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简述古希腊克里斯提尼改革的主要内容与意义。
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公元前509年古希腊克里斯提尼立法时建立的500人议事会成为雅典重要的
立法机关
行政机关
司法机关
常设机关
梭伦克里斯提尼伯里克利希腊民主制度做出了巨大的贡献下列说法正确的是①梭伦改革奠定了雅典民主政治的基础
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①③④
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下列人物为雅典民主政治的发展做出了重大贡献其进行政治改革的先后顺序是
梭伦、克里斯提尼、伯利克里
梭伦、伯利克里、克里斯提尼
克里斯提尼、梭伦、伯利克里
克里斯提尼、伯利克里、梭伦
克里斯提尼改革的原因内容与历史意义
克里斯提尼改革
梭伦克里斯提尼伯利克里为希腊民主制度作出了巨大的贡献下列说法正确的是①梭伦改革奠定了希腊民主制度的基
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①③④
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古希腊奴隶制民主政治的极盛时代是
梭伦时代
伯利克里时代
庇西特拉图时代
克里斯提尼时代
陶片放逐法是古希腊雅典民主制度建立过程中哪次立法改革中的内容
得拉古立法
梭伦立法
克里斯提尼立法
伯里克利立法
简述克里斯提尼改革
希腊历史学家希罗多德说克里斯提尼领着人民参与政治克里斯提尼改革中符合这一评述的是①按财产多寡划分社会
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克里斯提尼斯改革的主要内容和影响
陶片放逐法是哪一次立法改革的内容
梭伦改革
德拉古改革
克里斯提尼改革
伯里克利改革
克里斯梯尼改革内容
在古希腊经济困难从此不再把人们排斥在政事管理之外这应归功于
梭伦
克里斯提尼
伯利克里
苏格拉底
在古希腊雅典城邦经济困境从此不再把人们排斥在政事管理之外这应归功于
梭伦
庇希特拉图
克里斯提尼
伯利克里
希腊历史学家希罗多德说克里斯提尼领着人民参与政治克里斯提尼改革中符合这一评论的是①按财产多寡划分社会
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在古希腊创造了一种平衡的等级体系其中人人都享有某些权力的政治家是
梭伦
克里斯提尼
伯利克里
柏拉图
7希腊历史学习加希罗多德说克里斯提尼领着人民参与政治克里斯提尼改革中符合这一评述的是1按财产多寡划分
12
23
34
14
古希腊雅典建立并实施公职津贴办法的改革是
伯里克利改革
梭伦改革
克里斯特尼改革
阿菲埃尔特改革
在雅典民主政治发展过程中下列三位人物进行改革的先后顺序是
梭伦、克里斯提尼、伯利克里
梭伦、伯利克里、克里斯提尼
克里斯提尼、梭伦、伯利克里
克里斯提尼、伯利克里、梭伦
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"UniversalhistorythehistoryofwhatmanhasaccomplishedinthisworldisatbottomtheHistoryoftheGreatMenwhohaveworkedhere"wrotetheVictorianstageThomasCarlyle.Wellnotanymoreitisnot. SuddenlyBritainlookstohavefallenoutwithitsfavouritehistoricalform.Thiscouldbenomorethanapassingliterarycrazebutitalsopointstoabroadertruthabouthowwenowapproachthepast:lessconcernedwithlearningfromforefathersandmoreinterestedinfeelingtheirpain.Todaywewantempathynotinspiration. FromtheearliestdaysoftheRenaissancethewritingofhistorymeantrecountingtheexemplarylivesofgreatmen.In1337PetrarchbeganworkonhisramblingwritingDeVirisIllustribus—OnFamousMenhighlightingthevirtusorvirtueofclassicalheroes.Petrarchcelebratedtheirgreatnessinconqueringfortuneandrisingtothetop.ThiswasthebiographicaltraditionwhichNiccoloMachiavelliturnedonitshead.InThePrincethechampionedcunningruthlessnessandboldnessratherthanvirtuemercyandjusticeastheskillsofsuccessfulleaders. Overtimetheattributesofgreatnessshifted.TheRomanticscommemoratedtheleadingpaintersandauthorsoftheirdaystressingtheuniquenessoftheartist’spersonalexperienceratherthanpublicglory.BycontrasttheVictorianauthorSamualSmileswroteSelf-Helpasacatalogueoftheworthylivesofengineersindustrialistsandexplores."Thevaluableexampleswhichtheyfurnishofthepowerofself-helpifpatientpurposeresoluteworkingandsteadfastintegrityissuingintheformulationoftrulynobleandmanycharacterexhibit"wroteSmiles."whatitisinthepowerofeachtoaccomplishforhimself"HisbiographiesofJamesWaltRichardArkwrightandJosiahWedgwoodwereheldupasbeaconstoguidetheworkingmanthroughhisdifficultlife. ThiswasallabitbourgeoisforThomasCarlylewhofocusedhisbiographiesonthetrulyheroiclivesofMartinLutherOliverCromwellandNapoleonBonaparte.Theseepochalfiguresrepresentedliveshardtoimitatebuttobeacknowledgedaspossessinghigherauthoritythanmeremortals. CommunistManifesto.Forthemhistorydidnothingitpossessednoimmensewealthnorwagedbattles:"Itismanreallivingmanwhodoesallthat."Andhistoryshouldbethestoryofthemassesandtheirrecordofstruggle.Assuchitneededtoappreciatetheeconomicrealitiesthesocialcontextsandpowerrelationsinwhicheachepochstood.For:"Menmaketheirownhistorybuttheydonotmakeitjustastheyplease;theydonotmakeitundercircumstanceschosenbythemselvesbutundercircumstancesdirectlyfoundgivenandtransmittedfromthepast." Thiswasthetraditionwhichrevolutionizedourappreciationofthepast.InplaceofThomasCarlyleBritainnurturedChristopherHillEPThompsonandEricHobsbawm.Historyfrombelowstoodalongsidebiographiesofgreatmen.Wholenewrealmsofunderstanding—fromgendertoracetoculturalstudies—wereopenedupasscholarsunpickedthemultiplicityoflostsocieties.Andittransformedpublichistorytoo:downstairsbecamejustasfascinatingasupstairs. [A]emphasizedthevirtueofclassicalheroes. 41.iPetrarch [B]highlightedthepublicgloryoftheleadingartists. 42.NiccoloMachiavelli [C]focusedonepochalfigureswhoseliveswerehardtoimitate. 43.SamuelSmiles [D]openedupnewrealmsofunderstandingthegreatmeninhistory. 44.ThomasCarlyle [E]heldthathistoryshouldbethestoryofthemassesandtheirrecordofstruggle. 45.MarxandEngels [F]dismissedvirtueasunnecessaryforsuccessfulleaders. [G]depictedtheworthylivesofengineerindustrialistsandexplorers. 42
Extraordinarycreativeactivityhasbeencharacterizedasrevolutionaryflyinginthefaceofwhatisestablishedandproducingnotwhatisacceptablebutwhatwillbecomeaccepted.Accordingtothisformulationhighlycreativeactivitytranscendsthelimitsofanexistingformandestablishesanewprincipleoforganization.Howevertheideathatextraordinarycreativitytranscendsestablishedlimitsismisleadingwhenitisappliedtotheartseventhoughitmaybevalidforthescience;Differencesbetweenhighlycreativeartandhighlycreativescienceariseinpartfromadifferenceintheirgoal.Forthesciencesanewtheoryisthegoalandendresultofthecreativeact.Innovativescienceproducesnewpropositionsintermsofwhichdiversephenomenacanberelatedtooneanotherinmorecoherentways.Suchphenomenaasabrilliantdiamondoranestingbirdarerelegatedtotheroleofdateservingasthemeansforformulatingortestinganewtheory.Thegoalofhighlycreativeartisdifferent:thephenomenonitselfbecomesthedirectproductofthecreativeact.Shakespeare’sHamletisnotatractaboutthebehaviorofindecisiveprincesortheusesofpoliticalpowernorisPicasso’spaintingGuernicaprimarilyaprepositionalstatementabouttheSpanishCivilWarortheevilsoffascism.What’highlycreativeactivityproducesisnotanewgeneralizationthat’transcendsestablishedlimitsbutratheranaestheticparticular.Aestheticparticularsproducedbythehighlycreativeartistextendorexploitratherthantranscendthatform. Thisisnottodenythatahighlycreativeartistsometimesestablishesanewprincipleoforganizationinthehistoryofanartisticfield;thecomposerMonteverdiwhocreatedmusicofthehighestaestheticvaluecomestomind.Moregenerallyhoweverwhetherornotacompositionestablishesanewprincipleinthehistoryofmusichasnobearingonitsaestheticworth.BecausetheyembodyanewprincipleoforganizationsomemusicalworkssuchastheoperasoftheFlorentineCamerataareofsignalhistoricalimportancebutfewlistenersormusicologistswouldincludetheseamongthegreatworksofmusic.OntheotherhandMozart’sTheMarriageofFigaro费加罗的婚礼issurelyamongthemasterpieceofmusiceventhoughitsmodestinnovationsareconfinedtoextendingexistingmeans.IthasbeensaidofBeethoventhathetoppledtherulesandfreedmusicfromthestiflingconfinesofconvention.ButaclosestudyofhiscompositionrevealsthatBeethovenoverturnednofundamentalrules.RatherhewasanincomparablestrategistwhoexploitedlimitsoftherulesformsandconventionsthatheinheritedfrompredecessorssuchasHaydnandMozartHandelandBach—instrikinglyoriginalways. Accordingtotheauthordistinctionsbetweenthoseengagedinthecreativeartsandinnaturalsciencescaninpartbeexplainedby
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage".Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter—aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis—theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen—publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces—arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 8
TheBushadministrationisabouttoproposefar-reachingnewrulesthatwouldgivepeoplewithdisabilitiesgreateraccesstotensofthousandsofcourtroomsswimmingpoolsgolfcoursesstadiumstheatershotelsandretailstores.TheproposalwouldsubstantiallyupdateandrewritefederalstandardsforenforcementoftheAmericansWithDisabilitiesActalandmarkcivilrightslawpassedwithstrongbipartisansupportin1990.Thenewruleswouldsetmorestringentrequirementsinmanyareasandaddresssomeissuesforthefirsttimeinanefforttomeettheneedsofanagingpopulationandgrowingnumbersofdisabledwarveterans. Morethansevenmillionbusinessesandallstateandlocalgovernmentagencieswouldbeaffected.Theproposalincludessomeexemptionsforpartsofexistingbuildingsbutanynewconstructionorrenovationswouldhavetocomply.Thenewstandardswouldaffecteverythingfromthelocationoflightswitchestotheheightofretailservicecounterstotheuseofmonkeysas"serviceanimals"forpeoplewithdisabilitieswhichwouldbeforbidden’. TheWhiteHouseapprovedtheproposalinMayafterafive-monthreview.ItisscheduledtobepublishedintheFederalRegisteronTuesdaywith60daysforpubliccomment.Afterconsideringthosecommentsthegovernmentwouldissuefinalruleswiththeforceoflaw.Alreadytheproposalisstirringconcern.TheUnitedStatesChamberofCommercesaysitwouldbeonerousandcostlywhileadvocatesfordisabledAmericanssayitdoesnotgofarenough. SincethedisabilitylawwassignedbythefirstPresidentBushadvancesintechnologyhavemadeservicesmoreavailabletopeoplewithdisabilities.ButJusticeDepartmentofficialssaidtheywerestillreceivinglargenumbersofcomplaints.InrecentmonthsthefederalgovernmenthassettledlawsuitssecuringmoreseatsfordisabledfansatMadisonSquareGardeninNewYorkandatthenation’slargestcollegefootballstadiumattheUniversityofMichigan. TheJusticeDepartmentacknowledgedthatsomeofthechangeswouldhavesignificantcosts.Butoverallitsaidthevalueofthepublicbenefitsestimatedat$54billionexceedstheexpectedcostsof$23billion.InaneconomicanalysisoftheproposedrulestheJusticeDepartmentsaidtheneedforanaccessibleenvironmentwasgreaterthaneverbecausetheIraqwarwas"creatinganewgenerationofyoungmenandwomenwithdisabilities".JohnL.WodatchchiefofthedisabilityrightssectionoftheJusticeDepartmentsaid"Disabilityisinherentinthehumancondition.Thevastmajorityofindividualswhoarefortunateenoughtoreachanadvancedagewillbenefitfromtheproposedrequirements. ThecaseofsecuringmoreseatsfordisabledfansismentionedinParagraph4to
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage".Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter—aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis—theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen—publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces—arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 16
WhenMelissaMahanandherhusbandvisitedtheNetherlandstheyfeltimprisonedbytheirtourbus.Itforcedthemtoseethecityaccordingtoaparticularrouteandspecificschedule--butgoingoffontheirownmeantmissingoutontheinformationprovidedbytheguide.OntheirreturnhometoSanDiegoCaliforniatheystartedanewcompanycalledTourCoupes.NowwhentouristsinSanDiegorentoneoftheirsmallbrightlycolouredthree-wheeledvehiclestheyaretreatedtoanarrationoverthestereosystemabouttheplacestheypasstriggeredbyGlobalPositioningSystemGPSsatellitetechnology. ThisisjustoneexampleofhowGPSisbeingusedtoprovidenewservicestotourists."Whatwereallyhavehereisatechnologythatallowspeopletoforgetaboutthetechnology"saysJimCarrierofIntelliToursaGPStourismfirmwhichbeganofferingasimilarserviceoverayearagoinMontgomeryAlabama.ThecityispackedwithsitesassociatedwithtwoimportantchaptersinAmericanhistorythecivilwarofthe1860sandthecivil-rightsmovementacenturylater.Montgomeryhasa120-year-oldtrolleysystemcalledtheLightningRoutewhichcirculatesaroundthedowntownareaandismainlyusedbytourists.OntheLightningRoutetrolleysGPS-triggeredaudioclipspointouthistoricalhotspots. OtherfirmssuchasCityShowinNewYorkandGPSToursCanadainBanffCanadaofferhand-heldGPSreceiversthatplayaudioclipsforlisteningtowhilewalkingordriving.InSouthAfricaEuropcaracar-rentalfirmoffersadevicecalledtheXplorer.Aswellasprovidingcommentaryon2000pointsofinterestitcanalsowarndriversiftheyexceedthelocalspeedlimit. Ifsuchservicesprovepopulartheuseofdedicatedaudio-guidedevicescouldgivewaytoadifferentapproach.Agrowingnumberofmobilephoneshavebuilt-inGPSorcandeterminetheirlocationsusingothertechnologies.Informationfortouristsdeliveredviaphonescouldbeupdatedinrealtimeandcouldcontainadvertisements."Location-basedservices"suchastheabilitytocallupalistofnearbybanksorpizzeriashavebeentalkedaboutforyearsbuthavenevertakenoff.Butaimingsuchservicesattouristsmakessense--sincepeoplearemorelikelytowantinformationwheninanunfamiliarplace.Itcouldgivemobileroamingawholenewmeaning. MelissaMahan’sstoryismentionedinthetextto
InoneverylongsentencetheintroductiontotheU.N.CharterexpressestheidealsandthecommonaimsofallthepeoplewhosegovernmentsjoinedtogethertoformtheU.N. "WethepeopleoftheU.N.determinedtosavesucceedinggenerationsfromthescourgeofwarwhichtwiceinourlifetimehasbroughtuntoldsufferingtomankindandtoreaffirmfaithinfundamentalrightsinthedignityandworthofthehumanpersonintheequalrightsofmenandwomenandofnationslargeandsmallandtoestablishconditionsunderwhichjusticeandrespectfortheobligationsarisingfromtreatiesandothersourcesofinternationallawcanbemaintainedandtopromotesocialprogressandbetterstandardsoflifeinlargerfreedomandfortheseendstopractisetoleranceandlivetogetherinpeacewithoneanotherasgoodneighboursandtouniteourstrengthtomaintaininternationalpeaceandsecurityandtoensurebytheacceptanceofprinciplesandtheinstitutionofmethodsthatarmedforceshallnotbeusedsaveinthecommoninterestandtoemployinternationalmachineryforthepromotionofeconomicandsocialadvancementofallpeopleshaveresolvedtocombineoureffortstoaccomplishtheseaims." Thename"UnitedNations"isaccreditedtoU.S.PresidentFranklinD.RooseveltandthefirstgroupofrepresentativesofmemberStatesmetandsignedadeclarationofcommonintentonNewYear’sDayin1942.RepresentativesoffivepowersworkedtogethertodrawupproposalscompletedatDumbartonOaksin1944.TheseproposalsmodifiedafterdeliberationattheconferenceonInternationalOrganizationinSanFranciscowhichbeganinApril1945werefinallyagreedonandsignedastheU.N.Charterby50countrieson26June1945.PolandnotrepresentedattheconferencesignedtheCharterlaterandwasaddedtothelistoforiginalmembers.ItwasnotuntilthatautumnhoweveraftertheCharterhadbeenratifiedbyChinaFrancetheU.S.S.R.U.theU.K.andtheU.S.andbyamajorityoftheotherparticipantsthattheU.N.officiallycameintoexistence.Thedatewas24OctobernowuniversallycelebratedasUnitedNationsDay. TheessentialfunctionsoftheU.N.aretomaintaininternationalpeaceandsecuritytodevelopfriendlyrelationsamongnationstocooperateinternationallyinsolvinginternationaleconomicsocialculturalandhumanproblemspromotingrespectforhumanrightsandfundamentalfreedomsandtobeacentreforco-ordinatingtheactionsofnationsonattainingthesecommonends. NocountrytakesprecedenceoveranotherintheU.N.Eachmember’srightsandobligationsarethesame.Allmustcontributetothepeacefulsettlementofinternationaldisputeandmembershavepledgedtorefrainfromthethreatoruseofforceagainstotherstates. WhichofthefollowingistrueastotheessentialfunctionsoftheU.N
"UniversalhistorythehistoryofwhatmanhasaccomplishedinthisworldisatbottomtheHistoryoftheGreatMenwhohaveworkedhere"wrotetheVictorianstageThomasCarlyle.Wellnotanymoreitisnot. SuddenlyBritainlookstohavefallenoutwithitsfavouritehistoricalform.Thiscouldbenomorethanapassingliterarycrazebutitalsopointstoabroadertruthabouthowwenowapproachthepast:lessconcernedwithlearningfromforefathersandmoreinterestedinfeelingtheirpain.Todaywewantempathynotinspiration. FromtheearliestdaysoftheRenaissancethewritingofhistorymeantrecountingtheexemplarylivesofgreatmen.In1337PetrarchbeganworkonhisramblingwritingDeVirisIllustribus—OnFamousMenhighlightingthevirtusorvirtueofclassicalheroes.Petrarchcelebratedtheirgreatnessinconqueringfortuneandrisingtothetop.ThiswasthebiographicaltraditionwhichNiccoloMachiavelliturnedonitshead.InThePrincethechampionedcunningruthlessnessandboldnessratherthanvirtuemercyandjusticeastheskillsofsuccessfulleaders. Overtimetheattributesofgreatnessshifted.TheRomanticscommemoratedtheleadingpaintersandauthorsoftheirdaystressingtheuniquenessoftheartist’spersonalexperienceratherthanpublicglory.BycontrasttheVictorianauthorSamualSmileswroteSelf-Helpasacatalogueoftheworthylivesofengineersindustrialistsandexplores."Thevaluableexampleswhichtheyfurnishofthepowerofself-helpifpatientpurposeresoluteworkingandsteadfastintegrityissuingintheformulationoftrulynobleandmanycharacterexhibit"wroteSmiles."whatitisinthepowerofeachtoaccomplishforhimself"HisbiographiesofJamesWaltRichardArkwrightandJosiahWedgwoodwereheldupasbeaconstoguidetheworkingmanthroughhisdifficultlife. ThiswasallabitbourgeoisforThomasCarlylewhofocusedhisbiographiesonthetrulyheroiclivesofMartinLutherOliverCromwellandNapoleonBonaparte.Theseepochalfiguresrepresentedliveshardtoimitatebuttobeacknowledgedaspossessinghigherauthoritythanmeremortals. CommunistManifesto.Forthemhistorydidnothingitpossessednoimmensewealthnorwagedbattles:"Itismanreallivingmanwhodoesallthat."Andhistoryshouldbethestoryofthemassesandtheirrecordofstruggle.Assuchitneededtoappreciatetheeconomicrealitiesthesocialcontextsandpowerrelationsinwhicheachepochstood.For:"Menmaketheirownhistorybuttheydonotmakeitjustastheyplease;theydonotmakeitundercircumstanceschosenbythemselvesbutundercircumstancesdirectlyfoundgivenandtransmittedfromthepast." Thiswasthetraditionwhichrevolutionizedourappreciationofthepast.InplaceofThomasCarlyleBritainnurturedChristopherHillEPThompsonandEricHobsbawm.Historyfrombelowstoodalongsidebiographiesofgreatmen.Wholenewrealmsofunderstanding—fromgendertoracetoculturalstudies—wereopenedupasscholarsunpickedthemultiplicityoflostsocieties.Andittransformedpublichistorytoo:downstairsbecamejustasfascinatingasupstairs. [A]emphasizedthevirtueofclassicalheroes. 41.iPetrarch [B]highlightedthepublicgloryoftheleadingartists. 42.NiccoloMachiavelli [C]focusedonepochalfigureswhoseliveswerehardtoimitate. 43.SamuelSmiles [D]openedupnewrealmsofunderstandingthegreatmeninhistory. 44.ThomasCarlyle [E]heldthathistoryshouldbethestoryofthemassesandtheirrecordofstruggle. 45.MarxandEngels [F]dismissedvirtueasunnecessaryforsuccessfulleaders. [G]depictedtheworthylivesofengineerindustrialistsandexplorers. 44
Directions:Writeanessayof160-200wordsbasedonthefollowingdrawing.Inyouressayyoushould 1describethephotosbriefly 2explainitsintendedmeaningand 3supportyourviewwithanexample/examples. YoushouldwriteneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage".Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter—aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis—theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen—publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces—arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 14
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage".Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter—aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis—theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen—publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces—arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 4
46StudentsofUnitedStateshistoryseekingtoidentifythecircumstancesthatencouragedtheemergenceoffeministmovementshavethoroughlyinvestigatedthemid-nineteenth-centuryAmericaneconomicandsocialconditionsthataffectedthestatusofwomen.Thesehistorinanshoweverhaveanalyzedlessfullythedevelopmentofspecificallyfeministideasandactivitiesduringthesameperiod.47FurthermoretheideologicaloriginsoffeminismintheUnitedStateshavebeenobscuredbecauseevenwhenhistoriansdidtakeintoaccountthosefeministideasandactivitiesoccurringwithintheUnitedStatestheyfailedtorecognizethatfeminismwasthenatrulyinternationalmovementactuallycenteredinEurope.Americanfeministactivistswhohavebeendescribedas"solitary"and"individualtheorists"wereinrealityconnectedtoamovement—utopiansocialism—whichwasalreadypopularizingfeministideasinEuropeduringthetwodecadesthatculminatedinthefirstwomen’srightsconferenceheldatSenecaFallsNewYorkin1848.48Thusacompleteunderstandingoftheoriginsanddevelopmentofnineteenth-centuryfeminismintheUnitedStatesrequiresthatthegeographicalfocusbewidenedtoincludeEuropeandthatthedetailedstudyalreadymadeofsocialconditionsbeexpandedtoincludetheideologicaldevelopmentoffeminism. TheearliestandmostpopularoftheutopiansocialistsweretheSaint-Simonians.ThespecificallyfeministpartofSaint-Simonianismhashoweverbeenlessstudiedthanthegroup’scontributiontoearlysocialism.Thisisregrettableontwocounts.By1832feminismwasthecentralconcernofSaint-Simonianismandentirelyabsorbeditsadherents’energy;hencebyignoringitsfeminismEuropeanhistorianshavemisunderstoodSaint-Simonianism.MoreoversincemanyfeministideascanbetracedtoSaint-SimonianismEuropeanhistorians’appreciationoflaterfeminisminFranceandtheUnitedStatesremainedlimited. 49Saint-Simon’sfollowersmanyofwhomwerewomenbasedtheirfeminismonaninterpretationofhisprojecttoreorganizetheglobebyreplacingbruteforcewiththeruleofspiritualpowers.Thenewworldorderwouldberuledtogetherbyamaletorepresentreflectionandafemaletorepresentsentiment.ThiscomplementarityreflectsthefactthatwhiletheSaint-Simoniansdidnotrejectthebeliefthattherewereinnatedifferencesbetweenmenandwomentheyneverthelessforesawanequallyimportantsocialandpoliticalroleforbothsexesintheirutopia. OnlyafewSaint-Simoniansopposedadefinitionofsexualequalitybasedongenderdistinction.Thisminoritybelievedthatindividualsofbothsexeswerebornsimilarincapacityandcharacterandtheyascribedmale-femaledifferencestosocializationandeducation.50Theenvisionedresultofbothcurrentsofthoughthoweverwasthatwomenwouldenterpubliclifeinthenewageandthatsexualequalitywouldrewardmenaswellaswomenwithanimprovedwayoflife. 50Theenvisionedresultofbothcurrentsofthoughthoweverwasthatwomenwouldenterpubliclifeinthenewageandthatsexualequalitywouldrewardmenaswellaswomenwithanimprovedwayoflife.
TheBushadministrationisabouttoproposefar-reachingnewrulesthatwouldgivepeoplewithdisabilitiesgreateraccesstotensofthousandsofcourtroomsswimmingpoolsgolfcoursesstadiumstheatershotelsandretailstores.TheproposalwouldsubstantiallyupdateandrewritefederalstandardsforenforcementoftheAmericansWithDisabilitiesActalandmarkcivilrightslawpassedwithstrongbipartisansupportin1990.Thenewruleswouldsetmorestringentrequirementsinmanyareasandaddresssomeissuesforthefirsttimeinanefforttomeettheneedsofanagingpopulationandgrowingnumbersofdisabledwarveterans. Morethansevenmillionbusinessesandallstateandlocalgovernmentagencieswouldbeaffected.Theproposalincludessomeexemptionsforpartsofexistingbuildingsbutanynewconstructionorrenovationswouldhavetocomply.Thenewstandardswouldaffecteverythingfromthelocationoflightswitchestotheheightofretailservicecounterstotheuseofmonkeysas"serviceanimals"forpeoplewithdisabilitieswhichwouldbeforbidden’. TheWhiteHouseapprovedtheproposalinMayafterafive-monthreview.ItisscheduledtobepublishedintheFederalRegisteronTuesdaywith60daysforpubliccomment.Afterconsideringthosecommentsthegovernmentwouldissuefinalruleswiththeforceoflaw.Alreadytheproposalisstirringconcern.TheUnitedStatesChamberofCommercesaysitwouldbeonerousandcostlywhileadvocatesfordisabledAmericanssayitdoesnotgofarenough. SincethedisabilitylawwassignedbythefirstPresidentBushadvancesintechnologyhavemadeservicesmoreavailabletopeoplewithdisabilities.ButJusticeDepartmentofficialssaidtheywerestillreceivinglargenumbersofcomplaints.InrecentmonthsthefederalgovernmenthassettledlawsuitssecuringmoreseatsfordisabledfansatMadisonSquareGardeninNewYorkandatthenation’slargestcollegefootballstadiumattheUniversityofMichigan. TheJusticeDepartmentacknowledgedthatsomeofthechangeswouldhavesignificantcosts.Butoverallitsaidthevalueofthepublicbenefitsestimatedat$54billionexceedstheexpectedcostsof$23billion.InaneconomicanalysisoftheproposedrulestheJusticeDepartmentsaidtheneedforanaccessibleenvironmentwasgreaterthaneverbecausetheIraqwarwas"creatinganewgenerationofyoungmenandwomenwithdisabilities".JohnL.WodatchchiefofthedisabilityrightssectionoftheJusticeDepartmentsaid"Disabilityisinherentinthehumancondition.Thevastmajorityofindividualswhoarefortunateenoughtoreachanadvancedagewillbenefitfromtheproposedrequirements. WhatdowelearnabouttheBushadministration’sproposalofnewrules
InoneverylongsentencetheintroductiontotheU.N.CharterexpressestheidealsandthecommonaimsofallthepeoplewhosegovernmentsjoinedtogethertoformtheU.N. "WethepeopleoftheU.N.determinedtosavesucceedinggenerationsfromthescourgeofwarwhichtwiceinourlifetimehasbroughtuntoldsufferingtomankindandtoreaffirmfaithinfundamentalrightsinthedignityandworthofthehumanpersonintheequalrightsofmenandwomenandofnationslargeandsmallandtoestablishconditionsunderwhichjusticeandrespectfortheobligationsarisingfromtreatiesandothersourcesofinternationallawcanbemaintainedandtopromotesocialprogressandbetterstandardsoflifeinlargerfreedomandfortheseendstopractisetoleranceandlivetogetherinpeacewithoneanotherasgoodneighboursandtouniteourstrengthtomaintaininternationalpeaceandsecurityandtoensurebytheacceptanceofprinciplesandtheinstitutionofmethodsthatarmedforceshallnotbeusedsaveinthecommoninterestandtoemployinternationalmachineryforthepromotionofeconomicandsocialadvancementofallpeopleshaveresolvedtocombineoureffortstoaccomplishtheseaims." Thename"UnitedNations"isaccreditedtoU.S.PresidentFranklinD.RooseveltandthefirstgroupofrepresentativesofmemberStatesmetandsignedadeclarationofcommonintentonNewYear’sDayin1942.RepresentativesoffivepowersworkedtogethertodrawupproposalscompletedatDumbartonOaksin1944.TheseproposalsmodifiedafterdeliberationattheconferenceonInternationalOrganizationinSanFranciscowhichbeganinApril1945werefinallyagreedonandsignedastheU.N.Charterby50countrieson26June1945.PolandnotrepresentedattheconferencesignedtheCharterlaterandwasaddedtothelistoforiginalmembers.ItwasnotuntilthatautumnhoweveraftertheCharterhadbeenratifiedbyChinaFrancetheU.S.S.R.U.theU.K.andtheU.S.andbyamajorityoftheotherparticipantsthattheU.N.officiallycameintoexistence.Thedatewas24OctobernowuniversallycelebratedasUnitedNationsDay. TheessentialfunctionsoftheU.N.aretomaintaininternationalpeaceandsecuritytodevelopfriendlyrelationsamongnationstocooperateinternationallyinsolvinginternationaleconomicsocialculturalandhumanproblemspromotingrespectforhumanrightsandfundamentalfreedomsandtobeacentreforco-ordinatingtheactionsofnationsonattainingthesecommonends. NocountrytakesprecedenceoveranotherintheU.N.Eachmember’srightsandobligationsarethesame.Allmustcontributetothepeacefulsettlementofinternationaldisputeandmembershavepledgedtorefrainfromthethreatoruseofforceagainstotherstates. WhatdidPresidentRoosevelthavetodowiththeUnitedNations
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage".Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter—aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis—theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen—publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces—arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 20
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage".Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter—aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis—theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen—publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces—arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 18
OneoftheenduringmythsofAmericanfolkloreisthatJesseJameswasahome-grownRobinHoodwho"stolefromtherichandgavetothepoor"Thatlegendenjoyedarevivedpopularityinthe1960s.Supportedbymoviespulpfictionandevenseriousscholarshipthisimagehasdominatedourunderstandingofthepost-CivilWarJamesgangandotherwesternoutlaws.HistorianshavedescribedJamesasa"primitiverebel"whochampioned"aspecialtypeofpeasantprotestandrebellion"againstmodernizingforcesbyrobbingbanksandrailroads. ButJameshimselfwouldhaveconsideredthisnotionagreatjoke.InfactJames’srobberswentaftertheexpresscompanysafesjustbecausethat’swherethemoneywas.AsfortheRobinHoodthemethereisnoevidencetheJamesgangdidanythingwiththecashtheystoleexcepttospenditonfinehorsefleshandgambling. ThekeytounderstandingthemotivesoftheJamesgang—besidesgreed—istheCivilWarespeciallytheviciousguerrillacombatwithinthelargerwarthatplaguedMissouri.SupportfortheConfederacywasstrongintheLittleDixiecountiesthatflankedtheMissouriRiverjusteastoftheKansasborder.InthesecountieslivedmostofthemenandboyswhowentintothebushasConfederateguerrillasincludingFrankandJesseJames.Theylearnedtheirtradeunderthetutelageofsuchpsychopathickillersas"BloodyBill"AndersonandWilliamClarkeQuantrillwhomurderedscoresofMissouriUnionistsandfoughtitoutwithUnionsoldiersduringfouryearsofinternecinewarfare. Theseguerrillaswereanythingbutthepoorfarmersoffolklore.ManyofthemlikeJamescamefromfamiliesthatwerethreetimesmorelikelytoownslavesandpossessedtwiceasmuchwealthastheaverageMissourifamily.JamesfoughtduringthewaragainstemancipationandafterthewaragainsttheRepublicanPartythatfreedandenfranchisedtheslaves.ManyofthebanksandexpresscompaniesstruckbytheJamesgangwereownedbyindividualsorgroupsassociatedwiththeRepublicanParty.LiketheKuKluxKlaninformerConfederatestatestheJamesgangdiditsbesttounderminetheneworderusheredinbyNorthernvictoryintheCivilWar. WhenDemocratsregainedcontrolofMissouriinthe1870stheJamesganglookedforgreenerpasturesoutsidethestate.InAugust1876theyrodeallthewaytoNorthfieldMinn.withtheaimofrobbingabankthereinwhichaUniongeneralwasreportedtohavedepositedlargefunds.Whenthebankcashier—alsoaUnionveteran—refusedtoopenthevaultJamesshothimincoldblood.ThecitizensofNorthfieldfoughtbackkillingtwoofthebanditsbeforetheycouldfleethetown.JesseandFrankJamesgotawaybutthisaffairwasthebeginningoftheendforJesse’scareerastheself-described"Napoleonofcrime. Whichisthebesttitleofthispassage
46StudentsofUnitedStateshistoryseekingtoidentifythecircumstancesthatencouragedtheemergenceoffeministmovementshavethoroughlyinvestigatedthemid-nineteenth-centuryAmericaneconomicandsocialconditionsthataffectedthestatusofwomen.Thesehistorinanshoweverhaveanalyzedlessfullythedevelopmentofspecificallyfeministideasandactivitiesduringthesameperiod.47FurthermoretheideologicaloriginsoffeminismintheUnitedStateshavebeenobscuredbecauseevenwhenhistoriansdidtakeintoaccountthosefeministideasandactivitiesoccurringwithintheUnitedStatestheyfailedtorecognizethatfeminismwasthenatrulyinternationalmovementactuallycenteredinEurope.Americanfeministactivistswhohavebeendescribedas"solitary"and"individualtheorists"wereinrealityconnectedtoamovement—utopiansocialism—whichwasalreadypopularizingfeministideasinEuropeduringthetwodecadesthatculminatedinthefirstwomen’srightsconferenceheldatSenecaFallsNewYorkin1848.48Thusacompleteunderstandingoftheoriginsanddevelopmentofnineteenth-centuryfeminismintheUnitedStatesrequiresthatthegeographicalfocusbewidenedtoincludeEuropeandthatthedetailedstudyalreadymadeofsocialconditionsbeexpandedtoincludetheideologicaldevelopmentoffeminism. TheearliestandmostpopularoftheutopiansocialistsweretheSaint-Simonians.ThespecificallyfeministpartofSaint-Simonianismhashoweverbeenlessstudiedthanthegroup’scontributiontoearlysocialism.Thisisregrettableontwocounts.By1832feminismwasthecentralconcernofSaint-Simonianismandentirelyabsorbeditsadherents’energy;hencebyignoringitsfeminismEuropeanhistorianshavemisunderstoodSaint-Simonianism.MoreoversincemanyfeministideascanbetracedtoSaint-SimonianismEuropeanhistorians’appreciationoflaterfeminisminFranceandtheUnitedStatesremainedlimited. 49Saint-Simon’sfollowersmanyofwhomwerewomenbasedtheirfeminismonaninterpretationofhisprojecttoreorganizetheglobebyreplacingbruteforcewiththeruleofspiritualpowers.Thenewworldorderwouldberuledtogetherbyamaletorepresentreflectionandafemaletorepresentsentiment.ThiscomplementarityreflectsthefactthatwhiletheSaint-Simoniansdidnotrejectthebeliefthattherewereinnatedifferencesbetweenmenandwomentheyneverthelessforesawanequallyimportantsocialandpoliticalroleforbothsexesintheirutopia. OnlyafewSaint-Simoniansopposedadefinitionofsexualequalitybasedongenderdistinction.Thisminoritybelievedthatindividualsofbothsexeswerebornsimilarincapacityandcharacterandtheyascribedmale-femaledifferencestosocializationandeducation.50Theenvisionedresultofbothcurrentsofthoughthoweverwasthatwomenwouldenterpubliclifeinthenewageandthatsexualequalitywouldrewardmenaswellaswomenwithanimprovedwayoflife. 46StudentsofUnitedStateshistoryseekingtoidentifythecircumstancesthatencouragedtheemergenceoffeministmovementshavethoroughlyinvestigatedthemid-nineteenth-centuryAmericaneconomicandsocialconditionsthataffectedthestatusofwomen.
46StudentsofUnitedStateshistoryseekingtoidentifythecircumstancesthatencouragedtheemergenceoffeministmovementshavethoroughlyinvestigatedthemid-nineteenth-centuryAmericaneconomicandsocialconditionsthataffectedthestatusofwomen.Thesehistorinanshoweverhaveanalyzedlessfullythedevelopmentofspecificallyfeministideasandactivitiesduringthesameperiod.47FurthermoretheideologicaloriginsoffeminismintheUnitedStateshavebeenobscuredbecauseevenwhenhistoriansdidtakeintoaccountthosefeministideasandactivitiesoccurringwithintheUnitedStatestheyfailedtorecognizethatfeminismwasthenatrulyinternationalmovementactuallycenteredinEurope.Americanfeministactivistswhohavebeendescribedas"solitary"and"individualtheorists"wereinrealityconnectedtoamovement—utopiansocialism—whichwasalreadypopularizingfeministideasinEuropeduringthetwodecadesthatculminatedinthefirstwomen’srightsconferenceheldatSenecaFallsNewYorkin1848.48Thusacompleteunderstandingoftheoriginsanddevelopmentofnineteenth-centuryfeminismintheUnitedStatesrequiresthatthegeographicalfocusbewidenedtoincludeEuropeandthatthedetailedstudyalreadymadeofsocialconditionsbeexpandedtoincludetheideologicaldevelopmentoffeminism. TheearliestandmostpopularoftheutopiansocialistsweretheSaint-Simonians.ThespecificallyfeministpartofSaint-Simonianismhashoweverbeenlessstudiedthanthegroup’scontributiontoearlysocialism.Thisisregrettableontwocounts.By1832feminismwasthecentralconcernofSaint-Simonianismandentirelyabsorbeditsadherents’energy;hencebyignoringitsfeminismEuropeanhistorianshavemisunderstoodSaint-Simonianism.MoreoversincemanyfeministideascanbetracedtoSaint-SimonianismEuropeanhistorians’appreciationoflaterfeminisminFranceandtheUnitedStatesremainedlimited. 49Saint-Simon’sfollowersmanyofwhomwerewomenbasedtheirfeminismonaninterpretationofhisprojecttoreorganizetheglobebyreplacingbruteforcewiththeruleofspiritualpowers.Thenewworldorderwouldberuledtogetherbyamaletorepresentreflectionandafemaletorepresentsentiment.ThiscomplementarityreflectsthefactthatwhiletheSaint-Simoniansdidnotrejectthebeliefthattherewereinnatedifferencesbetweenmenandwomentheyneverthelessforesawanequallyimportantsocialandpoliticalroleforbothsexesintheirutopia. OnlyafewSaint-Simoniansopposedadefinitionofsexualequalitybasedongenderdistinction.Thisminoritybelievedthatindividualsofbothsexeswerebornsimilarincapacityandcharacterandtheyascribedmale-femaledifferencestosocializationandeducation.50Theenvisionedresultofbothcurrentsofthoughthoweverwasthatwomenwouldenterpubliclifeinthenewageandthatsexualequalitywouldrewardmenaswellaswomenwithanimprovedwayoflife. 48Thusacompleteunderstandingoftheoriginsanddevelopmentofnineteenth-centuryfeminismintheUnitedStatesrequiresthatthegeographicalfocusbewidenedtoincludeEuropeandthatthedetailedstudyalreadymadeofsocialconditionsbeexpandedtoincludetheideologicaldevelopmentoffeminism.
Thetelecommunicationspharmaceuticalandairlineindustriesallhaveundergoneradicalchangesinrecentyears.Pharmaceuticalcompanieswhichoncesolddrugstothedoctorsthatdispensedthemswitchedtothesolution-sellingmethodandstarteddealingwithhealth-carecompanies.Andmanymajorairlinesconsolidatedatthesametimethatlow-costfirmslikeJetBlueenteredthemarket. Ineachoftheseindustriesthegamechangedandwithnewrulescamenewwaystowin.ThatisthepremiseofHarvardBusinessSchool’s"ChangingtheGame.NegotiationandCompetitiveDecisionMaking."Theprogramwhichcoversnotonlydeal-makingbutalsotopicsasdiverseasonlineauctionsandstrategicpartnerships"isforcompaniesthataregoingthroughfundamentalchangeinthewaythingsaredone"saysMaxBazermanprogramchairandprofessorofbusinessadministrationattheschool. ThisisnotaprogramfornovicessaysBazerman;mostparticipantshavealreadyattendedageneralnegotiationprogram.In"ChangingtheGame"participantslearntounderstandtheirthoughtprocessesregardingnegotiationtocomparerationalandintuitivedecision-makingstrategiesandtoidentifycommonmistakesmadebyeventhemostexperiencedprofessionals.Byfocusingoncompetitiveenvironmentstheprogramdrawsonsomeofthemostadvancedconceptsfromtheemergingareasofbehavioraleconomicsbehavioraldecisionresearchandbehavioralfinance. Participantsengageinsimulatednegotiationsthathighlightthetensionbetweencreatingandassessingvalueandlearnhowtothinkaboutbothsimultaneously.Thesoup-to-nutssimulationsencompasspreparationteambuildingnegotiatingandfeedbackaswellasthedevelopmentofaconceptualstructureforthinkingaboutnegotiationsmorerationally.Participantsthenapplythatstructureintheircritiquesofseverallarge-scalenegotiationcases.Ultimatelyparticipantsapplytheirnewly-honedanalyticskillstotheirowncompaniesandcritiqueofpastnegotiations. Negotiationscantakemanyformsofcourse.Bazermannotesthatauctionsarebecomingincreasinglycommon.Thankstoarenewedfocusondrivingclowncostsauctionshaveemergedasavaluablewayforbuyerstoexertmaximumleveragealthoughthecourseoffersadvicetosellersaswell.Hereagaincourseworkfocusesbothonanalysisofcasestudiesandonsimulationsthatgiveparticipantsachancetorolluptheirsleevesandputthemselvestothetest. "Max’sapproachismorepragmaticthanotherprogramsI’vetaken"saysGerryDullyseniorvicepresidentofglobalmarketingandlogisticsatMethanexaproducerofmethanolbasedinVancouver."LookingatmypriorexperienceIcouldseewhatmistakesImadeandI’mmoreconsciousofthemnow.ThecoursehadaprofoundimpactonhowI’vemodifiedmybehaviorinnegotiatingsituations. WhatisthefocusofHarvardBusinessSchool’strainingprogram
OneoftheenduringmythsofAmericanfolkloreisthatJesseJameswasahome-grownRobinHoodwho"stolefromtherichandgavetothepoor"Thatlegendenjoyedarevivedpopularityinthe1960s.Supportedbymoviespulpfictionandevenseriousscholarshipthisimagehasdominatedourunderstandingofthepost-CivilWarJamesgangandotherwesternoutlaws.HistorianshavedescribedJamesasa"primitiverebel"whochampioned"aspecialtypeofpeasantprotestandrebellion"againstmodernizingforcesbyrobbingbanksandrailroads. ButJameshimselfwouldhaveconsideredthisnotionagreatjoke.InfactJames’srobberswentaftertheexpresscompanysafesjustbecausethat’swherethemoneywas.AsfortheRobinHoodthemethereisnoevidencetheJamesgangdidanythingwiththecashtheystoleexcepttospenditonfinehorsefleshandgambling. ThekeytounderstandingthemotivesoftheJamesgang—besidesgreed—istheCivilWarespeciallytheviciousguerrillacombatwithinthelargerwarthatplaguedMissouri.SupportfortheConfederacywasstrongintheLittleDixiecountiesthatflankedtheMissouriRiverjusteastoftheKansasborder.InthesecountieslivedmostofthemenandboyswhowentintothebushasConfederateguerrillasincludingFrankandJesseJames.Theylearnedtheirtradeunderthetutelageofsuchpsychopathickillersas"BloodyBill"AndersonandWilliamClarkeQuantrillwhomurderedscoresofMissouriUnionistsandfoughtitoutwithUnionsoldiersduringfouryearsofinternecinewarfare. Theseguerrillaswereanythingbutthepoorfarmersoffolklore.ManyofthemlikeJamescamefromfamiliesthatwerethreetimesmorelikelytoownslavesandpossessedtwiceasmuchwealthastheaverageMissourifamily.JamesfoughtduringthewaragainstemancipationandafterthewaragainsttheRepublicanPartythatfreedandenfranchisedtheslaves.ManyofthebanksandexpresscompaniesstruckbytheJamesgangwereownedbyindividualsorgroupsassociatedwiththeRepublicanParty.LiketheKuKluxKlaninformerConfederatestatestheJamesgangdiditsbesttounderminetheneworderusheredinbyNorthernvictoryintheCivilWar. WhenDemocratsregainedcontrolofMissouriinthe1870stheJamesganglookedforgreenerpasturesoutsidethestate.InAugust1876theyrodeallthewaytoNorthfieldMinn.withtheaimofrobbingabankthereinwhichaUniongeneralwasreportedtohavedepositedlargefunds.Whenthebankcashier—alsoaUnionveteran—refusedtoopenthevaultJamesshothimincoldblood.ThecitizensofNorthfieldfoughtbackkillingtwoofthebanditsbeforetheycouldfleethetown.JesseandFrankJamesgotawaybutthisaffairwasthebeginningoftheendforJesse’scareerastheself-described"Napoleonofcrime. Asfortheguerrillawhichistheright
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage".Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter—aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis—theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen—publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces—arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 6
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage".Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter—aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis—theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen—publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces—arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 12
WhenMelissaMahanandherhusbandvisitedtheNetherlandstheyfeltimprisonedbytheirtourbus.Itforcedthemtoseethecityaccordingtoaparticularrouteandspecificschedule--butgoingoffontheirownmeantmissingoutontheinformationprovidedbytheguide.OntheirreturnhometoSanDiegoCaliforniatheystartedanewcompanycalledTourCoupes.NowwhentouristsinSanDiegorentoneoftheirsmallbrightlycolouredthree-wheeledvehiclestheyaretreatedtoanarrationoverthestereosystemabouttheplacestheypasstriggeredbyGlobalPositioningSystemGPSsatellitetechnology. ThisisjustoneexampleofhowGPSisbeingusedtoprovidenewservicestotourists."Whatwereallyhavehereisatechnologythatallowspeopletoforgetaboutthetechnology"saysJimCarrierofIntelliToursaGPStourismfirmwhichbeganofferingasimilarserviceoverayearagoinMontgomeryAlabama.ThecityispackedwithsitesassociatedwithtwoimportantchaptersinAmericanhistorythecivilwarofthe1860sandthecivil-rightsmovementacenturylater.Montgomeryhasa120-year-oldtrolleysystemcalledtheLightningRoutewhichcirculatesaroundthedowntownareaandismainlyusedbytourists.OntheLightningRoutetrolleysGPS-triggeredaudioclipspointouthistoricalhotspots. OtherfirmssuchasCityShowinNewYorkandGPSToursCanadainBanffCanadaofferhand-heldGPSreceiversthatplayaudioclipsforlisteningtowhilewalkingordriving.InSouthAfricaEuropcaracar-rentalfirmoffersadevicecalledtheXplorer.Aswellasprovidingcommentaryon2000pointsofinterestitcanalsowarndriversiftheyexceedthelocalspeedlimit. Ifsuchservicesprovepopulartheuseofdedicatedaudio-guidedevicescouldgivewaytoadifferentapproach.Agrowingnumberofmobilephoneshavebuilt-inGPSorcandeterminetheirlocationsusingothertechnologies.Informationfortouristsdeliveredviaphonescouldbeupdatedinrealtimeandcouldcontainadvertisements."Location-basedservices"suchastheabilitytocallupalistofnearbybanksorpizzeriashavebeentalkedaboutforyearsbuthavenevertakenoff.Butaimingsuchservicesattouristsmakessense--sincepeoplearemorelikelytowantinformationwheninanunfamiliarplace.Itcouldgivemobileroamingawholenewmeaning. Whichofthefollowingistrueofthetext
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage".Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter—aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis—theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen—publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces—arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 10
OneoftheenduringmythsofAmericanfolkloreisthatJesseJameswasahome-grownRobinHoodwho"stolefromtherichandgavetothepoor"Thatlegendenjoyedarevivedpopularityinthe1960s.Supportedbymoviespulpfictionandevenseriousscholarshipthisimagehasdominatedourunderstandingofthepost-CivilWarJamesgangandotherwesternoutlaws.HistorianshavedescribedJamesasa"primitiverebel"whochampioned"aspecialtypeofpeasantprotestandrebellion"againstmodernizingforcesbyrobbingbanksandrailroads. ButJameshimselfwouldhaveconsideredthisnotionagreatjoke.InfactJames’srobberswentaftertheexpresscompanysafesjustbecausethat’swherethemoneywas.AsfortheRobinHoodthemethereisnoevidencetheJamesgangdidanythingwiththecashtheystoleexcepttospenditonfinehorsefleshandgambling. ThekeytounderstandingthemotivesoftheJamesgang—besidesgreed—istheCivilWarespeciallytheviciousguerrillacombatwithinthelargerwarthatplaguedMissouri.SupportfortheConfederacywasstrongintheLittleDixiecountiesthatflankedtheMissouriRiverjusteastoftheKansasborder.InthesecountieslivedmostofthemenandboyswhowentintothebushasConfederateguerrillasincludingFrankandJesseJames.Theylearnedtheirtradeunderthetutelageofsuchpsychopathickillersas"BloodyBill"AndersonandWilliamClarkeQuantrillwhomurderedscoresofMissouriUnionistsandfoughtitoutwithUnionsoldiersduringfouryearsofinternecinewarfare. Theseguerrillaswereanythingbutthepoorfarmersoffolklore.ManyofthemlikeJamescamefromfamiliesthatwerethreetimesmorelikelytoownslavesandpossessedtwiceasmuchwealthastheaverageMissourifamily.JamesfoughtduringthewaragainstemancipationandafterthewaragainsttheRepublicanPartythatfreedandenfranchisedtheslaves.ManyofthebanksandexpresscompaniesstruckbytheJamesgangwereownedbyindividualsorgroupsassociatedwiththeRepublicanParty.LiketheKuKluxKlaninformerConfederatestatestheJamesgangdiditsbesttounderminetheneworderusheredinbyNorthernvictoryintheCivilWar. WhenDemocratsregainedcontrolofMissouriinthe1870stheJamesganglookedforgreenerpasturesoutsidethestate.InAugust1876theyrodeallthewaytoNorthfieldMinn.withtheaimofrobbingabankthereinwhichaUniongeneralwasreportedtohavedepositedlargefunds.Whenthebankcashier—alsoaUnionveteran—refusedtoopenthevaultJamesshothimincoldblood.ThecitizensofNorthfieldfoughtbackkillingtwoofthebanditsbeforetheycouldfleethetown.JesseandFrankJamesgotawaybutthisaffairwasthebeginningoftheendforJesse’scareerastheself-described"Napoleonofcrime. Fromthefirstparagraphwecanknowthat
Thetelecommunicationspharmaceuticalandairlineindustriesallhaveundergoneradicalchangesinrecentyears.Pharmaceuticalcompanieswhichoncesolddrugstothedoctorsthatdispensedthemswitchedtothesolution-sellingmethodandstarteddealingwithhealth-carecompanies.Andmanymajorairlinesconsolidatedatthesametimethatlow-costfirmslikeJetBlueenteredthemarket. Ineachoftheseindustriesthegamechangedandwithnewrulescamenewwaystowin.ThatisthepremiseofHarvardBusinessSchool’s"ChangingtheGame.NegotiationandCompetitiveDecisionMaking."Theprogramwhichcoversnotonlydeal-makingbutalsotopicsasdiverseasonlineauctionsandstrategicpartnerships"isforcompaniesthataregoingthroughfundamentalchangeinthewaythingsaredone"saysMaxBazermanprogramchairandprofessorofbusinessadministrationattheschool. ThisisnotaprogramfornovicessaysBazerman;mostparticipantshavealreadyattendedageneralnegotiationprogram.In"ChangingtheGame"participantslearntounderstandtheirthoughtprocessesregardingnegotiationtocomparerationalandintuitivedecision-makingstrategiesandtoidentifycommonmistakesmadebyeventhemostexperiencedprofessionals.Byfocusingoncompetitiveenvironmentstheprogramdrawsonsomeofthemostadvancedconceptsfromtheemergingareasofbehavioraleconomicsbehavioraldecisionresearchandbehavioralfinance. Participantsengageinsimulatednegotiationsthathighlightthetensionbetweencreatingandassessingvalueandlearnhowtothinkaboutbothsimultaneously.Thesoup-to-nutssimulationsencompasspreparationteambuildingnegotiatingandfeedbackaswellasthedevelopmentofaconceptualstructureforthinkingaboutnegotiationsmorerationally.Participantsthenapplythatstructureintheircritiquesofseverallarge-scalenegotiationcases.Ultimatelyparticipantsapplytheirnewly-honedanalyticskillstotheirowncompaniesandcritiqueofpastnegotiations. Negotiationscantakemanyformsofcourse.Bazermannotesthatauctionsarebecomingincreasinglycommon.Thankstoarenewedfocusondrivingclowncostsauctionshaveemergedasavaluablewayforbuyerstoexertmaximumleveragealthoughthecourseoffersadvicetosellersaswell.Hereagaincourseworkfocusesbothonanalysisofcasestudiesandonsimulationsthatgiveparticipantsachancetorolluptheirsleevesandputthemselvestothetest. "Max’sapproachismorepragmaticthanotherprogramsI’vetaken"saysGerryDullyseniorvicepresidentofglobalmarketingandlogisticsatMethanexaproducerofmethanolbasedinVancouver."LookingatmypriorexperienceIcouldseewhatmistakesImadeandI’mmoreconsciousofthemnow.ThecoursehadaprofoundimpactonhowI’vemodifiedmybehaviorinnegotiatingsituations. TheChangingtheGameprogramemphasizes
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage".Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter—aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis—theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen—publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces—arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 2
TheBushadministrationisabouttoproposefar-reachingnewrulesthatwouldgivepeoplewithdisabilitiesgreateraccesstotensofthousandsofcourtroomsswimmingpoolsgolfcoursesstadiumstheatershotelsandretailstores.TheproposalwouldsubstantiallyupdateandrewritefederalstandardsforenforcementoftheAmericansWithDisabilitiesActalandmarkcivilrightslawpassedwithstrongbipartisansupportin1990.Thenewruleswouldsetmorestringentrequirementsinmanyareasandaddresssomeissuesforthefirsttimeinanefforttomeettheneedsofanagingpopulationandgrowingnumbersofdisabledwarveterans. Morethansevenmillionbusinessesandallstateandlocalgovernmentagencieswouldbeaffected.Theproposalincludessomeexemptionsforpartsofexistingbuildingsbutanynewconstructionorrenovationswouldhavetocomply.Thenewstandardswouldaffecteverythingfromthelocationoflightswitchestotheheightofretailservicecounterstotheuseofmonkeysas"serviceanimals"forpeoplewithdisabilitieswhichwouldbeforbidden’. TheWhiteHouseapprovedtheproposalinMayafterafive-monthreview.ItisscheduledtobepublishedintheFederalRegisteronTuesdaywith60daysforpubliccomment.Afterconsideringthosecommentsthegovernmentwouldissuefinalruleswiththeforceoflaw.Alreadytheproposalisstirringconcern.TheUnitedStatesChamberofCommercesaysitwouldbeonerousandcostlywhileadvocatesfordisabledAmericanssayitdoesnotgofarenough. SincethedisabilitylawwassignedbythefirstPresidentBushadvancesintechnologyhavemadeservicesmoreavailabletopeoplewithdisabilities.ButJusticeDepartmentofficialssaidtheywerestillreceivinglargenumbersofcomplaints.InrecentmonthsthefederalgovernmenthassettledlawsuitssecuringmoreseatsfordisabledfansatMadisonSquareGardeninNewYorkandatthenation’slargestcollegefootballstadiumattheUniversityofMichigan. TheJusticeDepartmentacknowledgedthatsomeofthechangeswouldhavesignificantcosts.Butoverallitsaidthevalueofthepublicbenefitsestimatedat$54billionexceedstheexpectedcostsof$23billion.InaneconomicanalysisoftheproposedrulestheJusticeDepartmentsaidtheneedforanaccessibleenvironmentwasgreaterthaneverbecausetheIraqwarwas"creatinganewgenerationofyoungmenandwomenwithdisabilities".JohnL.WodatchchiefofthedisabilityrightssectionoftheJusticeDepartmentsaid"Disabilityisinherentinthehumancondition.Thevastmajorityofindividualswhoarefortunateenoughtoreachanadvancedagewillbenefitfromtheproposedrequirements. Whichofthefollowingstatementbestsummarizesthetext
It’ssevenweeksintothenewyear.DoyouknowwhereyourresolutionisIfyou’relikemillionsofAmericansyouprobablyvowedtoloseweightquitsmokinganddrinklessinthenewyear.YoukickedoffJanuarywithacommitmenttolong-termwell-being--untilyoucameface-to-facewithacheeseburger.Youspentabundleonashinynewgympass.Turnsoutitwasn’treasonenoughforyoutoactuallyusethegym. Peoplecanmakepoordecisionswhenitcomestohealth--despitetheirbestintentions.It’snoteasyabidingbywholesomechoicesgivingupFrenchfrieswhentheconsequencesofnotdoingsoheartdiseaseseemsofarinthefuture.Mostpeoplearebadatjudgingtheirhealthrisks:smokersgenerallyknowcigarettescausecancerbuttheyalsotendtobelievethey’relesslikelythanothersmokerstogetit.Andasanysnack-lovingdietercanattestpeoplecanbecomicallyineptatpredictingtheirfuture.behavior.Youswearyouwilleatjustonepotatochipbutdon’tstopuntilthebagisempty. SowhatdoesittaketomotivatepeopletosticktothepathsetbytheirconsciousbrainHowcangoodchoicesbemadetoseemmoreappealingthanbadonesTheproblemstumpsdoctorspublic-healthofficialsandweight-lossexpertsbutonesolutionmayspringfromanunlikelysource.Meetyournewpersonaltrainer:yourboss. Americanbusinesseshaveaparticularinterestinpersonalhealthsinceworkerillnesscoststhembillionseachyearininsuranceclaimssickdaysandhighstaffturnover.A2008surveyofmajorUSemployersfoundthat64%considertheiremployees’poorhealthdecisionsaseriousbarriertoaffordableinsurancecoverage.Nowsomecompaniesaretacklingthemotivationproblemheadonusingtacticsdrawnfrombehavioralpsychologytonudgetheiremployeestogethealthy. "It’sabitparadoxicalthatemployersneedtoprovideincentivesforpeopletoimprovetheirownhealth"saysMichaelFollickabehavioralpsychologistatBrownUniversityandpresidentoftheconsultancyAbacusEmployerHealthSolutions. Paradoxicalmaybebuteffective.ConsiderAmicaMutualInsurancebasedinRhodeIsland.Arnicaseemedtobedoingeverythingright:itboastsanon-sitefitnesscenteratitsheadquarters.ItpaystowardWeightWatchersandsmoking-cessationhelpgivesgiftcardstorewardproperprenatalcareandoffersfreeflushotseachyear.Stillinthemid-2000sabout7%ofthecompany’sinsuredpopulationincludingroughly3100employeesandtheirdependentshaddiabetes."Wemanagerisk.That’sourcorebusiness"saysScottBoydAmica’sdirectorofcompensationandbenefits.Butdiabetes-relatedclaimsfromArnicaemployeeshaddoubledinfouryears."WethoughtOK"Boydsaysnow"wehavetomanagethesehigh-riskgroupsalittlebetter. Whichofthefollowingwouldbethebesttitleforthetext
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