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Theories of social control focus on the strategies and techniques which help regulate human behav...
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PartCDirections:Readthefollowingtextcarefullyan
PartCDirections:Readthefollowingtextcarefullyan
Manytheoriesconcerningthecausesofjuveniledelinquen
Theoriesofsocialcontrolfocusonthestrategiesandt
PartCDirections:Readthefollowingtextcarefullyan
Theoriesofsocialcontrolfocusonthestrategiesandt
PartCDirections:Readthefollowingtextcarefullyan
Theoriesofsocialcontrolfocusonthestrategiesandt
PartCDirections:Readthefollowingtextcarefullyan
Theoriesofsocialcontrolfocusonthestrategiesandt
Manytheoriesconcerningthecausesofjuveniledelinquen
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Humanshavealteredtheworld’sclimateby1heat-trappinggasessincealmostthebeginningofcivilizationandevenpreventedthestartofaniceageseveralthousandyearsagoascientistsaid. Mostscientists2arise3globaltemperaturesoverthepastcentury4toemissionsofcarbondioxide5humanactivitieslikedrivingcarsandoperatingfactories. Dr.WilliamRuddimanaprofessorattheUniversityofVirginiasaidatameetingoftheAmericanGeophysicalUnion6humans’effect7climatewentbacknearly10000years8peoplegaveuphuntingandgatheringandbeganfarming. InacommentaryaccompanyingthearticleDr.ThomasJ.CrowleyofDukeUniversitysaidhe9Dr.Ruddiman’spremiseatfirst."ButwhenIstartedreadingDr.Crowleywrote"Icouldnothelpbut10whetherhejustmightbe11something." Theclimateofthelast10000yearshasbeenunusuallystable12civilizationtoflourish.ButthatisonlybecausepeoplechoppeddownswathsofforestinEuropeChinaandIndiaforcroplandsandpastures.Carbondioxide13bythedestructionoftheforestsplusmethaneanotherheat-trappinggas14byirrigatedricefieldsinSoutheastAsiatrappedenoughheatto15anexpectednaturalcooling. Levelsofcarbondioxideandmethaneriseandfallinnaturalcycles16thousandsofyearsandbothreachedapeakattheendofthelasticeage11;000yearsago.Boththendeclined17expected. Both18decliningthroughthepresentdayleadingtolowertemperaturesandanewiceageshouldhavebegun4000to5000yearsagoDr.Ruddimansaid.Insteadlevelsofcarbondioxidereversed8000wearsago.Thedecline19methanelevelsreversed5000yearsago20withtheadventofirrigationricefarming. 17
46Technologyhasmadeiteasytocrossnationalfrontiersphysicallybuttherehasbeennoinventionofnewmentalhabitstoenablepeopletocopewithforeignersinanewway.Forthattohappenthehabitsoftouristswillhavetoalter.ThehiddengodoftravelisstillKarlBaedekereventhoughhediedin1859.Hisguidebookshaveapermanentpatternmakingtravelessentiallyamatterofsightseeinglookingatplacesratherthanatpeople.47Hisachievementwastofindsightsthatcouldbeguaranteedtobethereallthetimetobeclearlyidentifiabledatedandclassifiedaccordingtotheamountofadmirationtheydeserved.Hemadevisitstooldmonumentsandtoartmuseums--thestapledietofthetravelerdrawingattentionawayfromthelivinginhabitants.Tothisdaytourismisacourseinhistoryarchitectureaestheticsandtheappreciationofhotelsandfood.48Thecultof"sights"hasgrownsomuchthatmostforeignorganizedtravelinvolvesvirtuallynocontactwiththenativesbeyondthosewhospecializeincateringfortourists.Thebusinesstravelertendstomeetmainlypeopleinhisownprofession.HowdifferentfromtheitineraryofamodernpackageholidayisthisprogramdrawnupbyanEnglishmanSirFrancisHeadin1852beforetheguidebookstoldtouristswhattodo.InParishevisitedthemunicipalpawnshoptheasylumforblindyouthswhereBraillestillunknowninEnglandwasbeingusedaprisonanorphanageforabandonedchildrentheSalpetriereoldpeople’shomethemorguethenationalprintingworksthemilitaryacademythenationalassemblythepubliclaundryandfinallyheattended/helecturesattheConservatoryforArtsandCrafts.Theriseofbureaucraticofficialdomsoonstoppedthatkindofcuriosity;butperhapstodayanewopennesswillallowittoexpressitselfagain.Informertimestheattractionofforeigntravelwasoftenthatpeopledidabroadwhattheydarednotdoathomewhichisshyforeigncountrieswonreputationsforsexualdebauchery.TheFrenchconsideredEnglandasdebauchedastheEnglishvisitorstotheFoliesBergeresimaginedtheFrenchtobe.49ButnowthatavisittoFranceisnolongeradangerousadventureandthataninternationaluniformityexistsinsomanyofthegoodsandfacilitiesthetouristencounterswhereistheexcitementandwherearethenewdiscoveries Itistobefoundinthepeople.50Theforeignnessinforeigntraveltodaymustcomemainlyfrommeetingindividualswhomonewouldnotnormallymeetathome. 49ButnowthatavisittoFranceisnolongeradangerousadventureandthataninternationaluniformityexistsinsomanyofthegoodsandfacilitiesthetouristencounterswhereistheexcitementandwherearethenewdiscoveries
Humanshavealteredtheworld’sclimateby1heat-trappinggasessincealmostthebeginningofcivilizationandevenpreventedthestartofaniceageseveralthousandyearsagoascientistsaid. Mostscientists2arise3globaltemperaturesoverthepastcentury4toemissionsofcarbondioxide5humanactivitieslikedrivingcarsandoperatingfactories. Dr.WilliamRuddimanaprofessorattheUniversityofVirginiasaidatameetingoftheAmericanGeophysicalUnion6humans’effect7climatewentbacknearly10000years8peoplegaveuphuntingandgatheringandbeganfarming. InacommentaryaccompanyingthearticleDr.ThomasJ.CrowleyofDukeUniversitysaidhe9Dr.Ruddiman’spremiseatfirst."ButwhenIstartedreadingDr.Crowleywrote"Icouldnothelpbut10whetherhejustmightbe11something." Theclimateofthelast10000yearshasbeenunusuallystable12civilizationtoflourish.ButthatisonlybecausepeoplechoppeddownswathsofforestinEuropeChinaandIndiaforcroplandsandpastures.Carbondioxide13bythedestructionoftheforestsplusmethaneanotherheat-trappinggas14byirrigatedricefieldsinSoutheastAsiatrappedenoughheatto15anexpectednaturalcooling. Levelsofcarbondioxideandmethaneriseandfallinnaturalcycles16thousandsofyearsandbothreachedapeakattheendofthelasticeage11;000yearsago.Boththendeclined17expected. Both18decliningthroughthepresentdayleadingtolowertemperaturesandanewiceageshouldhavebegun4000to5000yearsagoDr.Ruddimansaid.Insteadlevelsofcarbondioxidereversed8000wearsago.Thedecline19methanelevelsreversed5000yearsago20withtheadventofirrigationricefarming. 11
AttheendofthefifteenthcenturycelestialnavigationwasjustbeingdevelopedinEuropeprimarilybythePortuguese.Priortothedevelopmentofcelestialnavigationsailorsnavigatedby"deduced"or"dead"reckoninghereaftercalledDR.ThiswasthemethodusedbyColumbusandmostothersailorsofhisera.InDRthenavigatorfindshispositionbymeasuringthecourseanddistancehehassailedfromsomeknownpoint.Startingfromaknownpointsuchasaportthenavigatormeasuresouthiscourseanddistancefromthatpointonachartprickingthechartwithapintomarkthenewposition.Eachday’sendingpositionwouldbethestartingpointforthenextday’scourse-and-distancemeasurement. 41._______________________. Theship’sspeedwasmeasuredbythrowingapieceofflotsamoverthesideoftheship.Thereweretwomarksontheship’srailameasureddistanceapart.Whentheflotsampassedtheforwardmarkthepilotwouldstartaquickchantandwhenitpassedtheaftmarkthepilotwouldstopchanting.Thepilotwouldnotethelastsyllablereachedinthechantandhehadamnemonicthatwouldconvertthatsyllableintoaspeedinmilesperhour.Thismethodwouldnotworkwhentheshipwasmovingveryslowlysincethechantwouldnmtotheendbeforetheflotsamhadreachedtheaftmark. 42.____________________. Columbuswasthefirstsailorthatweknowofwhokeptadetailedlogofhisvoyagesbutonlythelogofthefirstvoyagesurvivesinanydetail.ItisbytheserecordsthatweknowhowColumbusnavigatedandhowweknowthathewasprimarilyaDRnavigator. 43.___________________.IfColumbushadbeenacelestialnavigatorwewouldexpecttoseecontinuousrecordsofcelestialobservations;butColumbus’slogdoesnotshowsuchrecordsduringeitherofthetransatlanticportionsofthefirstvoyage. IthasbeensupposedbysomescholarsthatColumbuswasacelestialnavigatoranywayandwasusingunrecordedcelestialchecksonhislatitudeashesailedwestonhisfirstvoyage.44.______________________InotherwordsifColumbuswereacelestialnavigatorwewouldexpecttoseeasenseofsmallintermittentcoursecorrectionsinordertostayatacelestiallydeterminedlatitude.Thesecorrectionsshouldoccurabouteverythreeorfourdaysperhapsmoreoften. Butthatisnotwhatthelogshows.45.________________.OnlythreetimesdoesColumbusdepartfromthiscourse:oncebecauseofcontrarywindsandtwicetochasefalsesignsoflandsouthwest.Innoneofthesecasesdoesheshowanydesiretoreturntoacelestially-determinedlatitude.Thisargumentisakillerforthecelestialhypothesis. [A]SinceDRisdependentuponcontinuousmeasurementsofcourseanddistancesailedweshouldexpectthatanylogkeptbyaDRnavigatorwouldhavetheserecords;andthisisexactlywhatColumbus’sloglookslike. [B]Onhisreturnvoyagein1493ColumbusstartedfromSamariaBayonthenorthcoastofHispaniolaandhemadelandfallatSantaMariaIslandintheAzores.WeknowhisentireDRcoursesanddistancesbetweenthesetwopointssincethey’rerecordedinhislog. [C]Inorderforthismethodtoworkthenavigatorneedsawaytomeasurehiscourseandawaytomeasurethedistancesailed.Coursewasmeasuredbyamagneticcompass.Distancewasdeterminedbyatimeandspeedcalculation:thenavigatormultipliedthespeedofthevesselinmilesperhourbythetimetraveledtogetthedistance. [D]OnthefirstvoyagewestboundColumbussticksdoggedlytohismagneticwestwardcourseforweeksatatime. [E]CouldColumbushascorrectedhiscompassesbycheckingthemagainstthestarsandthusavoidstheneedforcoursecorrectionsThiswouldhavebeenpossibleintheorybutweknowthatColumbuscouldnothaveactuallydonethis. [F]Speedanddistancewasmeasuredeveryhour.Theofficerofthewatchwouldkeeptrackofthespeedandcoursesailedeveryhourbyusingapeg-boardwithholesradiatingfromthecenteralongeverypointofthecompass.Thepegwasmovedfromthecenteralongthecoursetraveledforthedistancemadeduringthathour.Afterfourhoursanotherpegwasusedtorepresentthedistancemadegoodinleaguesduringthewholewatch.Attheendofthedaythetotaldistanceandcourseforthedaywastransferredtothechart. [G]Inthatcaseasmagneticvariationpulledhiscoursesouthwardfromtruewesthewouldhavenoticedthediscrepancyfromhiscelestialobservationsandhewouldhavecorrectedit. 43
Directions: YouboughtanewcolorTVsetmadeinGuangdongbutitisinpoorquality.Youwanttowritealettertothestoreandhavethesetrepairedorchanged.Yourlettershouldcoverthefollowingpoints: Youshouldwriteabout100wordsonANSWERSHEET2.Donotsignupyourownnameattheendoftheletter.Use"LiMing"instead.Youdonotneedtowritetheaddress.10points
Text1 Itisknownthatthebrainshrinksasthebodyagesbuttheeffectsonmentalabilityaredifferentfrompersontoperson:Interestinglyinastudyofelderlymenandwomenthosewhohadmoreeducationactuallyhadmorebrainshrinkage"Thatmayseemlikebadnews"saidstudyauthorDr.EdwardCoffeyaprofessorofpsychiatryandneurologyatHenryFordHealthSysteminDetroit.Howeverheexplainedthefindingsuggeststhateducationallowspeopletowithstandmorebrain-tissuelossbeforetheirmentalfunctioningbeginstobreakdown.Thestudyisthefirsttoprovidebiologicalevidencetosupportaconceptcalledthe"reserve"hypothesisaccordingtotheresearchers.Inrecentyearsinvestigatorshavedevelopedtheideathatpeoplewhoaremoreeducatedhavegreatercognitivereservestodrawuponasthebrainages;inessencetheyhavemorebraintissuetospare. Examiningbrainscansof320healthymenandwomenages66to90researchersfoundthatforeachyearofeducationthesubjectshadtherewasgreatershrinkageoftheouterlayerofthebrainknownasthecortex.Yetontestsofcognitionandmemoryallparticipantsscoredintherangeindicatingnormal."Everyonehassomedegreeofbrainshrinkage"Coffeysaid."Peoplelose2.5percentperdecadestartinginadulthood."Thereishowevera"remarkablerange"ofshrinkageamongpeoplewhoshownosignsofmentaldeclineCoffeynoted.Overallhealthhesaidaccountsforsomedifferencesinbrainsize.Alcoholordraguseaswellasmedicalconditionssuchasdiabetesandhighbloodpressurecontributetobrain-tissuelossthroughoutadulthood.IntheabsenceofsuchmedicalconditionsCoffeysaideducationlevelhelpsexplaintherangeofbrainshrinkageexhibitedamongthementally-fitelderly.Themore-educatedcanwithstandgreaterloss.Coffeyandcolleaguesgaugedshrinkageofthecortexbymeasuringthecerebrospinalfluidsurroundingthebrain.Thegreatertheamountoffluidthegreaterthecorticalshrinkage. Controllingforthehealthfactorsthatcontributetobraininjurytheresearchersfoundthateducationwasrelatedtotheseverityofbrainshrinkage.Foreachyearofeducationfromfirstgradeonsubjectshadanaverageof1.77millilitersmorecerebrospinalfluidaroundthebrain.ForexampleCoffey’steamreportedamongsubjectsofthesamesexandsimilarageandskullsizethosewith16yearsofeducationhad8to10percentmorecerebrospinalfluidcomparedwiththosewhohadfouryearsofschooling.Ofcourseachievingaparticulareducationlevelisnotthedefinitivemeasureofsomeone’smentalcapacity.AndsaidCoffeyeducationcanbe"aproxyformanythings"More-educatedpeoplehenotedareoftenlesslikelytohavehabitssuchassmokingthatharmoverallhealth. ButCoffeysaidthatpeopleshouldstrivethroughoutlifetokeeptheirbrainsalertbyexposingthemselvestonewexperiences.Travelingisonewaytostimulatethebrainandalessadventuresomewayistodocrosswordpuzzles. WhichofthefollowingmayNOTbethewaytokeepbrainsalert
Humanshavealteredtheworld’sclimateby1heat-trappinggasessincealmostthebeginningofcivilizationandevenpreventedthestartofaniceageseveralthousandyearsagoascientistsaid. Mostscientists2arise3globaltemperaturesoverthepastcentury4toemissionsofcarbondioxide5humanactivitieslikedrivingcarsandoperatingfactories. Dr.WilliamRuddimanaprofessorattheUniversityofVirginiasaidatameetingoftheAmericanGeophysicalUnion6humans’effect7climatewentbacknearly10000years8peoplegaveuphuntingandgatheringandbeganfarming. InacommentaryaccompanyingthearticleDr.ThomasJ.CrowleyofDukeUniversitysaidhe9Dr.Ruddiman’spremiseatfirst."ButwhenIstartedreadingDr.Crowleywrote"Icouldnothelpbut10whetherhejustmightbe11something." Theclimateofthelast10000yearshasbeenunusuallystable12civilizationtoflourish.ButthatisonlybecausepeoplechoppeddownswathsofforestinEuropeChinaandIndiaforcroplandsandpastures.Carbondioxide13bythedestructionoftheforestsplusmethaneanotherheat-trappinggas14byirrigatedricefieldsinSoutheastAsiatrappedenoughheatto15anexpectednaturalcooling. Levelsofcarbondioxideandmethaneriseandfallinnaturalcycles16thousandsofyearsandbothreachedapeakattheendofthelasticeage11;000yearsago.Boththendeclined17expected. Both18decliningthroughthepresentdayleadingtolowertemperaturesandanewiceageshouldhavebegun4000to5000yearsagoDr.Ruddimansaid.Insteadlevelsofcarbondioxidereversed8000wearsago.Thedecline19methanelevelsreversed5000yearsago20withtheadventofirrigationricefarming. 3
AttheendofthefifteenthcenturycelestialnavigationwasjustbeingdevelopedinEuropeprimarilybythePortuguese.Priortothedevelopmentofcelestialnavigationsailorsnavigatedby"deduced"or"dead"reckoninghereaftercalledDR.ThiswasthemethodusedbyColumbusandmostothersailorsofhisera.InDRthenavigatorfindshispositionbymeasuringthecourseanddistancehehassailedfromsomeknownpoint.Startingfromaknownpointsuchasaportthenavigatormeasuresouthiscourseanddistancefromthatpointonachartprickingthechartwithapintomarkthenewposition.Eachday’sendingpositionwouldbethestartingpointforthenextday’scourse-and-distancemeasurement. 41._______________________. Theship’sspeedwasmeasuredbythrowingapieceofflotsamoverthesideoftheship.Thereweretwomarksontheship’srailameasureddistanceapart.Whentheflotsampassedtheforwardmarkthepilotwouldstartaquickchantandwhenitpassedtheaftmarkthepilotwouldstopchanting.Thepilotwouldnotethelastsyllablereachedinthechantandhehadamnemonicthatwouldconvertthatsyllableintoaspeedinmilesperhour.Thismethodwouldnotworkwhentheshipwasmovingveryslowlysincethechantwouldnmtotheendbeforetheflotsamhadreachedtheaftmark. 42.____________________. Columbuswasthefirstsailorthatweknowofwhokeptadetailedlogofhisvoyagesbutonlythelogofthefirstvoyagesurvivesinanydetail.ItisbytheserecordsthatweknowhowColumbusnavigatedandhowweknowthathewasprimarilyaDRnavigator. 43.___________________.IfColumbushadbeenacelestialnavigatorwewouldexpecttoseecontinuousrecordsofcelestialobservations;butColumbus’slogdoesnotshowsuchrecordsduringeitherofthetransatlanticportionsofthefirstvoyage. IthasbeensupposedbysomescholarsthatColumbuswasacelestialnavigatoranywayandwasusingunrecordedcelestialchecksonhislatitudeashesailedwestonhisfirstvoyage.44.______________________InotherwordsifColumbuswereacelestialnavigatorwewouldexpecttoseeasenseofsmallintermittentcoursecorrectionsinordertostayatacelestiallydeterminedlatitude.Thesecorrectionsshouldoccurabouteverythreeorfourdaysperhapsmoreoften. Butthatisnotwhatthelogshows.45.________________.OnlythreetimesdoesColumbusdepartfromthiscourse:oncebecauseofcontrarywindsandtwicetochasefalsesignsoflandsouthwest.Innoneofthesecasesdoesheshowanydesiretoreturntoacelestially-determinedlatitude.Thisargumentisakillerforthecelestialhypothesis. [A]SinceDRisdependentuponcontinuousmeasurementsofcourseanddistancesailedweshouldexpectthatanylogkeptbyaDRnavigatorwouldhavetheserecords;andthisisexactlywhatColumbus’sloglookslike. [B]Onhisreturnvoyagein1493ColumbusstartedfromSamariaBayonthenorthcoastofHispaniolaandhemadelandfallatSantaMariaIslandintheAzores.WeknowhisentireDRcoursesanddistancesbetweenthesetwopointssincethey’rerecordedinhislog. [C]Inorderforthismethodtoworkthenavigatorneedsawaytomeasurehiscourseandawaytomeasurethedistancesailed.Coursewasmeasuredbyamagneticcompass.Distancewasdeterminedbyatimeandspeedcalculation:thenavigatormultipliedthespeedofthevesselinmilesperhourbythetimetraveledtogetthedistance. [D]OnthefirstvoyagewestboundColumbussticksdoggedlytohismagneticwestwardcourseforweeksatatime. [E]CouldColumbushascorrectedhiscompassesbycheckingthemagainstthestarsandthusavoidstheneedforcoursecorrectionsThiswouldhavebeenpossibleintheorybutweknowthatColumbuscouldnothaveactuallydonethis. [F]Speedanddistancewasmeasuredeveryhour.Theofficerofthewatchwouldkeeptrackofthespeedandcoursesailedeveryhourbyusingapeg-boardwithholesradiatingfromthecenteralongeverypointofthecompass.Thepegwasmovedfromthecenteralongthecoursetraveledforthedistancemadeduringthathour.Afterfourhoursanotherpegwasusedtorepresentthedistancemadegoodinleaguesduringthewholewatch.Attheendofthedaythetotaldistanceandcourseforthedaywastransferredtothechart. [G]Inthatcaseasmagneticvariationpulledhiscoursesouthwardfromtruewesthewouldhavenoticedthediscrepancyfromhiscelestialobservationsandhewouldhavecorrectedit. 41
Humanshavealteredtheworld’sclimateby1heat-trappinggasessincealmostthebeginningofcivilizationandevenpreventedthestartofaniceageseveralthousandyearsagoascientistsaid. Mostscientists2arise3globaltemperaturesoverthepastcentury4toemissionsofcarbondioxide5humanactivitieslikedrivingcarsandoperatingfactories. Dr.WilliamRuddimanaprofessorattheUniversityofVirginiasaidatameetingoftheAmericanGeophysicalUnion6humans’effect7climatewentbacknearly10000years8peoplegaveuphuntingandgatheringandbeganfarming. InacommentaryaccompanyingthearticleDr.ThomasJ.CrowleyofDukeUniversitysaidhe9Dr.Ruddiman’spremiseatfirst."ButwhenIstartedreadingDr.Crowleywrote"Icouldnothelpbut10whetherhejustmightbe11something." Theclimateofthelast10000yearshasbeenunusuallystable12civilizationtoflourish.ButthatisonlybecausepeoplechoppeddownswathsofforestinEuropeChinaandIndiaforcroplandsandpastures.Carbondioxide13bythedestructionoftheforestsplusmethaneanotherheat-trappinggas14byirrigatedricefieldsinSoutheastAsiatrappedenoughheatto15anexpectednaturalcooling. Levelsofcarbondioxideandmethaneriseandfallinnaturalcycles16thousandsofyearsandbothreachedapeakattheendofthelasticeage11;000yearsago.Boththendeclined17expected. Both18decliningthroughthepresentdayleadingtolowertemperaturesandanewiceageshouldhavebegun4000to5000yearsagoDr.Ruddimansaid.Insteadlevelsofcarbondioxidereversed8000wearsago.Thedecline19methanelevelsreversed5000yearsago20withtheadventofirrigationricefarming. 1
AttheendofthefifteenthcenturycelestialnavigationwasjustbeingdevelopedinEuropeprimarilybythePortuguese.Priortothedevelopmentofcelestialnavigationsailorsnavigatedby"deduced"or"dead"reckoninghereaftercalledDR.ThiswasthemethodusedbyColumbusandmostothersailorsofhisera.InDRthenavigatorfindshispositionbymeasuringthecourseanddistancehehassailedfromsomeknownpoint.Startingfromaknownpointsuchasaportthenavigatormeasuresouthiscourseanddistancefromthatpointonachartprickingthechartwithapintomarkthenewposition.Eachday’sendingpositionwouldbethestartingpointforthenextday’scourse-and-distancemeasurement. 41._______________________. Theship’sspeedwasmeasuredbythrowingapieceofflotsamoverthesideoftheship.Thereweretwomarksontheship’srailameasureddistanceapart.Whentheflotsampassedtheforwardmarkthepilotwouldstartaquickchantandwhenitpassedtheaftmarkthepilotwouldstopchanting.Thepilotwouldnotethelastsyllablereachedinthechantandhehadamnemonicthatwouldconvertthatsyllableintoaspeedinmilesperhour.Thismethodwouldnotworkwhentheshipwasmovingveryslowlysincethechantwouldnmtotheendbeforetheflotsamhadreachedtheaftmark. 42.____________________. Columbuswasthefirstsailorthatweknowofwhokeptadetailedlogofhisvoyagesbutonlythelogofthefirstvoyagesurvivesinanydetail.ItisbytheserecordsthatweknowhowColumbusnavigatedandhowweknowthathewasprimarilyaDRnavigator. 43.___________________.IfColumbushadbeenacelestialnavigatorwewouldexpecttoseecontinuousrecordsofcelestialobservations;butColumbus’slogdoesnotshowsuchrecordsduringeitherofthetransatlanticportionsofthefirstvoyage. IthasbeensupposedbysomescholarsthatColumbuswasacelestialnavigatoranywayandwasusingunrecordedcelestialchecksonhislatitudeashesailedwestonhisfirstvoyage.44.______________________InotherwordsifColumbuswereacelestialnavigatorwewouldexpecttoseeasenseofsmallintermittentcoursecorrectionsinordertostayatacelestiallydeterminedlatitude.Thesecorrectionsshouldoccurabouteverythreeorfourdaysperhapsmoreoften. Butthatisnotwhatthelogshows.45.________________.OnlythreetimesdoesColumbusdepartfromthiscourse:oncebecauseofcontrarywindsandtwicetochasefalsesignsoflandsouthwest.Innoneofthesecasesdoesheshowanydesiretoreturntoacelestially-determinedlatitude.Thisargumentisakillerforthecelestialhypothesis. [A]SinceDRisdependentuponcontinuousmeasurementsofcourseanddistancesailedweshouldexpectthatanylogkeptbyaDRnavigatorwouldhavetheserecords;andthisisexactlywhatColumbus’sloglookslike. [B]Onhisreturnvoyagein1493ColumbusstartedfromSamariaBayonthenorthcoastofHispaniolaandhemadelandfallatSantaMariaIslandintheAzores.WeknowhisentireDRcoursesanddistancesbetweenthesetwopointssincethey’rerecordedinhislog. [C]Inorderforthismethodtoworkthenavigatorneedsawaytomeasurehiscourseandawaytomeasurethedistancesailed.Coursewasmeasuredbyamagneticcompass.Distancewasdeterminedbyatimeandspeedcalculation:thenavigatormultipliedthespeedofthevesselinmilesperhourbythetimetraveledtogetthedistance. [D]OnthefirstvoyagewestboundColumbussticksdoggedlytohismagneticwestwardcourseforweeksatatime. [E]CouldColumbushascorrectedhiscompassesbycheckingthemagainstthestarsandthusavoidstheneedforcoursecorrectionsThiswouldhavebeenpossibleintheorybutweknowthatColumbuscouldnothaveactuallydonethis. [F]Speedanddistancewasmeasuredeveryhour.Theofficerofthewatchwouldkeeptrackofthespeedandcoursesailedeveryhourbyusingapeg-boardwithholesradiatingfromthecenteralongeverypointofthecompass.Thepegwasmovedfromthecenteralongthecoursetraveledforthedistancemadeduringthathour.Afterfourhoursanotherpegwasusedtorepresentthedistancemadegoodinleaguesduringthewholewatch.Attheendofthedaythetotaldistanceandcourseforthedaywastransferredtothechart. [G]Inthatcaseasmagneticvariationpulledhiscoursesouthwardfromtruewesthewouldhavenoticedthediscrepancyfromhiscelestialobservationsandhewouldhavecorrectedit. 45
[A]Humanpopulationgrowthad&morepressuresonland. [B]Differentfactorsplayroleinlanddegradation. [C]Whatislandconversion [D]Theprotectedareascannotescapefromthedestruction. [E]Thelandconversionprocessesinstages. [F]Thelandconversionhasagreatimpactonnature. Theprojectionsofspecieslossbydeforestationlurkanumberofcrucialbuthard-to-plotvariablesamongwhichtwoareespeciallyweightycontinuinglandscapeconversionandthegrowthcurveofhumanpopulation. 41._______. Landscapeconversioncanmeanmanyrings:drainingwetlandstobraidroadsandairportsturningtallgrassprairiesundertheplowfencingsavannaandovergrazingitwithdomesticstockcuttingsecond-growthforestinVermontandconsigningthelandtoskiresortsorvacationsuburbsslash-and-burnclearingofMadagasar’srainforesttogrowriceonwethillsidesindustrialloggingonBorenotomeetJapaneseplywooddemands. 42.______. TheecologistJonTerborghandacolleagueCarelP.vanSchaikhavedescribedafour-stageprocessoflandscapeconversionthattheycalltheland-usecascade.Thesuccessivestagesare.1wildlandsencompassingnationalfloralandfaunalcommunitiesalteredlittleornotatallbyhumanimpact;2extensivelyusedareassuchasnaturalgrasslandslightlygrazedsavannakeptopenforpreyanimalsbyinfrequenthuman-setfiresorforestssparselyworkedbyslash-and-bumfarmersatlowdensity;3intensivelyusedareasmeaningcropriel&plantationsvillagecommonstravelcorridorsurbanandindustrialzones;4degradedlandformerlyusefulbutnowabusedbeyondvaluetoanybody. 43._______. Amongallformsoflandscapeconversionpushingtropicalforestsfromthewildlandscategorytotheintensivelyusedcategoryhasthegreatestimpactonbiologicaldiversity.YoucanseeitinthecentralAmazonwherebigtractsofrainforesthavebeenfelledandburnedinalargelyfutileattempttopasturecattleonsun-hardenedclay.Bythemiddleofthenextcenturyifthetrendcontinuestropical’forestwillexistvirtuallynowhereoutsideofprotectedareas--thatisnationalpark’wildliferefugesandotherofficialreserves. 44.______. Humanpopulationgrowthwillmakeabadsituationworsebyputtingevermorepressureonallavailableland.Theannualincreaseisnow80millionpeoplewithmostofthatincrementcominginlessdevelopedcountries.AccordingtoU.N.’smiddleestimatehumanpopulationwillrisefromthepresent5.9billionto9.4billionbytheyear2050.Anyoneinterestedinthefutureofbiologicaldiversityneedstothinkaboutthepressuresthesepeoplewillfaceandthepressurestheywillexertinreturn. 45._______. Thatdirectionnecessarilywillbetowardevermoredesperateexploitationoflandscape.EvenNoah’sarkonlymanagestorescuepairedanimalsnotlargeparcelsofhabitats.Thejeopardyoftheecologicalfragmentsthatwepresentlycherishasparksrefugesandreservesisalreadysevereduetointernalandexternalforcesinternalbecauseinsularityitselfleadstoecologicalunraveling;andexternalbecausethoseareasarestillundersiegebyneedyandcovetouspeople.Projectedforwardintoafutureof10.8billionhumansthatjeopardyincreasestothepointofimpossibility. Weshouldn’ttakecomfortinassumingthatat.leasttheparksandreserveslikeYellowstoneNationalParkwillstillharborgrizzlybearsintheyear2150.Thosepredatorpopulationsandotherspeciesdownthecascadearelikelytodisappear."Wildness"willbeawordapplicableonlytourbanturmoil.Lionstigersandbearswillexistinzoos.Naturewon’tcometoanendbutitwilllookverydifferent. 43
Text1 Itisknownthatthebrainshrinksasthebodyagesbuttheeffectsonmentalabilityaredifferentfrompersontoperson:Interestinglyinastudyofelderlymenandwomenthosewhohadmoreeducationactuallyhadmorebrainshrinkage"Thatmayseemlikebadnews"saidstudyauthorDr.EdwardCoffeyaprofessorofpsychiatryandneurologyatHenryFordHealthSysteminDetroit.Howeverheexplainedthefindingsuggeststhateducationallowspeopletowithstandmorebrain-tissuelossbeforetheirmentalfunctioningbeginstobreakdown.Thestudyisthefirsttoprovidebiologicalevidencetosupportaconceptcalledthe"reserve"hypothesisaccordingtotheresearchers.Inrecentyearsinvestigatorshavedevelopedtheideathatpeoplewhoaremoreeducatedhavegreatercognitivereservestodrawuponasthebrainages;inessencetheyhavemorebraintissuetospare. Examiningbrainscansof320healthymenandwomenages66to90researchersfoundthatforeachyearofeducationthesubjectshadtherewasgreatershrinkageoftheouterlayerofthebrainknownasthecortex.Yetontestsofcognitionandmemoryallparticipantsscoredintherangeindicatingnormal."Everyonehassomedegreeofbrainshrinkage"Coffeysaid."Peoplelose2.5percentperdecadestartinginadulthood."Thereishowevera"remarkablerange"ofshrinkageamongpeoplewhoshownosignsofmentaldeclineCoffeynoted.Overallhealthhesaidaccountsforsomedifferencesinbrainsize.Alcoholordraguseaswellasmedicalconditionssuchasdiabetesandhighbloodpressurecontributetobrain-tissuelossthroughoutadulthood.IntheabsenceofsuchmedicalconditionsCoffeysaideducationlevelhelpsexplaintherangeofbrainshrinkageexhibitedamongthementally-fitelderly.Themore-educatedcanwithstandgreaterloss.Coffeyandcolleaguesgaugedshrinkageofthecortexbymeasuringthecerebrospinalfluidsurroundingthebrain.Thegreatertheamountoffluidthegreaterthecorticalshrinkage. Controllingforthehealthfactorsthatcontributetobraininjurytheresearchersfoundthateducationwasrelatedtotheseverityofbrainshrinkage.Foreachyearofeducationfromfirstgradeonsubjectshadanaverageof1.77millilitersmorecerebrospinalfluidaroundthebrain.ForexampleCoffey’steamreportedamongsubjectsofthesamesexandsimilarageandskullsizethosewith16yearsofeducationhad8to10percentmorecerebrospinalfluidcomparedwiththosewhohadfouryearsofschooling.Ofcourseachievingaparticulareducationlevelisnotthedefinitivemeasureofsomeone’smentalcapacity.AndsaidCoffeyeducationcanbe"aproxyformanythings"More-educatedpeoplehenotedareoftenlesslikelytohavehabitssuchassmokingthatharmoverallhealth. ButCoffeysaidthatpeopleshouldstrivethroughoutlifetokeeptheirbrainsalertbyexposingthemselvestonewexperiences.Travelingisonewaytostimulatethebrainandalessadventuresomewayistodocrosswordpuzzles. WhichofthefollowingisNOTmentionedinthetextasoneofthefactorsthatmayinfluencebrainshrinkage
Text3 ForyearsI.O.C.CzarJuanAntonioSamaranchhasexhibitedapronouncedambivalenceaboutdruguseandcertainlyhisstancehasallowedanumberofgoldenboysandgirlstokeeptheirimagesshinywhiledoping.Carefulathletescaneasilybeatthesystemthatisinplacetocatchdrugabusers.Unscrupuloussportsfederationscantailortestingschedulesandtipofftheirconstituents.Steroidcreamscanbeflushedfromthesystemin24to48hours.AndforsomeofthemostcommonlyusedenhancerssuchaserythropoietinEPOtherearestillnoinstitutionalizedteats.ItissaidthatEPOwhichincreasesstaminabyboostinganathlete’sredbloodcellcountcanimproveanathlete’sperformanceina20-minmnby30sec.butitisotherwiseanightmareofadrug.OverdoseonEPOandthebloodbecomestoothickforthehearttopump.EPOisbelievedtobetheculpritinnofewerthan25mysteriousdeathsamongworld-classcyclistssince1987. ButathleteswilltakeEPOinSydneybecausetheycanandsomeofthemwilltaketoomuchofit.In1995Olympic--caliberU.S.athleteswereaskedinapoll"Wouldyoutakeadrugthatmadeyouachampionknowingthatitwouldkillyouinfiveyears"morethanhalfsaidyes.SoevenifweforgetaboutfairplayandcredibilityandOlympicidealsweareleftwiththis:theathletesmustbeprotectedfromthemselvesarmthepressuretowin.How TheI.O’.C.needstodotwothingsimmediately:developaspineandfederalize.Theonlywaytocatchacheatiswithunannouncedout-of-competitiontesting.HistoricallytheI.O.C.hasdelegateddecisionmakingtoindividualsportsfederationsbutthatpolicyisnotworkingwhenitcomestodrags.Athirdofthe28federationshaveyettoagreetoout-of-competitiontestsinadvanceoftheSydneyGames.TheI.O.C.shouldcallanemergencysessionandmakeanewruleapplyingtoallsportsthensendoutitsnewlyempoweredtesters. AsforthatimperfecttestforEPO-useitanyway.AsgoldmedalmarathonerFrankShorternowchairmanoftheU.S.Anti-Doping’Agencysaysknowingatestisloomingthatwillknockcheatersoffstride.ShortersaysthatifthereisnoEPOtestatSydneytheneveryenduranceorstrengthperformanceissuspect.He’sright.Andwhensportbecomessuspect--whennoonebelievesinit--it’snolongerworthwatching. AccordingtothepassagewhichofthefollowingisTRUE
46Thejobofraisingchildrenisatoughone.Childrendon’tcomewithaninstructionmanual.Andeachchildisdifferent.Soparentssometimespulltheirhairoutinfrustrationnotknowingwhattodo.Butinraisingchildren--asinalloflife--whatwedoisinfluencedbyourculture.NaturallythenAmericanparentsteachtheirchildrenbasicAmericanvalues. ToAmericansthegoalofparentsistohelpchildrenstandontheirowntwofeet.Frominfancyeachchildmaygethisorherownroom.Aschildrengrowtheygainmorefreedomtdmaketheirownchoices.Teenagerschoosetheirownformsofentertainmentaswellasthefriendstosharethemwith.Whentheyreachyoungadulthoodtheychoosetheirowncareersandmarriagepartners.Ofcoursemanyyoungadultsstillseektheirparents’adviceandapprovalforthechoicestheymake.47Butoncethey"leavethenest"ataround18to21yearsoldtheywanttobeontheirownnot"tiedtotheirmother’sapronstrings." 48TherelationshipbetweenparentsandchildreninAmericaisveryinformal.Americanparentstrytotreattheirchildrenasindividuals--notasextensionsofthemselves.Theyallowthemtofulfilltheirowndreams.Americanspraiseandencouragetheirchildrentogivethemtheconfidencetosucceed.Whenchildrenbecomeadultstheirrelationshipwiththeirparentsbecomesmorelikeafriendshipamongequals.ButcontrarytopopularbeliefmostadultAmericansdon’tmaketheirparentspayforroomandboardwhentheycometovisit.Evenasadultstheyrespectandhonortheirparents. Mostyoungcoupleswithchildrenstrugglewiththeissueofchildcare.Mothershavetraditionallystayedhomewiththeirchildren.InrecentyearsthoughagrowingtrendistoputpreschoolersinadaycarecentersothatMomcanwork.49ManyAmericanshavestrongfeelingsaboutwhichtypeofarrangementisbest.Somearguethatattendingadaycarecentercanbeapositiveexperienceforchildren.Othersinsistthatmothersarethebestcaregiversforchildren.Anumberofwomenarenowleavingtheworkforcetobecomefull-timehomemakers. 50Beingaparentisatallorder.Ittakespatiencelovewisdomcourageandagoodsenseofhumortoraisechildrenandnotloseyoursanity.Somepeoplearejustdecidingnottohavechildrenatallsincethey’renotsureit’sworthit.Butraisingchildrenmeanstrainingthenextgenerationandpreservingourculture.Whatcouldbeworthmorethanthat 49ManyAmericanshavestrongfeelingsaboutwhichtypeofarrangementisbest.Somearguethatattendingadaycarecentercanbeapositiveexperienceforchildren.Othersinsistthatmothersarethebestcaregiversforchildren.
Humanshavealteredtheworld’sclimateby1heat-trappinggasessincealmostthebeginningofcivilizationandevenpreventedthestartofaniceageseveralthousandyearsagoascientistsaid. Mostscientists2arise3globaltemperaturesoverthepastcentury4toemissionsofcarbondioxide5humanactivitieslikedrivingcarsandoperatingfactories. Dr.WilliamRuddimanaprofessorattheUniversityofVirginiasaidatameetingoftheAmericanGeophysicalUnion6humans’effect7climatewentbacknearly10000years8peoplegaveuphuntingandgatheringandbeganfarming. InacommentaryaccompanyingthearticleDr.ThomasJ.CrowleyofDukeUniversitysaidhe9Dr.Ruddiman’spremiseatfirst."ButwhenIstartedreadingDr.Crowleywrote"Icouldnothelpbut10whetherhejustmightbe11something." Theclimateofthelast10000yearshasbeenunusuallystable12civilizationtoflourish.ButthatisonlybecausepeoplechoppeddownswathsofforestinEuropeChinaandIndiaforcroplandsandpastures.Carbondioxide13bythedestructionoftheforestsplusmethaneanotherheat-trappinggas14byirrigatedricefieldsinSoutheastAsiatrappedenoughheatto15anexpectednaturalcooling. Levelsofcarbondioxideandmethaneriseandfallinnaturalcycles16thousandsofyearsandbothreachedapeakattheendofthelasticeage11;000yearsago.Boththendeclined17expected. Both18decliningthroughthepresentdayleadingtolowertemperaturesandanewiceageshouldhavebegun4000to5000yearsagoDr.Ruddimansaid.Insteadlevelsofcarbondioxidereversed8000wearsago.Thedecline19methanelevelsreversed5000yearsago20withtheadventofirrigationricefarming. 13
Text4 NowthatthedamageinflictedbytheAsianfinancialcrisislookslikeitwascausedbyaneconomicneutronbomb.Thecrisishashurtgreatnumbersofpeoplebuthasleft.themainstructuresoftheworldeconomystanding.Theworstofthedirectimpactmaybeover.Manyofthehardest-hitcountriesareontheroadtorecoveryfinancial"contagion"hasbeencontainedandworldeconomicgrowthseemssettopickupsoon. Themostimportantdevelopmenthoweverisanon-event:thecollapseofglobalcapitalismhasnotoccurred.Insteadthepost-crisisworldislikelytobeevenmoremarket-orientedthantheonethatprecededitwithaproliferationofnewrulesandpracticesthatwillhelpmarketstooperatemoresmoothly.ThecountriesrecoveringbestsuchasThailandandSouthKoreaaredoingsobymovingfurtherinafree-marketdirection.Noneoftheaffectednationshastriedtoisolateitselffromtheglobaleconomyandthewidelyfearedworldwidewaveofprotectionismhasnotyetmaterialized. Norhastherebeenthegreatrethinkingofeconomicglobalizationthatsomefearedandothersadvocated.Thecriticsofglobalcapitalismpouncedonthecrisisasproofofglobalization’sfatalflaws.Theiranalysesoftenconcludedthat"theremustbeSomethingbetter."Onthecontraryeconomistshavetakenfree-marketprinciplesasthestartingpointfornewideasnotcalledthemintoquestion. Therehasbeenmuchcriticismoftheso-calledWashingtonconsensus--thetraditionalfree-marketorthodoxythatuniformlyprescribesfiscaldisciplinederegulationandfinancialliberalization.Partlyasaresultofthecrisisanewconsensussimplyaddsextraprescriptions--suchasbetterfinancialsupervisionlabormarketetc.--tothelist.Itisanelaborationoftheoriginalconsensusnotanewdeparture. Numerousstudiesalsoshowthatengagementintheglobaleconomyleadstohighergrowthandhelpstoreducepovertyindevelopingcountries.Today’seconomicargumentsarenotoverfundamentalfree-marketpoliciesbutwhatmustbedonetosupplementthem.Likewise.theeffortstodeviseanew"internationalfinancialarchitecture"inthewakeofthecrisisduetocontinueduringthespringmeetingsoftheWorldBankandtheInternationalMonetaryFundinWashingtonwillnotinvolverebuildingthesystemfromscratch.Theaimistomakeincrementalimprovementsinfinancialrulesandpracticesthatwilloilthewheelsofthemarketsystemnottotradeitinforanon-existentnewmodel. Whatisthemainideaofthefirstparagraph
Text2 Virtuallyeverycompanywithacomputerisvulnerabletocomputerabusecrimeandaccident.Securityofthecomputerandoftheinformationandassetscontainedwithinitarethereforeofparamountimportancetomanagement.Skilledcomputercriminalscanbreakintoacomputersystemfarmoreeasilythananarmedrobbercangainaccesstoabankvaultandusuallywithfarlessriskofapprehensionandpunishment.Aslightchangeinacomplexprogramcanbringaboutthemisappropriationofthousandsofpounds.Accidentalerasureofcrucialdatacanparalysecompany’soperations.Anyonefamiliarwiththenecessaryprocedurecangainaccesstoinformationstoredinthecomputernomatterhowconfidentialandutilizeitforhisownpurposes. Althoughtheactualextentofcomputercrimeisdifficulttomeasuremostexpertsagreethatitisoneofthefastestgrowingareasofillegalactivity.Theprincipalreasonforboththegrowthandthelackofaccuratemeasurementisthedifficultyindetectingawell-executedtheft.Lossesperincidentthustendtobehigherthaninothertypesoftheft.OncetheComputercriminalhascompromisedthesystemitisjustaseasytostealagreatsumasitistostealalittleandtocontinuestealinglongaftertheinitialtheft.Indeedthecomputercriminalmayfinditmoredifficulttostophisillicitactivitythantostartit. Computercriminalsareforthemostpartwell-educatedandhighlyintelligent.Thefactthatcomputercriminalsdonotfitcriminalstereotypeshelpsthemtoobtainthepositionstheyrequiretocarryoutcrimes.Beingintelligenttheyhavefertileimaginationsandthevarietyofwaysinwhichtheyuseequipmenttotheiradvantagesisconstantlybeingextended.Inadditiontodirecttheftoffundsthetheftofdataforcorporateespionageorextortionisbecomingwidespreadandcanobviouslyhaveasubstantialeffectonacompany’sfinances.Anotherlucrativeschemeoftendifficulttodetectinvolvesaccumulatingfractionsofpencefromindividualpayrollaccountswithelectronictransferoftheaccumulatedamounttothecriminal’spayroll.Employersarehardlyconcernedwithpencemuchlessfractionsofpence.Inadditionundoubtedlythecompany’spayrollisunaffected.Butthecumulativevalueoffractionsofpenceperemployeeinacompanywithasubstantialpayrollcanadduptoausefulgain. Guardingagainstcomputerabuse--whetherdeliberateoraccidental--involvesattentiontotheprotectionofhardwarefromphysicaldamageaswellasprotectionofsoftwareanddata.Computermustbeisolatedfromothercompanyfacilitiesandunauthorizedpersonshouldneverbeadmittedtothecomputerarea.Eventthoughsomerisksarereducedthroughthismeasuremostdamagetosoftwareaccidentalandintentionaliscausedbythosewhosejobsrequireatleastsomeaccesstothecomputer.Thewriteroftheprogramisoftentheoneresponsibleforitsmisuse.Programsdevisedexclusivelyforaparticularcompanyarethereforefarmorevaluabletoabuseandaccidentthanstandardsoftwarepackagesproducedbyexternalsuppliers. Computercriminalschooseaccumulatingfractionsofpencefromindividualpayrollaccountsbecause
Humanshavealteredtheworld’sclimateby1heat-trappinggasessincealmostthebeginningofcivilizationandevenpreventedthestartofaniceageseveralthousandyearsagoascientistsaid. Mostscientists2arise3globaltemperaturesoverthepastcentury4toemissionsofcarbondioxide5humanactivitieslikedrivingcarsandoperatingfactories. Dr.WilliamRuddimanaprofessorattheUniversityofVirginiasaidatameetingoftheAmericanGeophysicalUnion6humans’effect7climatewentbacknearly10000years8peoplegaveuphuntingandgatheringandbeganfarming. InacommentaryaccompanyingthearticleDr.ThomasJ.CrowleyofDukeUniversitysaidhe9Dr.Ruddiman’spremiseatfirst."ButwhenIstartedreadingDr.Crowleywrote"Icouldnothelpbut10whetherhejustmightbe11something." Theclimateofthelast10000yearshasbeenunusuallystable12civilizationtoflourish.ButthatisonlybecausepeoplechoppeddownswathsofforestinEuropeChinaandIndiaforcroplandsandpastures.Carbondioxide13bythedestructionoftheforestsplusmethaneanotherheat-trappinggas14byirrigatedricefieldsinSoutheastAsiatrappedenoughheatto15anexpectednaturalcooling. Levelsofcarbondioxideandmethaneriseandfallinnaturalcycles16thousandsofyearsandbothreachedapeakattheendofthelasticeage11;000yearsago.Boththendeclined17expected. Both18decliningthroughthepresentdayleadingtolowertemperaturesandanewiceageshouldhavebegun4000to5000yearsagoDr.Ruddimansaid.Insteadlevelsofcarbondioxidereversed8000wearsago.Thedecline19methanelevelsreversed5000yearsago20withtheadventofirrigationricefarming. 9
Text3 ForyearsI.O.C.CzarJuanAntonioSamaranchhasexhibitedapronouncedambivalenceaboutdruguseandcertainlyhisstancehasallowedanumberofgoldenboysandgirlstokeeptheirimagesshinywhiledoping.Carefulathletescaneasilybeatthesystemthatisinplacetocatchdrugabusers.Unscrupuloussportsfederationscantailortestingschedulesandtipofftheirconstituents.Steroidcreamscanbeflushedfromthesystemin24to48hours.AndforsomeofthemostcommonlyusedenhancerssuchaserythropoietinEPOtherearestillnoinstitutionalizedteats.ItissaidthatEPOwhichincreasesstaminabyboostinganathlete’sredbloodcellcountcanimproveanathlete’sperformanceina20-minmnby30sec.butitisotherwiseanightmareofadrug.OverdoseonEPOandthebloodbecomestoothickforthehearttopump.EPOisbelievedtobetheculpritinnofewerthan25mysteriousdeathsamongworld-classcyclistssince1987. ButathleteswilltakeEPOinSydneybecausetheycanandsomeofthemwilltaketoomuchofit.In1995Olympic--caliberU.S.athleteswereaskedinapoll"Wouldyoutakeadrugthatmadeyouachampionknowingthatitwouldkillyouinfiveyears"morethanhalfsaidyes.SoevenifweforgetaboutfairplayandcredibilityandOlympicidealsweareleftwiththis:theathletesmustbeprotectedfromthemselvesarmthepressuretowin.How TheI.O’.C.needstodotwothingsimmediately:developaspineandfederalize.Theonlywaytocatchacheatiswithunannouncedout-of-competitiontesting.HistoricallytheI.O.C.hasdelegateddecisionmakingtoindividualsportsfederationsbutthatpolicyisnotworkingwhenitcomestodrags.Athirdofthe28federationshaveyettoagreetoout-of-competitiontestsinadvanceoftheSydneyGames.TheI.O.C.shouldcallanemergencysessionandmakeanewruleapplyingtoallsportsthensendoutitsnewlyempoweredtesters. AsforthatimperfecttestforEPO-useitanyway.AsgoldmedalmarathonerFrankShorternowchairmanoftheU.S.Anti-Doping’Agencysaysknowingatestisloomingthatwillknockcheatersoffstride.ShortersaysthatifthereisnoEPOtestatSydneytheneveryenduranceorstrengthperformanceissuspect.He’sright.Andwhensportbecomessuspect--whennoonebelievesinit--it’snolongerworthwatching. Whatistheexpressionknockcheatersoffstridemean
Humanshavealteredtheworld’sclimateby1heat-trappinggasessincealmostthebeginningofcivilizationandevenpreventedthestartofaniceageseveralthousandyearsagoascientistsaid. Mostscientists2arise3globaltemperaturesoverthepastcentury4toemissionsofcarbondioxide5humanactivitieslikedrivingcarsandoperatingfactories. Dr.WilliamRuddimanaprofessorattheUniversityofVirginiasaidatameetingoftheAmericanGeophysicalUnion6humans’effect7climatewentbacknearly10000years8peoplegaveuphuntingandgatheringandbeganfarming. InacommentaryaccompanyingthearticleDr.ThomasJ.CrowleyofDukeUniversitysaidhe9Dr.Ruddiman’spremiseatfirst."ButwhenIstartedreadingDr.Crowleywrote"Icouldnothelpbut10whetherhejustmightbe11something." Theclimateofthelast10000yearshasbeenunusuallystable12civilizationtoflourish.ButthatisonlybecausepeoplechoppeddownswathsofforestinEuropeChinaandIndiaforcroplandsandpastures.Carbondioxide13bythedestructionoftheforestsplusmethaneanotherheat-trappinggas14byirrigatedricefieldsinSoutheastAsiatrappedenoughheatto15anexpectednaturalcooling. Levelsofcarbondioxideandmethaneriseandfallinnaturalcycles16thousandsofyearsandbothreachedapeakattheendofthelasticeage11;000yearsago.Boththendeclined17expected. Both18decliningthroughthepresentdayleadingtolowertemperaturesandanewiceageshouldhavebegun4000to5000yearsagoDr.Ruddimansaid.Insteadlevelsofcarbondioxidereversed8000wearsago.Thedecline19methanelevelsreversed5000yearsago20withtheadventofirrigationricefarming. 19
[A]Humanpopulationgrowthad&morepressuresonland. [B]Differentfactorsplayroleinlanddegradation. [C]Whatislandconversion [D]Theprotectedareascannotescapefromthedestruction. [E]Thelandconversionprocessesinstages. [F]Thelandconversionhasagreatimpactonnature. Theprojectionsofspecieslossbydeforestationlurkanumberofcrucialbuthard-to-plotvariablesamongwhichtwoareespeciallyweightycontinuinglandscapeconversionandthegrowthcurveofhumanpopulation. 41._______. Landscapeconversioncanmeanmanyrings:drainingwetlandstobraidroadsandairportsturningtallgrassprairiesundertheplowfencingsavannaandovergrazingitwithdomesticstockcuttingsecond-growthforestinVermontandconsigningthelandtoskiresortsorvacationsuburbsslash-and-burnclearingofMadagasar’srainforesttogrowriceonwethillsidesindustrialloggingonBorenotomeetJapaneseplywooddemands. 42.______. TheecologistJonTerborghandacolleagueCarelP.vanSchaikhavedescribedafour-stageprocessoflandscapeconversionthattheycalltheland-usecascade.Thesuccessivestagesare.1wildlandsencompassingnationalfloralandfaunalcommunitiesalteredlittleornotatallbyhumanimpact;2extensivelyusedareassuchasnaturalgrasslandslightlygrazedsavannakeptopenforpreyanimalsbyinfrequenthuman-setfiresorforestssparselyworkedbyslash-and-bumfarmersatlowdensity;3intensivelyusedareasmeaningcropriel&plantationsvillagecommonstravelcorridorsurbanandindustrialzones;4degradedlandformerlyusefulbutnowabusedbeyondvaluetoanybody. 43._______. Amongallformsoflandscapeconversionpushingtropicalforestsfromthewildlandscategorytotheintensivelyusedcategoryhasthegreatestimpactonbiologicaldiversity.YoucanseeitinthecentralAmazonwherebigtractsofrainforesthavebeenfelledandburnedinalargelyfutileattempttopasturecattleonsun-hardenedclay.Bythemiddleofthenextcenturyifthetrendcontinuestropical’forestwillexistvirtuallynowhereoutsideofprotectedareas--thatisnationalpark’wildliferefugesandotherofficialreserves. 44.______. Humanpopulationgrowthwillmakeabadsituationworsebyputtingevermorepressureonallavailableland.Theannualincreaseisnow80millionpeoplewithmostofthatincrementcominginlessdevelopedcountries.AccordingtoU.N.’smiddleestimatehumanpopulationwillrisefromthepresent5.9billionto9.4billionbytheyear2050.Anyoneinterestedinthefutureofbiologicaldiversityneedstothinkaboutthepressuresthesepeoplewillfaceandthepressurestheywillexertinreturn. 45._______. Thatdirectionnecessarilywillbetowardevermoredesperateexploitationoflandscape.EvenNoah’sarkonlymanagestorescuepairedanimalsnotlargeparcelsofhabitats.Thejeopardyoftheecologicalfragmentsthatwepresentlycherishasparksrefugesandreservesisalreadysevereduetointernalandexternalforcesinternalbecauseinsularityitselfleadstoecologicalunraveling;andexternalbecausethoseareasarestillundersiegebyneedyandcovetouspeople.Projectedforwardintoafutureof10.8billionhumansthatjeopardyincreasestothepointofimpossibility. Weshouldn’ttakecomfortinassumingthatat.leasttheparksandreserveslikeYellowstoneNationalParkwillstillharborgrizzlybearsintheyear2150.Thosepredatorpopulationsandotherspeciesdownthecascadearelikelytodisappear."Wildness"willbeawordapplicableonlytourbanturmoil.Lionstigersandbearswillexistinzoos.Naturewon’tcometoanendbutitwilllookverydifferent. 45
Text2 Virtuallyeverycompanywithacomputerisvulnerabletocomputerabusecrimeandaccident.Securityofthecomputerandoftheinformationandassetscontainedwithinitarethereforeofparamountimportancetomanagement.Skilledcomputercriminalscanbreakintoacomputersystemfarmoreeasilythananarmedrobbercangainaccesstoabankvaultandusuallywithfarlessriskofapprehensionandpunishment.Aslightchangeinacomplexprogramcanbringaboutthemisappropriationofthousandsofpounds.Accidentalerasureofcrucialdatacanparalysecompany’soperations.Anyonefamiliarwiththenecessaryprocedurecangainaccesstoinformationstoredinthecomputernomatterhowconfidentialandutilizeitforhisownpurposes. Althoughtheactualextentofcomputercrimeisdifficulttomeasuremostexpertsagreethatitisoneofthefastestgrowingareasofillegalactivity.Theprincipalreasonforboththegrowthandthelackofaccuratemeasurementisthedifficultyindetectingawell-executedtheft.Lossesperincidentthustendtobehigherthaninothertypesoftheft.OncetheComputercriminalhascompromisedthesystemitisjustaseasytostealagreatsumasitistostealalittleandtocontinuestealinglongaftertheinitialtheft.Indeedthecomputercriminalmayfinditmoredifficulttostophisillicitactivitythantostartit. Computercriminalsareforthemostpartwell-educatedandhighlyintelligent.Thefactthatcomputercriminalsdonotfitcriminalstereotypeshelpsthemtoobtainthepositionstheyrequiretocarryoutcrimes.Beingintelligenttheyhavefertileimaginationsandthevarietyofwaysinwhichtheyuseequipmenttotheiradvantagesisconstantlybeingextended.Inadditiontodirecttheftoffundsthetheftofdataforcorporateespionageorextortionisbecomingwidespreadandcanobviouslyhaveasubstantialeffectonacompany’sfinances.Anotherlucrativeschemeoftendifficulttodetectinvolvesaccumulatingfractionsofpencefromindividualpayrollaccountswithelectronictransferoftheaccumulatedamounttothecriminal’spayroll.Employersarehardlyconcernedwithpencemuchlessfractionsofpence.Inadditionundoubtedlythecompany’spayrollisunaffected.Butthecumulativevalueoffractionsofpenceperemployeeinacompanywithasubstantialpayrollcanadduptoausefulgain. Guardingagainstcomputerabuse--whetherdeliberateoraccidental--involvesattentiontotheprotectionofhardwarefromphysicaldamageaswellasprotectionofsoftwareanddata.Computermustbeisolatedfromothercompanyfacilitiesandunauthorizedpersonshouldneverbeadmittedtothecomputerarea.Eventthoughsomerisksarereducedthroughthismeasuremostdamagetosoftwareaccidentalandintentionaliscausedbythosewhosejobsrequireatleastsomeaccesstothecomputer.Thewriteroftheprogramisoftentheoneresponsibleforitsmisuse.Programsdevisedexclusivelyforaparticularcompanyarethereforefarmorevaluabletoabuseandaccidentthanstandardsoftwarepackagesproducedbyexternalsuppliers. Skilledcomputercriminalscanbreakintoacomputersystem
Text4 NowthatthedamageinflictedbytheAsianfinancialcrisislookslikeitwascausedbyaneconomicneutronbomb.Thecrisishashurtgreatnumbersofpeoplebuthasleft.themainstructuresoftheworldeconomystanding.Theworstofthedirectimpactmaybeover.Manyofthehardest-hitcountriesareontheroadtorecoveryfinancial"contagion"hasbeencontainedandworldeconomicgrowthseemssettopickupsoon. Themostimportantdevelopmenthoweverisanon-event:thecollapseofglobalcapitalismhasnotoccurred.Insteadthepost-crisisworldislikelytobeevenmoremarket-orientedthantheonethatprecededitwithaproliferationofnewrulesandpracticesthatwillhelpmarketstooperatemoresmoothly.ThecountriesrecoveringbestsuchasThailandandSouthKoreaaredoingsobymovingfurtherinafree-marketdirection.Noneoftheaffectednationshastriedtoisolateitselffromtheglobaleconomyandthewidelyfearedworldwidewaveofprotectionismhasnotyetmaterialized. Norhastherebeenthegreatrethinkingofeconomicglobalizationthatsomefearedandothersadvocated.Thecriticsofglobalcapitalismpouncedonthecrisisasproofofglobalization’sfatalflaws.Theiranalysesoftenconcludedthat"theremustbeSomethingbetter."Onthecontraryeconomistshavetakenfree-marketprinciplesasthestartingpointfornewideasnotcalledthemintoquestion. Therehasbeenmuchcriticismoftheso-calledWashingtonconsensus--thetraditionalfree-marketorthodoxythatuniformlyprescribesfiscaldisciplinederegulationandfinancialliberalization.Partlyasaresultofthecrisisanewconsensussimplyaddsextraprescriptions--suchasbetterfinancialsupervisionlabormarketetc.--tothelist.Itisanelaborationoftheoriginalconsensusnotanewdeparture. Numerousstudiesalsoshowthatengagementintheglobaleconomyleadstohighergrowthandhelpstoreducepovertyindevelopingcountries.Today’seconomicargumentsarenotoverfundamentalfree-marketpoliciesbutwhatmustbedonetosupplementthem.Likewise.theeffortstodeviseanew"internationalfinancialarchitecture"inthewakeofthecrisisduetocontinueduringthespringmeetingsoftheWorldBankandtheInternationalMonetaryFundinWashingtonwillnotinvolverebuildingthesystemfromscratch.Theaimistomakeincrementalimprovementsinfinancialrulesandpracticesthatwilloilthewheelsofthemarketsystemnottotradeitinforanon-existentnewmodel. WhichofthefollowingisNOTincludedintheprescriptionoftraditionalfree-marketorthodoxy
Text3 ForyearsI.O.C.CzarJuanAntonioSamaranchhasexhibitedapronouncedambivalenceaboutdruguseandcertainlyhisstancehasallowedanumberofgoldenboysandgirlstokeeptheirimagesshinywhiledoping.Carefulathletescaneasilybeatthesystemthatisinplacetocatchdrugabusers.Unscrupuloussportsfederationscantailortestingschedulesandtipofftheirconstituents.Steroidcreamscanbeflushedfromthesystemin24to48hours.AndforsomeofthemostcommonlyusedenhancerssuchaserythropoietinEPOtherearestillnoinstitutionalizedteats.ItissaidthatEPOwhichincreasesstaminabyboostinganathlete’sredbloodcellcountcanimproveanathlete’sperformanceina20-minmnby30sec.butitisotherwiseanightmareofadrug.OverdoseonEPOandthebloodbecomestoothickforthehearttopump.EPOisbelievedtobetheculpritinnofewerthan25mysteriousdeathsamongworld-classcyclistssince1987. ButathleteswilltakeEPOinSydneybecausetheycanandsomeofthemwilltaketoomuchofit.In1995Olympic--caliberU.S.athleteswereaskedinapoll"Wouldyoutakeadrugthatmadeyouachampionknowingthatitwouldkillyouinfiveyears"morethanhalfsaidyes.SoevenifweforgetaboutfairplayandcredibilityandOlympicidealsweareleftwiththis:theathletesmustbeprotectedfromthemselvesarmthepressuretowin.How TheI.O’.C.needstodotwothingsimmediately:developaspineandfederalize.Theonlywaytocatchacheatiswithunannouncedout-of-competitiontesting.HistoricallytheI.O.C.hasdelegateddecisionmakingtoindividualsportsfederationsbutthatpolicyisnotworkingwhenitcomestodrags.Athirdofthe28federationshaveyettoagreetoout-of-competitiontestsinadvanceoftheSydneyGames.TheI.O.C.shouldcallanemergencysessionandmakeanewruleapplyingtoallsportsthensendoutitsnewlyempoweredtesters. AsforthatimperfecttestforEPO-useitanyway.AsgoldmedalmarathonerFrankShorternowchairmanoftheU.S.Anti-Doping’Agencysaysknowingatestisloomingthatwillknockcheatersoffstride.ShortersaysthatifthereisnoEPOtestatSydneytheneveryenduranceorstrengthperformanceissuspect.He’sright.Andwhensportbecomessuspect--whennoonebelievesinit--it’snolongerworthwatching. What'sSamaranch'sattitudetowardsdruguseinOlympicGames
Text1 Itisknownthatthebrainshrinksasthebodyagesbuttheeffectsonmentalabilityaredifferentfrompersontoperson:Interestinglyinastudyofelderlymenandwomenthosewhohadmoreeducationactuallyhadmorebrainshrinkage"Thatmayseemlikebadnews"saidstudyauthorDr.EdwardCoffeyaprofessorofpsychiatryandneurologyatHenryFordHealthSysteminDetroit.Howeverheexplainedthefindingsuggeststhateducationallowspeopletowithstandmorebrain-tissuelossbeforetheirmentalfunctioningbeginstobreakdown.Thestudyisthefirsttoprovidebiologicalevidencetosupportaconceptcalledthe"reserve"hypothesisaccordingtotheresearchers.Inrecentyearsinvestigatorshavedevelopedtheideathatpeoplewhoaremoreeducatedhavegreatercognitivereservestodrawuponasthebrainages;inessencetheyhavemorebraintissuetospare. Examiningbrainscansof320healthymenandwomenages66to90researchersfoundthatforeachyearofeducationthesubjectshadtherewasgreatershrinkageoftheouterlayerofthebrainknownasthecortex.Yetontestsofcognitionandmemoryallparticipantsscoredintherangeindicatingnormal."Everyonehassomedegreeofbrainshrinkage"Coffeysaid."Peoplelose2.5percentperdecadestartinginadulthood."Thereishowevera"remarkablerange"ofshrinkageamongpeoplewhoshownosignsofmentaldeclineCoffeynoted.Overallhealthhesaidaccountsforsomedifferencesinbrainsize.Alcoholordraguseaswellasmedicalconditionssuchasdiabetesandhighbloodpressurecontributetobrain-tissuelossthroughoutadulthood.IntheabsenceofsuchmedicalconditionsCoffeysaideducationlevelhelpsexplaintherangeofbrainshrinkageexhibitedamongthementally-fitelderly.Themore-educatedcanwithstandgreaterloss.Coffeyandcolleaguesgaugedshrinkageofthecortexbymeasuringthecerebrospinalfluidsurroundingthebrain.Thegreatertheamountoffluidthegreaterthecorticalshrinkage. Controllingforthehealthfactorsthatcontributetobraininjurytheresearchersfoundthateducationwasrelatedtotheseverityofbrainshrinkage.Foreachyearofeducationfromfirstgradeonsubjectshadanaverageof1.77millilitersmorecerebrospinalfluidaroundthebrain.ForexampleCoffey’steamreportedamongsubjectsofthesamesexandsimilarageandskullsizethosewith16yearsofeducationhad8to10percentmorecerebrospinalfluidcomparedwiththosewhohadfouryearsofschooling.Ofcourseachievingaparticulareducationlevelisnotthedefinitivemeasureofsomeone’smentalcapacity.AndsaidCoffeyeducationcanbe"aproxyformanythings"More-educatedpeoplehenotedareoftenlesslikelytohavehabitssuchassmokingthatharmoverallhealth. ButCoffeysaidthatpeopleshouldstrivethroughoutlifetokeeptheirbrainsalertbyexposingthemselvestonewexperiences.Travelingisonewaytostimulatethebrainandalessadventuresomewayistodocrosswordpuzzles. Thetextinformsusthat
46Technologyhasmadeiteasytocrossnationalfrontiersphysicallybuttherehasbeennoinventionofnewmentalhabitstoenablepeopletocopewithforeignersinanewway.Forthattohappenthehabitsoftouristswillhavetoalter.ThehiddengodoftravelisstillKarlBaedekereventhoughhediedin1859.Hisguidebookshaveapermanentpatternmakingtravelessentiallyamatterofsightseeinglookingatplacesratherthanatpeople.47Hisachievementwastofindsightsthatcouldbeguaranteedtobethereallthetimetobeclearlyidentifiabledatedandclassifiedaccordingtotheamountofadmirationtheydeserved.Hemadevisitstooldmonumentsandtoartmuseums--thestapledietofthetravelerdrawingattentionawayfromthelivinginhabitants.Tothisdaytourismisacourseinhistoryarchitectureaestheticsandtheappreciationofhotelsandfood.48Thecultof"sights"hasgrownsomuchthatmostforeignorganizedtravelinvolvesvirtuallynocontactwiththenativesbeyondthosewhospecializeincateringfortourists.Thebusinesstravelertendstomeetmainlypeopleinhisownprofession.HowdifferentfromtheitineraryofamodernpackageholidayisthisprogramdrawnupbyanEnglishmanSirFrancisHeadin1852beforetheguidebookstoldtouristswhattodo.InParishevisitedthemunicipalpawnshoptheasylumforblindyouthswhereBraillestillunknowninEnglandwasbeingusedaprisonanorphanageforabandonedchildrentheSalpetriereoldpeople’shomethemorguethenationalprintingworksthemilitaryacademythenationalassemblythepubliclaundryandfinallyheattended/helecturesattheConservatoryforArtsandCrafts.Theriseofbureaucraticofficialdomsoonstoppedthatkindofcuriosity;butperhapstodayanewopennesswillallowittoexpressitselfagain.Informertimestheattractionofforeigntravelwasoftenthatpeopledidabroadwhattheydarednotdoathomewhichisshyforeigncountrieswonreputationsforsexualdebauchery.TheFrenchconsideredEnglandasdebauchedastheEnglishvisitorstotheFoliesBergeresimaginedtheFrenchtobe.49ButnowthatavisittoFranceisnolongeradangerousadventureandthataninternationaluniformityexistsinsomanyofthegoodsandfacilitiesthetouristencounterswhereistheexcitementandwherearethenewdiscoveries Itistobefoundinthepeople.50Theforeignnessinforeigntraveltodaymustcomemainlyfrommeetingindividualswhomonewouldnotnormallymeetathome. 47Hisachievementwastofindsightsthatcouldbeguaranteedtobethereallthetimetobeclearlyidentifiabledatedandclassifiedaccordingtotheamountofadmirationtheydeserved.
Humanshavealteredtheworld’sclimateby1heat-trappinggasessincealmostthebeginningofcivilizationandevenpreventedthestartofaniceageseveralthousandyearsagoascientistsaid. Mostscientists2arise3globaltemperaturesoverthepastcentury4toemissionsofcarbondioxide5humanactivitieslikedrivingcarsandoperatingfactories. Dr.WilliamRuddimanaprofessorattheUniversityofVirginiasaidatameetingoftheAmericanGeophysicalUnion6humans’effect7climatewentbacknearly10000years8peoplegaveuphuntingandgatheringandbeganfarming. InacommentaryaccompanyingthearticleDr.ThomasJ.CrowleyofDukeUniversitysaidhe9Dr.Ruddiman’spremiseatfirst."ButwhenIstartedreadingDr.Crowleywrote"Icouldnothelpbut10whetherhejustmightbe11something." Theclimateofthelast10000yearshasbeenunusuallystable12civilizationtoflourish.ButthatisonlybecausepeoplechoppeddownswathsofforestinEuropeChinaandIndiaforcroplandsandpastures.Carbondioxide13bythedestructionoftheforestsplusmethaneanotherheat-trappinggas14byirrigatedricefieldsinSoutheastAsiatrappedenoughheatto15anexpectednaturalcooling. Levelsofcarbondioxideandmethaneriseandfallinnaturalcycles16thousandsofyearsandbothreachedapeakattheendofthelasticeage11;000yearsago.Boththendeclined17expected. Both18decliningthroughthepresentdayleadingtolowertemperaturesandanewiceageshouldhavebegun4000to5000yearsagoDr.Ruddimansaid.Insteadlevelsofcarbondioxidereversed8000wearsago.Thedecline19methanelevelsreversed5000yearsago20withtheadventofirrigationricefarming. 5
Humanshavealteredtheworld’sclimateby1heat-trappinggasessincealmostthebeginningofcivilizationandevenpreventedthestartofaniceageseveralthousandyearsagoascientistsaid. Mostscientists2arise3globaltemperaturesoverthepastcentury4toemissionsofcarbondioxide5humanactivitieslikedrivingcarsandoperatingfactories. Dr.WilliamRuddimanaprofessorattheUniversityofVirginiasaidatameetingoftheAmericanGeophysicalUnion6humans’effect7climatewentbacknearly10000years8peoplegaveuphuntingandgatheringandbeganfarming. InacommentaryaccompanyingthearticleDr.ThomasJ.CrowleyofDukeUniversitysaidhe9Dr.Ruddiman’spremiseatfirst."ButwhenIstartedreadingDr.Crowleywrote"Icouldnothelpbut10whetherhejustmightbe11something." Theclimateofthelast10000yearshasbeenunusuallystable12civilizationtoflourish.ButthatisonlybecausepeoplechoppeddownswathsofforestinEuropeChinaandIndiaforcroplandsandpastures.Carbondioxide13bythedestructionoftheforestsplusmethaneanotherheat-trappinggas14byirrigatedricefieldsinSoutheastAsiatrappedenoughheatto15anexpectednaturalcooling. Levelsofcarbondioxideandmethaneriseandfallinnaturalcycles16thousandsofyearsandbothreachedapeakattheendofthelasticeage11;000yearsago.Boththendeclined17expected. Both18decliningthroughthepresentdayleadingtolowertemperaturesandanewiceageshouldhavebegun4000to5000yearsagoDr.Ruddimansaid.Insteadlevelsofcarbondioxidereversed8000wearsago.Thedecline19methanelevelsreversed5000yearsago20withtheadventofirrigationricefarming. 7
46Thejobofraisingchildrenisatoughone.Childrendon’tcomewithaninstructionmanual.Andeachchildisdifferent.Soparentssometimespulltheirhairoutinfrustrationnotknowingwhattodo.Butinraisingchildren--asinalloflife--whatwedoisinfluencedbyourculture.NaturallythenAmericanparentsteachtheirchildrenbasicAmericanvalues. ToAmericansthegoalofparentsistohelpchildrenstandontheirowntwofeet.Frominfancyeachchildmaygethisorherownroom.Aschildrengrowtheygainmorefreedomtdmaketheirownchoices.Teenagerschoosetheirownformsofentertainmentaswellasthefriendstosharethemwith.Whentheyreachyoungadulthoodtheychoosetheirowncareersandmarriagepartners.Ofcoursemanyyoungadultsstillseektheirparents’adviceandapprovalforthechoicestheymake.47Butoncethey"leavethenest"ataround18to21yearsoldtheywanttobeontheirownnot"tiedtotheirmother’sapronstrings." 48TherelationshipbetweenparentsandchildreninAmericaisveryinformal.Americanparentstrytotreattheirchildrenasindividuals--notasextensionsofthemselves.Theyallowthemtofulfilltheirowndreams.Americanspraiseandencouragetheirchildrentogivethemtheconfidencetosucceed.Whenchildrenbecomeadultstheirrelationshipwiththeirparentsbecomesmorelikeafriendshipamongequals.ButcontrarytopopularbeliefmostadultAmericansdon’tmaketheirparentspayforroomandboardwhentheycometovisit.Evenasadultstheyrespectandhonortheirparents. Mostyoungcoupleswithchildrenstrugglewiththeissueofchildcare.Mothershavetraditionallystayedhomewiththeirchildren.InrecentyearsthoughagrowingtrendistoputpreschoolersinadaycarecentersothatMomcanwork.49ManyAmericanshavestrongfeelingsaboutwhichtypeofarrangementisbest.Somearguethatattendingadaycarecentercanbeapositiveexperienceforchildren.Othersinsistthatmothersarethebestcaregiversforchildren.Anumberofwomenarenowleavingtheworkforcetobecomefull-timehomemakers. 50Beingaparentisatallorder.Ittakespatiencelovewisdomcourageandagoodsenseofhumortoraisechildrenandnotloseyoursanity.Somepeoplearejustdecidingnottohavechildrenatallsincethey’renotsureit’sworthit.Butraisingchildrenmeanstrainingthenextgenerationandpreservingourculture.Whatcouldbeworthmorethanthat 47Butoncetheyleavethenestataround18to21yearsoldtheywanttobeontheirownnottiedtotheirmother’sapronstrings.
Humanshavealteredtheworld’sclimateby1heat-trappinggasessincealmostthebeginningofcivilizationandevenpreventedthestartofaniceageseveralthousandyearsagoascientistsaid. Mostscientists2arise3globaltemperaturesoverthepastcentury4toemissionsofcarbondioxide5humanactivitieslikedrivingcarsandoperatingfactories. Dr.WilliamRuddimanaprofessorattheUniversityofVirginiasaidatameetingoftheAmericanGeophysicalUnion6humans’effect7climatewentbacknearly10000years8peoplegaveuphuntingandgatheringandbeganfarming. InacommentaryaccompanyingthearticleDr.ThomasJ.CrowleyofDukeUniversitysaidhe9Dr.Ruddiman’spremiseatfirst."ButwhenIstartedreadingDr.Crowleywrote"Icouldnothelpbut10whetherhejustmightbe11something." Theclimateofthelast10000yearshasbeenunusuallystable12civilizationtoflourish.ButthatisonlybecausepeoplechoppeddownswathsofforestinEuropeChinaandIndiaforcroplandsandpastures.Carbondioxide13bythedestructionoftheforestsplusmethaneanotherheat-trappinggas14byirrigatedricefieldsinSoutheastAsiatrappedenoughheatto15anexpectednaturalcooling. Levelsofcarbondioxideandmethaneriseandfallinnaturalcycles16thousandsofyearsandbothreachedapeakattheendofthelasticeage11;000yearsago.Boththendeclined17expected. Both18decliningthroughthepresentdayleadingtolowertemperaturesandanewiceageshouldhavebegun4000to5000yearsagoDr.Ruddimansaid.Insteadlevelsofcarbondioxidereversed8000wearsago.Thedecline19methanelevelsreversed5000yearsago20withtheadventofirrigationricefarming. 15
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