseyeataspectsoftheopen-sourcebusinessmodel.Thecompanyhasbeentakinghaltingstepstowardasimilarsubscriptionschemeforitssoftwaresales.Microsoft’ssubscriptionprogramknownasSoft-wareAssuranceprovidesmaintenanceandsupporttogetherwithasoftwarelicense.Itletsyouup-gradetoMicrosoft’snextversionofthesoftwareforapredictablesum.Butitalsocontainsanimplicitthreat:Ifyoudon’tswitchtoSoftwareAssurancenowwhoknowshowmuchMicrosoftwillchargeyouwhenyoudecidetoupgradeChiefinformationofficershatethiskindof*’assurancesincethey’reoftenperfectlyhappyrunningolderversionsofsoftwarethatareprovenandstable.Microsoftontheotherhandrakesinthesoftware-licensingfeesonlywhencustomersupgrade.SoftwareAssuranceisMicrosoft’sattempttogetthosesamelicensingfeesbutwrapthemtogetherwiththeserviceandsupportneededtokeepsystemsrunning.That’swhyMicrosoftfindstheopen-sourcemodelsothreatening:open-sourcecompanieshavenovestedinterestingettingmorelicensingfeesanddon’thavetopadtheirservicecontractswiththatextracost.Intheendthemaindifferencebetweenopen-sourceandproprietarysoftwarecompaniesmaybethesizeofthecheckyouhavetowrite.ThatextracostLine7Para.5probablyrefersto
Inmychildren’slifetimesIbelievegorillaschimpanzeesandorangutanswillallbecomeextinctinthewild.Sothequestionwehavetoaskourselvesisthis:dowewantourchildrentoseeonlyinzooswhatusedtoexistintherealworld46Itisthegreatapesthatwilldisappearfirstbecausetherearesofewofthemleftandbecausethey’resovulnerabletochangesintheirhabitats.Manyofthethreatstotheseanimalsresultfromaglobaleconomynotlocalpressures.ThethreattotheorangutaninIndonesiaforexampleislargelyaresultofdeforestationandtheriskstoprimatesinAfricaresultfromthetimber-tradeandthedemandforbush-meat.47Thetwoworktogether:loggingopensuptheforestwhichmeansthatthebush-meatcanbegotoutfasttoKinshasaortoLondon.48Ifwewanttoavoidthedisasterscenariopeopleindevelopedcountrieswillhavetotakeaglobalperspectiveandacceptresponsibilityforthedamageexportcropssuchastimbercoffeecutflowersorevengreenbeansdototheenvironment.Thechallengeistoavoidsimplyimposingwesternattitudesonlocalpeoples.Alreadytherearenotrulywildplacesleftintheworld.49Lookingatwildlifehasbecomethepreserveofthemiddleclassesoverthelasttwenty-oddyearsandaswildanimalsbecomeevenrarersomoretouristswanttoseethem.Buttourismaloneplainlycannotconservetheworld’sanimals;economicdevelopmentisthepriority.ForthefutureIsuspectthatffyoureallywanttodosomethingaboutwildlifeconservationyouwouldbebetteroffputtingyourmoneyintowomen’seducationratherthanjustintotheprotectionofflagshipspecies.50Womenoftenbearthedirectcostsofwildlifeconflict;theirknowledgeofhowtodealwithconflictandhowtocontroltheirownreproductivedestiniesmayyetdeterminethesurvivalofmanythreatenedspecies.
Atthebeginningofthecenturymedicalscientistsmadeasurprisingdiscovery:thatweare1notjustoffleshandbloodbutalsooftime.Theywereableto2thatweallhaveaninternal"bodyclock"which3theriseandfallofourbodyenergiesmakingusdifferentfromonedaytothe5.Theseforcesbecameknownasbiorhythms:theycreatethe5inoureverydaylife. The6ofaninternal"bodyclock"shouldnotbetoosurprising7thelivesofmostlivingthingsaredominatedbythe24-hournight-and-daycycle.Themostobvious8ofthiscycleisthe9wefeeltiredandfallasleepatnightandbecomeawakeand10duringtheday.11the24-hourrhythmisinterruptedmostpeopleexperienceunpleasantsideeffects. 12internationalaeroplanetravelersoftenexperience"jetlag"whentravelingacrosstime13.Peoplewhoarenotusedto14workcanfindthatlackofsleepaffectstheirworkperformance. 15thedailyrhythmofsleepingandwakingwealsohaveotherrhythmswhich16.longerthanonedayandwhichinfluencewideareasofourlives.Mostofuswouldagreethatwefeelgoodon17daysandnetsogoodonothers.Sometimesweare18fingersandthumbsbutonotherdayswehaveexcellentcoordination.Therearetimeswhenweappeartobeaccident-proneorwhenourtemperseemstobeonashortfuse.Isn’titalsostrange19ideasseemtoflowonsomedaysbutatothertimesare20nonexistentMusicianspaintersandwritersoftentalkabout"dryspells". 20
Atthebeginningofthecenturymedicalscientistsmadeasurprisingdiscovery:thatweare1notjustoffleshandbloodbutalsooftime.Theywereableto2thatweallhaveaninternal"bodyclock"which3theriseandfallofourbodyenergiesmakingusdifferentfromonedaytothe5.Theseforcesbecameknownasbiorhythms:theycreatethe5inoureverydaylife. The6ofaninternal"bodyclock"shouldnotbetoosurprising7thelivesofmostlivingthingsaredominatedbythe24-hournight-and-daycycle.Themostobvious8ofthiscycleisthe9wefeeltiredandfallasleepatnightandbecomeawakeand10duringtheday.11the24-hourrhythmisinterruptedmostpeopleexperienceunpleasantsideeffects. 12internationalaeroplanetravelersoftenexperience"jetlag"whentravelingacrosstime13.Peoplewhoarenotusedto14workcanfindthatlackofsleepaffectstheirworkperformance. 15thedailyrhythmofsleepingandwakingwealsohaveotherrhythmswhich16.longerthanonedayandwhichinfluencewideareasofourlives.Mostofuswouldagreethatwefeelgoodon17daysandnetsogoodonothers.Sometimesweare18fingersandthumbsbutonotherdayswehaveexcellentcoordination.Therearetimeswhenweappeartobeaccident-proneorwhenourtemperseemstobeonashortfuse.Isn’titalsostrange19ideasseemtoflowonsomedaysbutatothertimesare20nonexistentMusicianspaintersandwritersoftentalkabout"dryspells". 16
Atthebeginningofthecenturymedicalscientistsmadeasurprisingdiscovery:thatweare1notjustoffleshandbloodbutalsooftime.Theywereableto2thatweallhaveaninternal"bodyclock"which3theriseandfallofourbodyenergiesmakingusdifferentfromonedaytothe5.Theseforcesbecameknownasbiorhythms:theycreatethe5inoureverydaylife. The6ofaninternal"bodyclock"shouldnotbetoosurprising7thelivesofmostlivingthingsaredominatedbythe24-hournight-and-daycycle.Themostobvious8ofthiscycleisthe9wefeeltiredandfallasleepatnightandbecomeawakeand10duringtheday.11the24-hourrhythmisinterruptedmostpeopleexperienceunpleasantsideeffects. 12internationalaeroplanetravelersoftenexperience"jetlag"whentravelingacrosstime13.Peoplewhoarenotusedto14workcanfindthatlackofsleepaffectstheirworkperformance. 15thedailyrhythmofsleepingandwakingwealsohaveotherrhythmswhich16.longerthanonedayandwhichinfluencewideareasofourlives.Mostofuswouldagreethatwefeelgoodon17daysandnetsogoodonothers.Sometimesweare18fingersandthumbsbutonotherdayswehaveexcellentcoordination.Therearetimeswhenweappeartobeaccident-proneorwhenourtemperseemstobeonashortfuse.Isn’titalsostrange19ideasseemtoflowonsomedaysbutatothertimesare20nonexistentMusicianspaintersandwritersoftentalkabout"dryspells". 4
[A]Asasciencemanagemententailstheuseoforganizedknowledge.Manyofthethingsmanagersdoarearesultofinformationobtainedthroughformalresearchandstudy.Oneareainwhichagreatdealhasbeendoneisquantitativedecisionmakingorasitisknowntodaymanagementscience.Weknowthatbyusingcertainmathematicalformulaswecancontrolinventoryandprojectdemandmoreaccuratelythanbymerelyusingtrialanderror. [B]Managementistheprocessofgettingthingsdonethroughpeople.Weknowthatpartofthisprocessiscarriedoutwiththedevelopmentofanorganizationstructure. [C]Yetmanagementisalsoanart.Throughexperiencethemanagerdevelopsjudgmentandintuitionsubjectivefactorsthatareusefulinevaluationsituations.ForexamplethemanagermayhavetochoosebetweentwostrategiesAandBAllresearchandstudymayindicatethatneitherofthetwoisanybetterthantheother. [D]Effectivemanagementisacombinationofartandscience.Neithershouldbeignored;neitheroughttobereliedonexclusively.Ingettingthingsdonethroughpeoplemanagementmustseektherightblendofartandscience.Attheupperlevelsofthehierarchytherewillbemoreemphasisontheformer;atthelowerlevelstherewillbemoreemphasisonthelatter. [E]HowdomanagerssucceedingettingthingsdonethroughpeopleInordertoanswerthisquestionitisnecessarytobreakdownthemanager’sjobintoitsbasicdutiesorfunctions.Managemententailsplanningorganizingdirectingandcontrolling.Byperformingwebineachoftheseareasthemanagercangetthingsdonethroughpeople. [F]HoweverwhatifthemanagerchoosesstrategyAonthebasisofintuitionandprovestoberightInthiscaseitisdifficulttosaypreciselywhythemanagerwasabletochoosesowellbuttheremustbesomespecialabilityheorshehas.Thissametypeofabilityisusefulinmanagingpeople.Effectivemanagersknowwhentoflattertheirsubordinatesandwhentobestern.Suchhumanbehaviorskillscannotbequantified;theycanonlybelearnedthroughexperienceandtraining. [G]Howeverthereismoretomanagementthanjustorganizingthepeopleandthework.Objectivesmustbesetplansformulatedpeopledirectedandoperationscontrolled.Inmakingthenecessarydecisionsmanagementmustrelyonalltheskillsatitscommand.Asaresultmanagementisbothascienceandanart. 44
Writeanessayof160-200wordsbasedonthefollowingdrawing.Inyouressayyoushould 1describethedrawingbriefly 2explainitsintendedmeaningandthen 3giveyourcomments. YoushouldwriteneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.20points
TheworldreligionisderivedfromtheLatinnounreligionwhichdenotesboth1observanceofritualobligationsandaninwardspiritofreverence.Inmodernusagereligioncoversawidespectrumof2thatreflectstheenormousvarietyofwaysthetermcanbe3.Atoneextrememanycommittedbelievers4onlytheirowntraditionasareligionunderstandingexpressionssuchasworshipandprayertorefer5tothepracticesoftheirtradition.Theymay6usevagueoridealizingtermsindefiningreligion7trueloveofGodorthepathofenlightenment.Attheotherextremereligionmaybeequatedwith8fanaticismorwishfulthinking. Bydefiningreligionasasacredengagementwithwhatistakentobeaspiritualrealityitispossibletoconsidertheimportanceofreligioninhumanlifewithoutmaking9aboutwhatisreallyisoroughttobe.Religionisnotanobjectwithasinglefixedmeaningor10azonewithclearboundaries.Itisanaspectofhuman11thatmayintersectincorporateortranscendotheraspectsoflifeandsociety.Suchadefinitionavoidthedrawbacksof12theinvestigationofreligiontoWesternorbiblicalcategories13monotheismorchurchstructurewhicharenot14. Religioninthisunderstandingincludesacomplexofactivitiesthatcannotbe15toanysingleaspectofhumanexperience.Itisapartofindividuallifebutalsoof16dynamics.Religionincludesnotonlypatternsoflanguageandthought.Itissometimesan17partofaculture.Religiousexperiencemaybeexpressed18visualsymbolsdanceandperformanceelaboratephilosophicalsystemslegendaryandimaginativestoriesformal19anddetailedrulesofsomeways.Thereareasmanyformsofreligiousexpressionastherearehumancultural20. 2
Largemultinationalcorporationsmaybethecompanieswhoseupsanddownsseizeheadlines.ButtoafargreaterextentthanmostAmericansrealizetheeconomy’svitalitydependsonthefortunesoftinyshopsandrestaurantsneighborhoodservicesandfactories.Smallbusinessesdefinedasthosewithfewerthan100workersnowemploynearly60percentoftheworkforceandareexpectedtogeneratehalfofailnewjobsbetweennowandtheyear2000.Some1.2millionsmallfirmshaveopenedtheirdoorsoverthepastsixyearsofeconomicgrowthand1989willseeanadditional200000entrepreneursstrikingoffontheirown. Toomanyofthesepioneershoweverwillblazeaheadunprepared.Idealistswilloverestimatetheclamorfortheirproductsorfailtofactorinthecompetition.Nearlyeveryonewillunderestimateoftenfatallythecapitalthatsuccessrequires.Midcareerexecutivesforcedbyatakeoverorarestructuringtoquitthecorporationandfindanotherwaytosupportthemselvesmaysavortheideaofbeingtheirownbossbutmayforgetthatentrepreneursmustalsoatleastforawhilebebookkeeperandreceptionisttoo.AccordingtoSmallBusinessAdministrationdata24ofevery100businessesstartingouttodayarelikelytohavedisappearedintwoyearsand27morewillhaveshuttheirdoorsfouryearsfromnow.By1995morethan60ofthose100start-upswillhavefolded.Anewstudyof3000smallbusinessessponsoredbyAmericanExpressandtheNationalFederationofIndependentBusinesssuggestsslightlybetterodds:Threeyearsafterstart-up77percentofthecompaniessurveyedwerestillalive.Mostcreditedtheirsuccessinlargeparttohavingpickedabusinesstheyalreadywerecomfortablein.Eightypercenthadworkedwiththesameproductorserviceintheirlastjobs. Thinkingthroughanenterprisebeforethelaunchisobviouslycritical.Butmanyentrepreneursforgetthatafirm’shealthinitsinfancymaybelittleindicationofhowwellitwillage.Youmasttenderlymonitoritspulse.Intheirzealtoexpandsmall-businessownersoftenignoreearlywarningsignsofastagnantmarketorofdecayingprofitability.Theyhopefullypourmoreandmoremoneyintotheenterprisepreferringnottoacknowledgeerodingprofitmarginsthatmeanthemarketfortheiringeniousserviceorproducthasevaporatedorthattheymustcutthepayrollorvacatetheirlavishoffices.Onlywhenthefinancialwellrunsdrydotheyseetheseriousnessoftheillnessandbythenthepatientisusuallytoofargonetosave. Frequentchecksofyourfirm’svitalsignswillalsoguideyoutoasensiblerateofgrowth.Tosnatchopportunityyoumustspotthesignalsthatitistimetoconquernewmarketsaddproductsorperhapsfranchiseyourhotidea. Theauthor’sattitudetowardsthedevelopmentofsmallbusinessesis
Lastsummersometwenty-eightthousandhomelesspeoplewereaffordedshelterbythecityofNewYork.Ofthisnumbertwelvethousandwerechildrenandsixthousandwereparentslivingtogetherinfamilies.Theaveragechildwassixyearsoldtheaverageparenttwentyseven.Atypicalhomelessfamilyincludedamotherwithtwoorthreechildrenbutinaboutone-fifthofthesefamiliestwoparentswerepresent.Roughlytenthousandsinglepersonsthenmadeuptheremainderofthepopulationofthecity’sshelter. Theseproportionsvarysomewhatfromoneareaofthenationtoanother.Inallareashoweverfamiliesarethefastest-growingsectorofthehomelesspopulationandintheNortheasttheyarebyfarthelargestsectoralready.InMassachusettsthree-fourthsofthehomelessnowarefamilieswithchildren;incertainpartsofMassachusetts-AttleboroandNorthamptonforexample-theproportionreaches90percent.TwothirdsofthehomelesschildrenstudiedrecentlyinBostonwerelessthanfiveyearsold. Oftheestimatedtwotothreemillionhomelesspeoplenationwideabout500000aredependentchildrenaccordingtoRobertHayescounseltotheNationalCoalitionforthehomeless.Includingtheirparentsatleast750000homelesspeopleinAmericaarefamilymembers. Whatistobemadethenofthesuppositionthatthehomelessareprimarilytheformerresidentsofmentalhospitalspersonswhowerecarelesslyreleasedduringthe1970sManyofthemaretobesure.Amongtheoldermenandwomeninthestreetsandsheltersasmanyasone-thirdsomebelieveasmanyasone-halfmaybechronicallydisturbedandanumberofthesepeopleleftmentalhospitalsduringthe1970s.ButinacitylikeNewYorkwherenearlyhalfthehomelessaresmallchildrenwithanaverageofsixtooperateonthebasisofsuchasuppositionmakesnosense.Theirparentswithanaverageageoftwenty-sevenarenotlikelytohavebeenhospitalizedinthe1970seither. Accordingtothepassagetheauthorwantstotellusabout
Lastsummersometwenty-eightthousandhomelesspeoplewereaffordedshelterbythecityofNewYork.Ofthisnumbertwelvethousandwerechildrenandsixthousandwereparentslivingtogetherinfamilies.Theaveragechildwassixyearsoldtheaverageparenttwentyseven.Atypicalhomelessfamilyincludedamotherwithtwoorthreechildrenbutinaboutone-fifthofthesefamiliestwoparentswerepresent.Roughlytenthousandsinglepersonsthenmadeuptheremainderofthepopulationofthecity’sshelter. Theseproportionsvarysomewhatfromoneareaofthenationtoanother.Inallareashoweverfamiliesarethefastest-growingsectorofthehomelesspopulationandintheNortheasttheyarebyfarthelargestsectoralready.InMassachusettsthree-fourthsofthehomelessnowarefamilieswithchildren;incertainpartsofMassachusetts-AttleboroandNorthamptonforexample-theproportionreaches90percent.TwothirdsofthehomelesschildrenstudiedrecentlyinBostonwerelessthanfiveyearsold. Oftheestimatedtwotothreemillionhomelesspeoplenationwideabout500000aredependentchildrenaccordingtoRobertHayescounseltotheNationalCoalitionforthehomeless.Includingtheirparentsatleast750000homelesspeopleinAmericaarefamilymembers. Whatistobemadethenofthesuppositionthatthehomelessareprimarilytheformerresidentsofmentalhospitalspersonswhowerecarelesslyreleasedduringthe1970sManyofthemaretobesure.Amongtheoldermenandwomeninthestreetsandsheltersasmanyasone-thirdsomebelieveasmanyasone-halfmaybechronicallydisturbedandanumberofthesepeopleleftmentalhospitalsduringthe1970s.ButinacitylikeNewYorkwherenearlyhalfthehomelessaresmallchildrenwithanaverageofsixtooperateonthebasisofsuchasuppositionmakesnosense.Theirparentswithanaverageageoftwenty-sevenarenotlikelytohavebeenhospitalizedinthe1970seither. InAmericahowmanypeoplearehomelessparents
Atthebeginningofthecenturymedicalscientistsmadeasurprisingdiscovery:thatweare1notjustoffleshandbloodbutalsooftime.Theywereableto2thatweallhaveaninternal"bodyclock"which3theriseandfallofourbodyenergiesmakingusdifferentfromonedaytothe5.Theseforcesbecameknownasbiorhythms:theycreatethe5inoureverydaylife. The6ofaninternal"bodyclock"shouldnotbetoosurprising7thelivesofmostlivingthingsaredominatedbythe24-hournight-and-daycycle.Themostobvious8ofthiscycleisthe9wefeeltiredandfallasleepatnightandbecomeawakeand10duringtheday.11the24-hourrhythmisinterruptedmostpeopleexperienceunpleasantsideeffects. 12internationalaeroplanetravelersoftenexperience"jetlag"whentravelingacrosstime13.Peoplewhoarenotusedto14workcanfindthatlackofsleepaffectstheirworkperformance. 15thedailyrhythmofsleepingandwakingwealsohaveotherrhythmswhich16.longerthanonedayandwhichinfluencewideareasofourlives.Mostofuswouldagreethatwefeelgoodon17daysandnetsogoodonothers.Sometimesweare18fingersandthumbsbutonotherdayswehaveexcellentcoordination.Therearetimeswhenweappeartobeaccident-proneorwhenourtemperseemstobeonashortfuse.Isn’titalsostrange19ideasseemtoflowonsomedaysbutatothertimesare20nonexistentMusicianspaintersandwritersoftentalkabout"dryspells". 6
Inmychildren’slifetimesIbelievegorillaschimpanzeesandorangutanswillallbecomeextinctinthewild.Sothequestionwehavetoaskourselvesisthis:dowewantourchildrentoseeonlyinzooswhatusedtoexistintherealworld46Itisthegreatapesthatwilldisappearfirstbecausetherearesofewofthemleftandbecausethey’resovulnerabletochangesintheirhabitats.Manyofthethreatstotheseanimalsresultfromaglobaleconomynotlocalpressures.ThethreattotheorangutaninIndonesiaforexampleislargelyaresultofdeforestationandtheriskstoprimatesinAfricaresultfromthetimber-tradeandthedemandforbush-meat.47Thetwoworktogether:loggingopensuptheforestwhichmeansthatthebush-meatcanbegotoutfasttoKinshasaortoLondon.48Ifwewanttoavoidthedisasterscenariopeopleindevelopedcountrieswillhavetotakeaglobalperspectiveandacceptresponsibilityforthedamageexportcropssuchastimbercoffeecutflowersorevengreenbeansdototheenvironment.Thechallengeistoavoidsimplyimposingwesternattitudesonlocalpeoples.Alreadytherearenotrulywildplacesleftintheworld.49Lookingatwildlifehasbecomethepreserveofthemiddleclassesoverthelasttwenty-oddyearsandaswildanimalsbecomeevenrarersomoretouristswanttoseethem.Buttourismaloneplainlycannotconservetheworld’sanimals;economicdevelopmentisthepriority.ForthefutureIsuspectthatffyoureallywanttodosomethingaboutwildlifeconservationyouwouldbebetteroffputtingyourmoneyintowomen’seducationratherthanjustintotheprotectionofflagshipspecies.50Womenoftenbearthedirectcostsofwildlifeconflict;theirknowledgeofhowtodealwithconflictandhowtocontroltheirownreproductivedestiniesmayyetdeterminethesurvivalofmanythreatenedspecies.
AFrenchmanthepsychologistAlfredBinetpublishedthefirststandardizedtestofhumanintelligencein1905.46ButitwasanAmericanLewisTermanapsychologyprofessoratStanfordwhothoughttodividea_testtaker’s"mentalage"asrevealedbythatscorebyhisorherbiologicalagetoderiveanumberthathecalled"IQ".Itwouldbehardtothinkofapop-scientificcoinagethathashadagreaterimpactonthewaypeoplethinkaboutthemselvesandothers. 47Nocountry:embracedtheIQmorethoroughlythantheU.S.wheremillionsofpeoplehavetheirIQmeasuredannuallymanywithadirectdescendantofBinet’soriginaltestalthoughnotnecessarilyforthepurposeBinetintended.Hedevelopedhistestasawayofidentifyingpublicschoolstudentswhoneededextrahelpinlearningandthatisstilloneofitsleadinguses. ButthebroaderandmorecontroversialuseofIQtestinghasitsrootsinatheoryofintelligence—partsciencepartsociology—thatdevelopedinthelate19thcenturybeforeBinet’sworkandentirelyseparatefromit.48ChampionedfirstbyCharlesDarwin’scousinFrancisGaltonitheldthatintelligencewasthemostvaluablehumanattributeandthatifpeoplewhohadalotofitcouldbeidentifiedandputinleadershippositionsallofsocietywouldbenefit. TermanbelievedIQtestsshouldbeusedtoconductagreatsortingoutofthepopulationsothatyoungpeoplewouldbeassignedonthebasisoftheirscorestoparticularlevelsintheschoolsystemwhichwouldleadtocorrespondingsocioeconomicdestinationsinadultlife.ThebeginningoftheIQ-testingmovementoverlappedwiththeeugenicsmovement—hugelypopularinAmericaandEuropeamongthe"bettersort". In1958aBritishsociologistnamedMichaelYoungcoinedtheword"meritocracy"todenoteasocietythatorganizesitselfaccordingtoIQ-testscores.TermanandmanyotherearlyadvocatesofIQtestinghadinmindthecreationofanAmericanmeritocracythoughtheworddidn’texistthen.49TheybelievedIQtestscouldbethemeanstocreateforthefirsttimeeverasocietyinwhichadvantagewouldgotothepeoplewhodeserveditratherthantothosewhohadbeenbornintoit. InordertobelievethisthoughyouhavetobelievethatmeritandascoreonanIQtestarethesamething.50LongbeforeIQwasinventedAmericaprideditselfonbeingacountrywithoutaclasssysteminwhichpeopleoftalentandindustrywouldriseandberewarded.TheadventofintelligencetestsdidnotdramaticallyaffectthedegreeofsocialmobilityintheU.S.—atleastnotenoughforanychangetoshowupinthesocial-sciencedata. 48ChampionedfirstbyCharlesDarwin’scousinFrancisGaltonitheldthatintelligencewasthemostvaluablehumanattributeandthatifpeoplewhohadalotofitcouldbeidentifiedandputinleadershippositionsallofsocietywouldbenefit.
Atthebeginningofthecenturymedicalscientistsmadeasurprisingdiscovery:thatweare1notjustoffleshandbloodbutalsooftime.Theywereableto2thatweallhaveaninternal"bodyclock"which3theriseandfallofourbodyenergiesmakingusdifferentfromonedaytothe5.Theseforcesbecameknownasbiorhythms:theycreatethe5inoureverydaylife. The6ofaninternal"bodyclock"shouldnotbetoosurprising7thelivesofmostlivingthingsaredominatedbythe24-hournight-and-daycycle.Themostobvious8ofthiscycleisthe9wefeeltiredandfallasleepatnightandbecomeawakeand10duringtheday.11the24-hourrhythmisinterruptedmostpeopleexperienceunpleasantsideeffects. 12internationalaeroplanetravelersoftenexperience"jetlag"whentravelingacrosstime13.Peoplewhoarenotusedto14workcanfindthatlackofsleepaffectstheirworkperformance. 15thedailyrhythmofsleepingandwakingwealsohaveotherrhythmswhich16.longerthanonedayandwhichinfluencewideareasofourlives.Mostofuswouldagreethatwefeelgoodon17daysandnetsogoodonothers.Sometimesweare18fingersandthumbsbutonotherdayswehaveexcellentcoordination.Therearetimeswhenweappeartobeaccident-proneorwhenourtemperseemstobeonashortfuse.Isn’titalsostrange19ideasseemtoflowonsomedaysbutatothertimesare20nonexistentMusicianspaintersandwritersoftentalkabout"dryspells". 18
Lastsummersometwenty-eightthousandhomelesspeoplewereaffordedshelterbythecityofNewYork.Ofthisnumbertwelvethousandwerechildrenandsixthousandwereparentslivingtogetherinfamilies.Theaveragechildwassixyearsoldtheaverageparenttwentyseven.Atypicalhomelessfamilyincludedamotherwithtwoorthreechildrenbutinaboutone-fifthofthesefamiliestwoparentswerepresent.Roughlytenthousandsinglepersonsthenmadeuptheremainderofthepopulationofthecity’sshelter. Theseproportionsvarysomewhatfromoneareaofthenationtoanother.Inallareashoweverfamiliesarethefastest-growingsectorofthehomelesspopulationandintheNortheasttheyarebyfarthelargestsectoralready.InMassachusettsthree-fourthsofthehomelessnowarefamilieswithchildren;incertainpartsofMassachusetts-AttleboroandNorthamptonforexample-theproportionreaches90percent.TwothirdsofthehomelesschildrenstudiedrecentlyinBostonwerelessthanfiveyearsold. Oftheestimatedtwotothreemillionhomelesspeoplenationwideabout500000aredependentchildrenaccordingtoRobertHayescounseltotheNationalCoalitionforthehomeless.Includingtheirparentsatleast750000homelesspeopleinAmericaarefamilymembers. Whatistobemadethenofthesuppositionthatthehomelessareprimarilytheformerresidentsofmentalhospitalspersonswhowerecarelesslyreleasedduringthe1970sManyofthemaretobesure.Amongtheoldermenandwomeninthestreetsandsheltersasmanyasone-thirdsomebelieveasmanyasone-halfmaybechronicallydisturbedandanumberofthesepeopleleftmentalhospitalsduringthe1970s.ButinacitylikeNewYorkwherenearlyhalfthehomelessaresmallchildrenwithanaverageofsixtooperateonthebasisofsuchasuppositionmakesnosense.Theirparentswithanaverageageoftwenty-sevenarenotlikelytohavebeenhospitalizedinthe1970seither. AccordingtothestatisticsamongthehomelessinNewYorktherewere
Atthebeginningofthecenturymedicalscientistsmadeasurprisingdiscovery:thatweare1notjustoffleshandbloodbutalsooftime.Theywereableto2thatweallhaveaninternal"bodyclock"which3theriseandfallofourbodyenergiesmakingusdifferentfromonedaytothe5.Theseforcesbecameknownasbiorhythms:theycreatethe5inoureverydaylife. The6ofaninternal"bodyclock"shouldnotbetoosurprising7thelivesofmostlivingthingsaredominatedbythe24-hournight-and-daycycle.Themostobvious8ofthiscycleisthe9wefeeltiredandfallasleepatnightandbecomeawakeand10duringtheday.11the24-hourrhythmisinterruptedmostpeopleexperienceunpleasantsideeffects. 12internationalaeroplanetravelersoftenexperience"jetlag"whentravelingacrosstime13.Peoplewhoarenotusedto14workcanfindthatlackofsleepaffectstheirworkperformance. 15thedailyrhythmofsleepingandwakingwealsohaveotherrhythmswhich16.longerthanonedayandwhichinfluencewideareasofourlives.Mostofuswouldagreethatwefeelgoodon17daysandnetsogoodonothers.Sometimesweare18fingersandthumbsbutonotherdayswehaveexcellentcoordination.Therearetimeswhenweappeartobeaccident-proneorwhenourtemperseemstobeonashortfuse.Isn’titalsostrange19ideasseemtoflowonsomedaysbutatothertimesare20nonexistentMusicianspaintersandwritersoftentalkabout"dryspells". 10
Atthebeginningofthecenturymedicalscientistsmadeasurprisingdiscovery:thatweare1notjustoffleshandbloodbutalsooftime.Theywereableto2thatweallhaveaninternal"bodyclock"which3theriseandfallofourbodyenergiesmakingusdifferentfromonedaytothe5.Theseforcesbecameknownasbiorhythms:theycreatethe5inoureverydaylife. The6ofaninternal"bodyclock"shouldnotbetoosurprising7thelivesofmostlivingthingsaredominatedbythe24-hournight-and-daycycle.Themostobvious8ofthiscycleisthe9wefeeltiredandfallasleepatnightandbecomeawakeand10duringtheday.11the24-hourrhythmisinterruptedmostpeopleexperienceunpleasantsideeffects. 12internationalaeroplanetravelersoftenexperience"jetlag"whentravelingacrosstime13.Peoplewhoarenotusedto14workcanfindthatlackofsleepaffectstheirworkperformance. 15thedailyrhythmofsleepingandwakingwealsohaveotherrhythmswhich16.longerthanonedayandwhichinfluencewideareasofourlives.Mostofuswouldagreethatwefeelgoodon17daysandnetsogoodonothers.Sometimesweare18fingersandthumbsbutonotherdayswehaveexcellentcoordination.Therearetimeswhenweappeartobeaccident-proneorwhenourtemperseemstobeonashortfuse.Isn’titalsostrange19ideasseemtoflowonsomedaysbutatothertimesare20nonexistentMusicianspaintersandwritersoftentalkabout"dryspells". 14
Directions: Therehasbeenadiscussionrecentlyontheissueofchallengeinanewspaper.Writeanessayofabout200wordstothenewspaperto 1.showyourunderstandingofthesymbolicmeaningofthepicturebelow 1thecontentofthepicture 2thesymbolicmeaning 3thespecialunderstanding 2.giveaspecificexample/commentand 3.giveyoursuggestionastothebestwaytotreatchallenge.
WhenitcomestosuingdoctorsPhiladelphiaishardlythecityofbrotherlylove.AcombinationofsprightlylawyersandsympatheticjurieshasmadePhiladelphiaahotspotformedical-malpracticelawsuits.Since1995Pennsylvaniastatecourtshaveawardedanaverageof$2minsuchcasesaccordingtoJuryVerdictResearchasurveyfirm.Somemedicalspecialistshaveseentheirmalpracticeinsurancepremiumsnearlydoubleoverthepastyear.Obstetriciansarenowpayingupto$104000ayeartoprotectthemselves. Theinsuranceindustryislargelytoblame.CarolGolintheMonitor’seditorarguesthatinthe1990sinsurerstriedtograbmarketsharebyofferingartificiallylowratesbettingthatanylosseswouldbecoveredbygainsontheirinvestments.Thestock-marketcorrectioncoupledwiththelargelegalawardshaserodedtheinsurers’reserves.ThreeinPennsylvaniaalonehavegonebust. Afewdoctors--particularlyolderones---willquit.Therestareadapting.Someareabandoninglitigation-proneproceduressuchasdeliveringbabies.Othersaremovingpartsoftheirpracticetoneighboringstateswhereinsuranceratesarelower.SomefromPennsylvaniahaveopenedofficesinNewJersey.Newdoctorsmayalsobedeterredfromsettingupshopinlitigationhavenshoweverprestigious. DespiteaRepublicanpresidenttortreformhasgotnowhereatthefederallevel.IndeeddoctorscouldgetclobberedindirectlybyaPatients’BillofRightswhichwouldfurtherexposemanagedcarecompaniestolawsuits.ThisprospecthasfuelledinterestamongdoctorsinPennsylvania’snewmedicalmalpracticereformbillwhichwassignedintolawonMarch20th.Itwillamongotherthingsgivedoctors$40mofstatefundstooffsettheirinsurancepremiumsspreadthepaymentofawardsoutovertimeandprohibitindividualsfromdouble-dipping thatissuingadoctorfordamagesthathavealreadybeenpaidbytheirhealthinsurer. ButwillitreallyhelpRandallBovbjergahealthpolicyexpertattheUrbanInstitutearguesthattheonlyproperwaytoslowdownthelitigationmachinewouldbetolimitthecompensationforpainandsufferingso-called"non-monetarydamages".Needlesstosayafixedcaponsuchawardsisresistedbymosttriallawyers.ButMrBovbjergreckonsamorenuancedapproachwithaslidingscaleofpaymentsbasedonwell-definedmeasuresofinjuryisabetterwayforward.Inthemeantimedoctorsandinsurersarebracingthemselvesforacouplemoreroughyearsbeforetheinsurancecycleturns. Nobodydisputesthathospitalstaffmakemistakes:a1999InstituteofMedicinereportclaimedthaterrorskillatleast44000patientsayear.Butthereislittleevidencethatmalpracticelawsuitsontheirownwillsolvetheproblem. Itseemsthattheauthorisverycriticalof
Atthebeginningofthecenturymedicalscientistsmadeasurprisingdiscovery:thatweare1notjustoffleshandbloodbutalsooftime.Theywereableto2thatweallhaveaninternal"bodyclock"which3theriseandfallofourbodyenergiesmakingusdifferentfromonedaytothe5.Theseforcesbecameknownasbiorhythms:theycreatethe5inoureverydaylife. The6ofaninternal"bodyclock"shouldnotbetoosurprising7thelivesofmostlivingthingsaredominatedbythe24-hournight-and-daycycle.Themostobvious8ofthiscycleisthe9wefeeltiredandfallasleepatnightandbecomeawakeand10duringtheday.11the24-hourrhythmisinterruptedmostpeopleexperienceunpleasantsideeffects. 12internationalaeroplanetravelersoftenexperience"jetlag"whentravelingacrosstime13.Peoplewhoarenotusedto14workcanfindthatlackofsleepaffectstheirworkperformance. 15thedailyrhythmofsleepingandwakingwealsohaveotherrhythmswhich16.longerthanonedayandwhichinfluencewideareasofourlives.Mostofuswouldagreethatwefeelgoodon17daysandnetsogoodonothers.Sometimesweare18fingersandthumbsbutonotherdayswehaveexcellentcoordination.Therearetimeswhenweappeartobeaccident-proneorwhenourtemperseemstobeonashortfuse.Isn’titalsostrange19ideasseemtoflowonsomedaysbutatothertimesare20nonexistentMusicianspaintersandwritersoftentalkabout"dryspells". 2
Atthebeginningofthecenturymedicalscientistsmadeasurprisingdiscovery:thatweare1notjustoffleshandbloodbutalsooftime.Theywereableto2thatweallhaveaninternal"bodyclock"which3theriseandfallofourbodyenergiesmakingusdifferentfromonedaytothe5.Theseforcesbecameknownasbiorhythms:theycreatethe5inoureverydaylife. The6ofaninternal"bodyclock"shouldnotbetoosurprising7thelivesofmostlivingthingsaredominatedbythe24-hournight-and-daycycle.Themostobvious8ofthiscycleisthe9wefeeltiredandfallasleepatnightandbecomeawakeand10duringtheday.11the24-hourrhythmisinterruptedmostpeopleexperienceunpleasantsideeffects. 12internationalaeroplanetravelersoftenexperience"jetlag"whentravelingacrosstime13.Peoplewhoarenotusedto14workcanfindthatlackofsleepaffectstheirworkperformance. 15thedailyrhythmofsleepingandwakingwealsohaveotherrhythmswhich16.longerthanonedayandwhichinfluencewideareasofourlives.Mostofuswouldagreethatwefeelgoodon17daysandnetsogoodonothers.Sometimesweare18fingersandthumbsbutonotherdayswehaveexcellentcoordination.Therearetimeswhenweappeartobeaccident-proneorwhenourtemperseemstobeonashortfuse.Isn’titalsostrange19ideasseemtoflowonsomedaysbutatothertimesare20nonexistentMusicianspaintersandwritersoftentalkabout"dryspells". 12
[A]Asasciencemanagemententailstheuseoforganizedknowledge.Manyofthethingsmanagersdoarearesultofinformationobtainedthroughformalresearchandstudy.Oneareainwhichagreatdealhasbeendoneisquantitativedecisionmakingorasitisknowntodaymanagementscience.Weknowthatbyusingcertainmathematicalformulaswecancontrolinventoryandprojectdemandmoreaccuratelythanbymerelyusingtrialanderror. [B]Managementistheprocessofgettingthingsdonethroughpeople.Weknowthatpartofthisprocessiscarriedoutwiththedevelopmentofanorganizationstructure. [C]Yetmanagementisalsoanart.Throughexperiencethemanagerdevelopsjudgmentandintuitionsubjectivefactorsthatareusefulinevaluationsituations.ForexamplethemanagermayhavetochoosebetweentwostrategiesAandBAllresearchandstudymayindicatethatneitherofthetwoisanybetterthantheother. [D]Effectivemanagementisacombinationofartandscience.Neithershouldbeignored;neitheroughttobereliedonexclusively.Ingettingthingsdonethroughpeoplemanagementmustseektherightblendofartandscience.Attheupperlevelsofthehierarchytherewillbemoreemphasisontheformer;atthelowerlevelstherewillbemoreemphasisonthelatter. [E]HowdomanagerssucceedingettingthingsdonethroughpeopleInordertoanswerthisquestionitisnecessarytobreakdownthemanager’sjobintoitsbasicdutiesorfunctions.Managemententailsplanningorganizingdirectingandcontrolling.Byperformingwebineachoftheseareasthemanagercangetthingsdonethroughpeople. [F]HoweverwhatifthemanagerchoosesstrategyAonthebasisofintuitionandprovestoberightInthiscaseitisdifficulttosaypreciselywhythemanagerwasabletochoosesowellbuttheremustbesomespecialabilityheorshehas.Thissametypeofabilityisusefulinmanagingpeople.Effectivemanagersknowwhentoflattertheirsubordinatesandwhentobestern.Suchhumanbehaviorskillscannotbequantified;theycanonlybelearnedthroughexperienceandtraining. [G]Howeverthereismoretomanagementthanjustorganizingthepeopleandthework.Objectivesmustbesetplansformulatedpeopledirectedandoperationscontrolled.Inmakingthenecessarydecisionsmanagementmustrelyonalltheskillsatitscommand.Asaresultmanagementisbothascienceandanart. 42
Inmychildren’slifetimesIbelievegorillaschimpanzeesandorangutanswillallbecomeextinctinthewild.Sothequestionwehavetoaskourselvesisthis:dowewantourchildrentoseeonlyinzooswhatusedtoexistintherealworld46Itisthegreatapesthatwilldisappearfirstbecausetherearesofewofthemleftandbecausethey’resovulnerabletochangesintheirhabitats.Manyofthethreatstotheseanimalsresultfromaglobaleconomynotlocalpressures.ThethreattotheorangutaninIndonesiaforexampleislargelyaresultofdeforestationandtheriskstoprimatesinAfricaresultfromthetimber-tradeandthedemandforbush-meat.47Thetwoworktogether:loggingopensuptheforestwhichmeansthatthebush-meatcanbegotoutfasttoKinshasaortoLondon.48Ifwewanttoavoidthedisasterscenariopeopleindevelopedcountrieswillhavetotakeaglobalperspectiveandacceptresponsibilityforthedamageexportcropssuchastimbercoffeecutflowersorevengreenbeansdototheenvironment.Thechallengeistoavoidsimplyimposingwesternattitudesonlocalpeoples.Alreadytherearenotrulywildplacesleftintheworld.49Lookingatwildlifehasbecomethepreserveofthemiddleclassesoverthelasttwenty-oddyearsandaswildanimalsbecomeevenrarersomoretouristswanttoseethem.Buttourismaloneplainlycannotconservetheworld’sanimals;economicdevelopmentisthepriority.ForthefutureIsuspectthatffyoureallywanttodosomethingaboutwildlifeconservationyouwouldbebetteroffputtingyourmoneyintowomen’seducationratherthanjustintotheprotectionofflagshipspecies.50Womenoftenbearthedirectcostsofwildlifeconflict;theirknowledgeofhowtodealwithconflictandhowtocontroltheirownreproductivedestiniesmayyetdeterminethesurvivalofmanythreatenedspecies.
Largemultinationalcorporationsmaybethecompanieswhoseupsanddownsseizeheadlines.ButtoafargreaterextentthanmostAmericansrealizetheeconomy’svitalitydependsonthefortunesoftinyshopsandrestaurantsneighborhoodservicesandfactories.Smallbusinessesdefinedasthosewithfewerthan100workersnowemploynearly60percentoftheworkforceandareexpectedtogeneratehalfofailnewjobsbetweennowandtheyear2000.Some1.2millionsmallfirmshaveopenedtheirdoorsoverthepastsixyearsofeconomicgrowthand1989willseeanadditional200000entrepreneursstrikingoffontheirown.Toomanyofthesepioneershoweverwillblazeaheadunprepared.Idealistswilloverestimatetheclamorfortheirproductsorfailtofactorinthecompetition.Nearlyeveryonewillunderestimateoftenfatallythecapitalthatsuccessrequires.Midcareerexecutivesforcedbyatakeoverorarestructuringtoquitthecorporationandfindanotherwaytosupportthemselvesmaysavortheideaofbeingtheirownbossbutmayforgetthatentrepreneursmustalsoatleastforawhilebebookkeeperandreceptionisttoo.AccordingtoSmallBusinessAdministrationdata24ofevery100businessesstartingouttodayarelikelytohavedisappearedintwoyearsand27morewillhaveshuttheirdoorsfouryearsfromnow.By1995morethan60ofthose100start-upswillhavefolded.Anewstudyof3000smallbusinessessponsoredbyAmericanExpressandtheNationalFederationofIndependentBusinesssuggestsslightlybetterodds:Threeyearsafterstart-up77percentofthecompaniessurveyedwerestillalive.Mostcreditedtheirsuccessinlargeparttohavingpickedabusinesstheyalreadywerecomfortablein.Eightypercenthadworkedwiththesameproductorserviceintheirlastjobs.Thinkingthroughanenterprisebeforethelaunchisobviouslycritical.Butmanyentrepreneursforgetthatafirm’shealthinitsinfancymaybelittleindicationofhowwellitwillage.Youmasttenderlymonitoritspulse.Intheirzealtoexpandsmall-businessownersoftenignoreearlywarningsignsofastagnantmarketorofdecayingprofitability.Theyhopefullypourmoreandmoremoneyintotheenterprisepreferringnottoacknowledgeerodingprofitmarginsthatmeanthemarketfortheiringeniousserviceorproducthasevaporatedorthattheymustcutthepayrollorvacatetheirlavishoffices.Onlywhenthefinancialwellrunsdrydotheyseetheseriousnessoftheillnessandbythenthepatientisusuallytoofargonetosave.Frequentchecksofyourfirm’svitalsignswillalsoguideyoutoasensiblerateofgrowth.Tosnatchopportunityyoumustspotthesignalsthatitistimetoconquernewmarketsaddproductsorperhapsfranchiseyourhotidea.Accordingtothetextthemaindifferencebetweenamultinationalcorporationandasmallbusinessliesin
Ifopen-sourcesoftwareissupposedtobefreehowdoesanyonesellingitmakeanymoneyIt’snotthatdifferentfromhowothersoftwarecompaniesmakemoney. You’dthinkthatasoftwarecompanywouldmakemostofitsmoneyfromwellsellingsoftware.Butyou’dbewrong.Foronethingcompaniesdon’tsellsoftwarestrictlyspeaking;theylicenseit.Theprofitmarginonasoftwarelicenseisnearly100percentwhichiswhyMicrosoftgushesbillionsofdollarseveryquarter. Butwhat’sthevalueofalicensetoacustomerAlicensedoesn’tdeliverthecodeprovidetheutilitiestogetapieceofsoftwarerunningoranswerthephonewhensomethinginevitablygoeswrong.Thevalueofsoftwareinshortdoesn’tlieinthesoftwarealone.Thevalueisinmakingsurethesoft-waredoesitsjob.Justasatravelershouldlookattheoverallpriceofavacationpackageinsteadofobsessingoverthepriceoftheplaneticketorhotelmomasmarttechbuyerwon’tfocusonhowmuchthelicensecostsandignorethesupportcontractorthemaintenanceagreement. Open-sourceisnotthatdifferent.Ifyouwantthesoftwaretoworkyouhavetopaytoensureitwillwork.Theopen-sourcecompanieshaverefinedthesoftwaremodelbysellingsubscriptions.TheyrolltogethersupportandmaintenanceandchargeanannualfeewhichisahealthymodelthoughnotquiteaswonderfulasMicrosoft’smoney-rakingone.TellinglyevenMicrosoftiscastinganenviouseyeataspectsoftheopen-sourcebusinessmodel.Thecompanyhasbeentakinghaltingstepstowardasimilarsubscriptionschemeforitssoftwaresales.Microsoft’ssubscriptionprogramknownasSoft-wareAssuranceprovidesmaintenanceandsupporttogetherwithasoftwarelicense.Itletsyouup-gradetoMicrosoft’snextversionofthesoftwareforapredictablesum.Butitalsocontainsanimplicitthreat:Ifyoudon’tswitchtoSoftwareAssurancenowwhoknowshowmuchMicrosoftwillchargeyouwhenyoudecidetoupgrade Chiefinformationofficershatethiskindof*’assurance"sincethey’reoftenperfectlyhappyrunningolderversionsofsoftwarethatareprovenandstable.Microsoftontheotherhandrakesinthesoftware-licensingfeesonlywhencustomersupgrade.SoftwareAssuranceisMicrosoft’sattempttogetthosesamelicensingfeesbutwrapthemtogetherwiththeserviceandsupportneededtokeepsystemsrunning.That’swhyMicrosoftfindstheopen-sourcemodelsothreatening:open-sourcecompanieshavenovestedinterestingettingmorelicensingfeesanddon’thavetopadtheirservicecontractswiththatextracost.Intheendthemaindifferencebetweenopen-sourceandproprietarysoftwarecompaniesmaybethesizeofthecheckyouhavetowrite. WhichofthefollowingseemstobetheoverallattitudeofMicrosofttowardsubscriptionplan
WhenitcomestosuingdoctorsPhiladelphiaishardlythecityofbrotherlylove.AcombinationofsprightlylawyersandsympatheticjurieshasmadePhiladelphiaahotspotformedical-malpracticelawsuits.Since1995Pennsylvaniastatecourtshaveawardedanaverageof$2minsuchcasesaccordingtoJuryVerdictResearchasurveyfirm.Somemedicalspecialistshaveseentheirmalpracticeinsurancepremiumsnearlydoubleoverthepastyear.Obstetriciansarenowpayingupto$104000ayeartoprotectthemselves. Theinsuranceindustryislargelytoblame.CarolGolintheMonitor’seditorarguesthatinthe1990sinsurerstriedtograbmarketsharebyofferingartificiallylowratesbettingthatanylosseswouldbecoveredbygainsontheirinvestments.Thestock-marketcorrectioncoupledwiththelargelegalawardshaserodedtheinsurers’reserves.ThreeinPennsylvaniaalonehavegonebust. Afewdoctors--particularlyolderones---willquit.Therestareadapting.Someareabandoninglitigation-proneproceduressuchasdeliveringbabies.Othersaremovingpartsoftheirpracticetoneighboringstateswhereinsuranceratesarelower.SomefromPennsylvaniahaveopenedofficesinNewJersey.Newdoctorsmayalsobedeterredfromsettingupshopinlitigationhavenshoweverprestigious. DespiteaRepublicanpresidenttortreformhasgotnowhereatthefederallevel.IndeeddoctorscouldgetclobberedindirectlybyaPatients’BillofRightswhichwouldfurtherexposemanagedcarecompaniestolawsuits.ThisprospecthasfuelledinterestamongdoctorsinPennsylvania’snewmedicalmalpracticereformbillwhichwassignedintolawonMarch20th.Itwillamongotherthingsgivedoctors$40mofstatefundstooffsettheirinsurancepremiumsspreadthepaymentofawardsoutovertimeandprohibitindividualsfromdouble-dipping thatissuingadoctorfordamagesthathavealreadybeenpaidbytheirhealthinsurer. ButwillitreallyhelpRandallBovbjergahealthpolicyexpertattheUrbanInstitutearguesthattheonlyproperwaytoslowdownthelitigationmachinewouldbetolimitthecompensationforpainandsufferingso-called"non-monetarydamages".Needlesstosayafixedcaponsuchawardsisresistedbymosttriallawyers.ButMrBovbjergreckonsamorenuancedapproachwithaslidingscaleofpaymentsbasedonwell-definedmeasuresofinjuryisabetterwayforward.Inthemeantimedoctorsandinsurersarebracingthemselvesforacouplemoreroughyearsbeforetheinsurancecycleturns. Nobodydisputesthathospitalstaffmakemistakes:a1999InstituteofMedicinereportclaimedthaterrorskillatleast44000patientsayear.Butthereislittleevidencethatmalpracticelawsuitsontheirownwillsolvetheproblem. AtthetimewhenthisarticlewaswrittenthesituationfordoctorsinPhiladelphiaseemedtobe
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