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俄国教育家于1867～1869年出版了人是教育的对象被称为俄罗斯教育心理学的奠基人这本著作被认为奠定
乌申斯基
赞可夫
维果斯基
卡普杰列夫
18世纪后期德国教育家巴西多创办的泛爱学校采用了一种新的教学方式这一教学方式被称为
“适应教师”的教育
“适应学校”的教育
“适应自然”的教育
“适应社会”的教育
被称为第一个新式学校的教师的人是意大利教育家
被称为俄国教育科学的创始人俄国教师的教师其主要代表作是人是教育的对象的是
赞科夫
苏霍姆林斯基
乌申斯基
马卡连柯
1868年俄国教育家乌申斯基出版了人是教育的对象对当时的心理学发展作了总结乌申斯基被称为教育心理学的
被称俄国教师的教师的教育家是
别林斯基
乌申斯基
皮洛果夫
托尔斯泰
19世纪俄国著名的教育家被誉为俄国教育科学的创始人俄国教师的教师
罗蒙诺索夫
乌申斯基
第斯多惠
苏霍姆林斯基
俄国教育家于1867年—1869年出版了人是教育的对象被称为俄罗斯教育心理学的奠基人这本著作被认为奠
乌申斯基
赞可夫
维果斯基
卡普杰列夫
俄国教育家说教师职业是历史上最伟大的事业
1868年俄国教育家乌申斯基出版了一本著作该著作对当时的心理学发展成果进行了总结乌申斯基因此被称为俄
《大教学论》
《人是教育的对象》
《教育心理学》
《教育心理大纲》
被称为德国教师的教师的教育家是
赫尔巴特
第斯多惠
福禄倍尔
洪堡
最早提出体育教学法的是
德国教育家拉特克
捷克教育家夸美纽斯
瑞典体育教师W·斯卡斯特罗姆
美国教育家杜威
19世纪俄国著名的教育家被誉为俄国教育科学的创始人俄国教师的教师的是
罗蒙诺索夫
苏霍姆林斯基
第斯多惠
乌申斯基
德国教育家赫尔巴特被称为是传统教育的代表人物他主张的教学三中心包括
教师中心
学生中心
课堂中心
教材中心
活动中心
美国教育家波斯提出教师成长=经验+反思请你谈谈对这个教师成长公式的理解和体会
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AstudybyscientistsinFinlandhasfoundthatmobilephoneradiationcancausechangesinhumancellsthatmightaffectthebraintheleaderoftheresearchteamsaid. ButDariusLeszczynskiwhoheadedthe2-yearstudyandwillpresentfindingsnextweekataconferenceinQuebecsaidmoreresearchwasneededtodeterminetheseriousnessofthechangesandtheirimpactonthebrainorthebody. ThestudyatFinland’sRadiationandNuclearSafetyAuthorityfoundthatexposuretoradiationfrommobilephonescancauseincreasedactivityinhundredsofproteinsinhumancellsgrowninalaboratoryhesaid. "Weknowthatthereissomebiologicalresponse.Wecandetectitwithourverysensitiveapproachesbutwedonotknowwhetheritcanhaveanyphysiologicaleffectsonthehumanbrainorhumanbody"Leszczynskisaid. NonethelessthestudytheinitialfindingsofwhichwerepublishedlastmonthinthescientificjournalDifferentiationraisesnewquestionsaboutwhethermobilephoneradiationcanweaker/thebrain’sprotectiveshieldagainstharmfulsubstances. Thestudyfocusedonchangesincellsthatlinebloodvesselsandonwhethersuchchangescouldweakenthefunctioningoftheblood-brainbarrierwhichpreventspotentiallyharmfulsubstancesfromenteringthebrainfromthebloodstreamLeszczynskisaid. Thestudyfoundthataproteincalledhsp27linkedtothefunctioningofthebloodbrainbarriershowedincreasedactivityduetoirradiationandpointedtoapossibilitythatsuchactivitycouldmaketheshieldmorepermeablehesaid. "Increasedproteinactivitymightcausecellstoshrink--notthebloodvesselsbutthecellsthemselves—andthentinygapscouldappearbetweenthosecellsthroughwhichsomemoleculescouldpass."hesaid. LeszczynskideclinedtospeculateonwhatkindofhealthrisksthatcouldposebutsaidaFrenchstudyindicatedthatheadachefatigueandsleepdisorderscouldresult. "Thesearenotlife-threateningproblemsbutcancausealotofdiscomfort"hesaidaddingthataSwedishgrouphadalsosuggestedapossiblelinkwithAlzheimer’sdisease. "WherethetruthisIdonotknow"hesaid. Leszczynskisaidthathehiswifeandchildrenusemobilephonesandhesaidthathedidnotthinkhisstudysuggestedanyneedfornewrestrictionsonmobilephoneuse. Accordingtothepassagewhatwouldbethefutureoftheuseofmobilephone
By1800abouthalfthepopulationofBrazilhadcomefromAfrica.SohadabouthalfthepopulationofVenezuela.SohadasmallerbutstilllargepartofallthepopulationofTrans-AtlanticrepublicswhetherinNorthCentralorSouthAfricaorintheCaribbeanislands.ItwasthesemenandwomenofAfricandescentconqueredthewildernessoftheAmericasclearingandworkingincountlessfarmsandplantationsfoundingandopeninginnumerableminesofironorpreciousmetals.HarshandpainfulasitwastheoverseasslavetradelikethenotmuchlesspainfulmovementofmillionsofhungryandjoblessmenandwomenfromEuropelaidthefoundationsofAmericanrepublics.TheseAfricansbeyondtheseashavetheirplaceinthestoryofAfricathestoryofWestAfricaforwhattheyattemptedandachievedwasalsoareflectionofthestrongandindependentcivilizationfromwhichtheycame.ConsiderforexampletheheroicandsuccessfulstruggleforindependenceconductedbytheslavesoftheCaribbeanlandofSt.Domingue.In1789atthemomentoftheFrenchRevolutionthisFrenchcolonyintheCaribbeanwasprobablythewealthiestcolonyintheworld.ItstensofthousandsofAfricanslave-workersproducedenormousquantitiesofsugarwholeEuropeancommunitieslivedofftheprofits. WhennewsoftheRevolutioninFrancereachedSt.Dominguetheseslavesclaimedtheirshareinitsidealsandbenefits.Theydemandedtheirfreedom.Whendeniedthistheyroseinrevoltagainsttheirmasters.InyearsofhardfightingagainstlargearmiessentbyFranceandafterwardsagainstlargearmiessentbyBritainthesemenofSt.DominguewontheirfreedomandfoundedtheRepublicofHaiti.Yetmorethanhalfthesesoldiersoffreedomhadmadethe"middlepassage"acrosstheAtlantic.MorethanhalfinotherwordshadbeenborninAfricahadspenttheirchildhoodinAfricaandhadlearnedinAfricatheirrespectforfreedom;whilenearlyalltherestwerethechildrenofparentsorgrandparentsborninAfrica.AndtheywereledbyAfricans:bymenofgeniusandcouragesuchasBoukmantheunforgettableToussaintLouvertureandDessalines. RaisedbyToussaintandhisAfricansthebanneroffreedomacrosstheAtlanticwascarriedfrompeopletopeople.Manythrewofftheirbondage.LargenumbersofmenofAfricanoriginfoughtinthearmiesthatmadetheUnitedStateswhattheyaretoday.ItwasageneralofAfricandescentAntonioMaceowholedthemilitarystruggleforCubanindependenceagainstSpainin1868. LikeothermenofvisionMaceohadnotimeforracismforthefalseideathatoneraceofmenisbetterorworsethananyother.SomeofthewhitesofCubadisagreedwithhim.TheywereSpanishsettlerswhothoughtthatwhitewasgoingtobebetterthanblackeveninanindependentCuba. OnedayMaceowasapproachedbyaSpanishCubanwhosuggestedthattheregimentsofindependencearmyshouldbedividedintowhitesandnon-whites.MaceomadehimareplywhichbecamefamousinCuba."Ifyouwerenotwhite"Maceosaidtothisman"Iwouldhaveyoushotonthespot.ButIdonotwishtobeaccusedofbeingracialistasyouareandsoIletyougobutwiththewarningthatIshallnotbesopatientanothertime.Therevolutionhasnocolor." ItcouldbeinferredthatthewriterthinksthatincomparisonwiththemovementofmillionsofhungryandjoblesspeoplefromEuropetheoverseasslavetradewas
Effectivecommunicationisessentialforallorganisations.ItlinkstheactivitiesofthevariouspartsoftheorganisationandensuresthateveryoneisworkingtowardsaCommongoal.Itisalsoextremelyimportantformotivatingemployees.Staffneedtoknowhowtheyaregettingonwhattheyaredoingrightandinwhichareastheycouldimprove.Workingalonecanbeextremelydifficultanditismucheasierifsomeonetakesaninterestandprovidessupport.Employeesneedtounderstandwhytheirjobisimportantandhowitcontributestotheoverallsuccessofthefirm.Personalcommunicationshouldalsoincludetargetsetting.Peopleusuallyrespondwelltogoalsprovidedtheseareagreedbetweenthemanagerandsubordinateandnotimposed. Howeverfirmsoftenhavecommunicationsproblemsthatcanunderminetheirperformance.Inmanycasestheseproblemsoccurbecausemessagesarepassedoninaninappropriateway.Thereareofcourseseveralwaysofconveyinginformationtoothersintheorganisation.Theseincludespeakingtothemdirectlye-mailingtelephoningorsendingamemo.Themostappropriatemethoddependsonwhatexactlyitisyouarecommunicating.Forexampleanythingthatisparticularlysensitiveorconfidentialsuchasanemployee’sappraisalshouldbedoneface-to-face. Oneofthemainproblemsforseniorexecutivesisthattheydonothavethetimeorresourcesneededtocommunicateeffectively.Inlargecompaniesforexampleitisimpossibleforseniormanagerstomeetanddiscussprogresswitheachemployeeindividually.Obviouslythistaskcanbedelegatedbutatthecostofcreatingagapbetweenseniormanagementandstaff.Asaresultmanagersareoftenforcedtouseothermethodsofcommunication.Likememosornoteseveniftheyknowthesearenotnecessarilythemostsuitablemeansofpassingonmessages. Theuseoftechnologysuchase-mailmobilephonesandnetworksystemisspeedingupcommunicationimmensely.Howeverthisdoesnotmeanthatmoreinvestmentintechnologyautomaticallyprovesbeneficialsystemscanbecomeoutdatedoremployeesmaylackappropriatetraining.Therearemanycommunicationstoolsnowavailablebutafirmcannotaffordallofthem.Evenifitcoulditdoesnotactuallyneedthemall.Thepotentialgainsmustbeweighedupagainstthecostsandfirmsshouldrealisethatmorecommunicationdoesnotnecessarilymeanbettercommunication. Asthenumberofpeopleinvolvedinanorganisationincreasetheuseofwrittencommunicationrisesevenfaster.Insteadofaquickconversationtosortsomethingoutnumerousmessagescanbepassedbackwardsandforwards.Thiscanleadtoatremendousamountofpaperworkandisoftenlesseffectivethanfacetofacecommunication.Whenyouareactuallytalkingtosomeoneyoucandiscussthingsuntilyouarehappytheyhaveunderstoodandfeedbackisimmediate.Withwrittenmessageshoweveryouareneverquitesurehowitwillbereceived.Whatyouthinkyouhavesaidandwhattheotherpersonthinksyouhavesaidcanbeverydifferent. Theamountofwritteninformationgeneratedinlargeorganisationstodaycanleadtocommunicationoverload.Somuchinformationisgatheredthatitgetsinthe-wayofmakingdecisions.Takealookattheaveragemanager’sdeskandyouwillseetheproblem—itisoftencoveredinlettersreportsandmemos.Thisoverloadcanleadtoinefficiencies.Forexamplemanagersmaynotbeabletofindtheinformationtheywantwhentheyneedit.Communicationisalsobecomingmoredifficultwiththechangesoccurringinemploymentpatterns.Withmorepeopleworkingpart-timeandworkingfromhomemanagingcommunicationisbecomingincreasinglycomplex. Accordingtothearticlewhatistheeffectofreceivinglargeamountsofwritteninformation
AstudybyscientistsinFinlandhasfoundthatmobilephoneradiationcancausechangesinhumancellsthatmightaffectthebraintheleaderoftheresearchteamsaid. ButDariusLeszczynskiwhoheadedthe2-yearstudyandwillpresentfindingsnextweekataconferenceinQuebecsaidmoreresearchwasneededtodeterminetheseriousnessofthechangesandtheirimpactonthebrainorthebody. ThestudyatFinland’sRadiationandNuclearSafetyAuthorityfoundthatexposuretoradiationfrommobilephonescancauseincreasedactivityinhundredsofproteinsinhumancellsgrowninalaboratoryhesaid. "Weknowthatthereissomebiologicalresponse.Wecandetectitwithourverysensitiveapproachesbutwedonotknowwhetheritcanhaveanyphysiologicaleffectsonthehumanbrainorhumanbody"Leszczynskisaid. NonethelessthestudytheinitialfindingsofwhichwerepublishedlastmonthinthescientificjournalDifferentiationraisesnewquestionsaboutwhethermobilephoneradiationcanweaker/thebrain’sprotectiveshieldagainstharmfulsubstances. Thestudyfocusedonchangesincellsthatlinebloodvesselsandonwhethersuchchangescouldweakenthefunctioningoftheblood-brainbarrierwhichpreventspotentiallyharmfulsubstancesfromenteringthebrainfromthebloodstreamLeszczynskisaid. Thestudyfoundthataproteincalledhsp27linkedtothefunctioningofthebloodbrainbarriershowedincreasedactivityduetoirradiationandpointedtoapossibilitythatsuchactivitycouldmaketheshieldmorepermeablehesaid. "Increasedproteinactivitymightcausecellstoshrink--notthebloodvesselsbutthecellsthemselves—andthentinygapscouldappearbetweenthosecellsthroughwhichsomemoleculescouldpass."hesaid. LeszczynskideclinedtospeculateonwhatkindofhealthrisksthatcouldposebutsaidaFrenchstudyindicatedthatheadachefatigueandsleepdisorderscouldresult. "Thesearenotlife-threateningproblemsbutcancausealotofdiscomfort"hesaidaddingthataSwedishgrouphadalsosuggestedapossiblelinkwithAlzheimer’sdisease. "WherethetruthisIdonotknow"hesaid. Leszczynskisaidthathehiswifeandchildrenusemobilephonesandhesaidthathedidnotthinkhisstudysuggestedanyneedfornewrestrictionsonmobilephoneuse. What’stheresultoftheFrenchstudy
Themajorityofpeopleaboutnineoutoftenareright-handed.1untilrecentlypeoplewhowereleft-handedwereconsidered2andoncechildrenshowedthistendencytheywereforcedtousetheirrighthands.Todayleft-handednessisgenerally3butitisstilladisadvantageinaworld4mostpeopleareright-handed.Forexamplemosttoolsandimplementsarestill5forright-handedpeople. Insports6contrastdoingthingswiththelefthandorfoot.isoftenanadvantage.Throwingkickingpunchingorbattingfromthe"7"sidemayresultinthrowing8manyopponentswhoaremoreaccustomedtodealingwiththe9ofplayerswhoareright-handed.Thisiswhyinmany10ataprofessionallevela11proportionofplayersareleft-handedthaninthepopulationasawhole. Theword"right"inmanylanguagesmeans"correct"oris12withlawfulnesswhereasthewordsassociated13"left"suchas"sinister"generallyhave14associations.Moreoveramonganumberofprimitivepeoplesthereis15closeassociationbetweendeathandthelefthand. Inthepastin16westernsocietieschildrenwereoftenforcedtousetheirrighthandsespeciallytowritewith.Insomecasesthelefthandwas17behindthechild’sbacksothatitcouldnotbeused.Ifinthefuturetheyareallowedtochoose18willcertainlybemoreleft-handersandprobably19peoplewithminorpsychologicaldisturbancesasaresultofbeingforcedtousetheir20hand. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.18
Themajorityofpeopleaboutnineoutoftenareright-handed.1untilrecentlypeoplewhowereleft-handedwereconsidered2andoncechildrenshowedthistendencytheywereforcedtousetheirrighthands.Todayleft-handednessisgenerally3butitisstilladisadvantageinaworld4mostpeopleareright-handed.Forexamplemosttoolsandimplementsarestill5forright-handedpeople. Insports6contrastdoingthingswiththelefthandorfoot.isoftenanadvantage.Throwingkickingpunchingorbattingfromthe"7"sidemayresultinthrowing8manyopponentswhoaremoreaccustomedtodealingwiththe9ofplayerswhoareright-handed.Thisiswhyinmany10ataprofessionallevela11proportionofplayersareleft-handedthaninthepopulationasawhole. Theword"right"inmanylanguagesmeans"correct"oris12withlawfulnesswhereasthewordsassociated13"left"suchas"sinister"generallyhave14associations.Moreoveramonganumberofprimitivepeoplesthereis15closeassociationbetweendeathandthelefthand. Inthepastin16westernsocietieschildrenwereoftenforcedtousetheirrighthandsespeciallytowritewith.Insomecasesthelefthandwas17behindthechild’sbacksothatitcouldnotbeused.Ifinthefuturetheyareallowedtochoose18willcertainlybemoreleft-handersandprobably19peoplewithminorpsychologicaldisturbancesasaresultofbeingforcedtousetheir20hand. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.16
[A]Humanhistorycontainsgreatstoriesthatcanhelpusappreciatemoreaboutpastlife. [B]Thegreatachievementcanprovidemotivationforlearners. [C]Makingusmorehumanmorethananythingelseisthepurposeofstudyinghistory. [D]Learninghistorycanleadamorecolorfullife. [E]Historycantelluswhenweshouldgiveup. [F]Historycanteachusalessonfromitsmistakes. Thespeakerallegesthatstudyinghistoryisvaluableonlyinsofarasitisrelevanttoourdailylives.Ifindthisallegationtobespecious.Itwronglysuggeststhathistoryisnototherwiseinstructiveandthatitsrelevancetooureverydaylivesislimited.Tothecontrarystudyinghistoryprovidesinspirationinnumerablelessonsforlivingandusefulvalueclarificationandperspective—allofwhichhelpusdecidehowtoliveourlives. 41.______ Tobeginwithlearningaboutgreathumanachievementsofthepastprovidesinspiration.Forexampleastudentinspiredbythecourageandtenacityofhistory’sgreatexplorersmightdecideasaresulttopursueacareerinarcheologyoceanographyorastronomy.Thisdecisioncaninturnprofoundlyaffectthatstudent’severydaylife—inschoolandbeyond.Evenforstudentsnotinclinedtopursuethesesortsofcareersstudyinghistoricalexamplesofcourageinthefaceofadversitycanprovidemotivationtofacetheirownpersonalfearsinlife.Inshortlearningaboutgrandaccomplishmentsofthepastcanhelpusgetthroughtheeverydaybusinessoflivingwhateverthatbusinessmightbebyemboldeningusandliftingourspirits. 42.______ Inadditionmistakesofthepastcanteachusasasocietyhowtoavoidrepeatingthosemistakes.Forexamplehistorycanteachustheinappropriatenessofaddressingcertainsocialissuesparticularlymoralonesonasocietallevel.AttemptstolegislatemoralityinvariablyfailasaptlyillustratedbytheProhibitionexperimentintheU.S.duringthe1930s.Hopefullyasasocietywecanapplythislessonbyadoptingamoreenlightenedlegislativeapproachtowardsuchissuesasfreespeechcriminalizationofdrugusecriminaljusticeandequalrightsunderthelaw. 43.______ Studyinghumanhistorycanalsohelpusunderstandandappreciatethemoresvaluesandidealsofpastcultures.Aheightenedawarenessofculturalevolutioninturnhelpsusformulateinformedandreflectivevaluesandidealsforourselves.Basedonthesevaluesandidealsstudentscandeterminetheirauthenticlifepathaswellashowtheyshouldallottheirtimeandinteractwithothersonaday-to-daybasis. 44.______ Finallyitmightbetemptingtoimplyfromthespeaker’sallegationthatstudyinghistoryhaslittlerelevanceevenforthemundanechoresthatoccupysomuchofourtimeeachdayandthereforeisoflittlevalue.Howeverfromhistorywelearnnottotakeeverydayactivitiesandthingsforgranted.Byunderstandingthehistoryofmoneyandbankingwecantransformanotherwiseroutinetriptothebankintoanenlightenedexperienceoravisittothegrocerystoreintoanhomagetothemanyinventorsscientistsengineersandentrepreneursofthepastwhohavemadesuchconveniencepossibletoday.Andwecanfullyappreciateourfreedomtogoaboutourdaffyliveslargelyaswechooseonlybyunderstandingourpoliticalheritage.Inshortappreciatinghistorycanservetoelevateoureverydaychorestorichermoreinterestingandmoreenjoyableexperiences. 45.______ Insumthespeakerfailstorecognizethatinallouractivitiesanddecisions--fromourgrandesttoourmostrote--historycaninspireinformguideandnurture.Inthefinalanalysistostudyhistoryistogainthecapacitytobemorehuman--andIwouldbehard-pressedtoimagineaworthierend. 44
Effectivecommunicationisessentialforallorganisations.ItlinkstheactivitiesofthevariouspartsoftheorganisationandensuresthateveryoneisworkingtowardsaCommongoal.Itisalsoextremelyimportantformotivatingemployees.Staffneedtoknowhowtheyaregettingonwhattheyaredoingrightandinwhichareastheycouldimprove.Workingalonecanbeextremelydifficultanditismucheasierifsomeonetakesaninterestandprovidessupport.Employeesneedtounderstandwhytheirjobisimportantandhowitcontributestotheoverallsuccessofthefirm.Personalcommunicationshouldalsoincludetargetsetting.Peopleusuallyrespondwelltogoalsprovidedtheseareagreedbetweenthemanagerandsubordinateandnotimposed. Howeverfirmsoftenhavecommunicationsproblemsthatcanunderminetheirperformance.Inmanycasestheseproblemsoccurbecausemessagesarepassedoninaninappropriateway.Thereareofcourseseveralwaysofconveyinginformationtoothersintheorganisation.Theseincludespeakingtothemdirectlye-mailingtelephoningorsendingamemo.Themostappropriatemethoddependsonwhatexactlyitisyouarecommunicating.Forexampleanythingthatisparticularlysensitiveorconfidentialsuchasanemployee’sappraisalshouldbedoneface-to-face. Oneofthemainproblemsforseniorexecutivesisthattheydonothavethetimeorresourcesneededtocommunicateeffectively.Inlargecompaniesforexampleitisimpossibleforseniormanagerstomeetanddiscussprogresswitheachemployeeindividually.Obviouslythistaskcanbedelegatedbutatthecostofcreatingagapbetweenseniormanagementandstaff.Asaresultmanagersareoftenforcedtouseothermethodsofcommunication.Likememosornoteseveniftheyknowthesearenotnecessarilythemostsuitablemeansofpassingonmessages. Theuseoftechnologysuchase-mailmobilephonesandnetworksystemisspeedingupcommunicationimmensely.Howeverthisdoesnotmeanthatmoreinvestmentintechnologyautomaticallyprovesbeneficialsystemscanbecomeoutdatedoremployeesmaylackappropriatetraining.Therearemanycommunicationstoolsnowavailablebutafirmcannotaffordallofthem.Evenifitcoulditdoesnotactuallyneedthemall.Thepotentialgainsmustbeweighedupagainstthecostsandfirmsshouldrealisethatmorecommunicationdoesnotnecessarilymeanbettercommunication. Asthenumberofpeopleinvolvedinanorganisationincreasetheuseofwrittencommunicationrisesevenfaster.Insteadofaquickconversationtosortsomethingoutnumerousmessagescanbepassedbackwardsandforwards.Thiscanleadtoatremendousamountofpaperworkandisoftenlesseffectivethanfacetofacecommunication.Whenyouareactuallytalkingtosomeoneyoucandiscussthingsuntilyouarehappytheyhaveunderstoodandfeedbackisimmediate.Withwrittenmessageshoweveryouareneverquitesurehowitwillbereceived.Whatyouthinkyouhavesaidandwhattheotherpersonthinksyouhavesaidcanbeverydifferent. Theamountofwritteninformationgeneratedinlargeorganisationstodaycanleadtocommunicationoverload.Somuchinformationisgatheredthatitgetsinthe-wayofmakingdecisions.Takealookattheaveragemanager’sdeskandyouwillseetheproblem—itisoftencoveredinlettersreportsandmemos.Thisoverloadcanleadtoinefficiencies.Forexamplemanagersmaynotbeabletofindtheinformationtheywantwhentheyneedit.Communicationisalsobecomingmoredifficultwiththechangesoccurringinemploymentpatterns.Withmorepeopleworkingpart-timeandworkingfromhomemanagingcommunicationisbecomingincreasinglycomplex. Accordingtothewriterthebestwayofachievingeffectivecommunicationisto
Themajorityofpeopleaboutnineoutoftenareright-handed.1untilrecentlypeoplewhowereleft-handedwereconsidered2andoncechildrenshowedthistendencytheywereforcedtousetheirrighthands.Todayleft-handednessisgenerally3butitisstilladisadvantageinaworld4mostpeopleareright-handed.Forexamplemosttoolsandimplementsarestill5forright-handedpeople. Insports6contrastdoingthingswiththelefthandorfoot.isoftenanadvantage.Throwingkickingpunchingorbattingfromthe"7"sidemayresultinthrowing8manyopponentswhoaremoreaccustomedtodealingwiththe9ofplayerswhoareright-handed.Thisiswhyinmany10ataprofessionallevela11proportionofplayersareleft-handedthaninthepopulationasawhole. Theword"right"inmanylanguagesmeans"correct"oris12withlawfulnesswhereasthewordsassociated13"left"suchas"sinister"generallyhave14associations.Moreoveramonganumberofprimitivepeoplesthereis15closeassociationbetweendeathandthelefthand. Inthepastin16westernsocietieschildrenwereoftenforcedtousetheirrighthandsespeciallytowritewith.Insomecasesthelefthandwas17behindthechild’sbacksothatitcouldnotbeused.Ifinthefuturetheyareallowedtochoose18willcertainlybemoreleft-handersandprobably19peoplewithminorpsychologicaldisturbancesasaresultofbeingforcedtousetheir20hand. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.8
Themajorityofpeopleaboutnineoutoftenareright-handed.1untilrecentlypeoplewhowereleft-handedwereconsidered2andoncechildrenshowedthistendencytheywereforcedtousetheirrighthands.Todayleft-handednessisgenerally3butitisstilladisadvantageinaworld4mostpeopleareright-handed.Forexamplemosttoolsandimplementsarestill5forright-handedpeople. Insports6contrastdoingthingswiththelefthandorfoot.isoftenanadvantage.Throwingkickingpunchingorbattingfromthe"7"sidemayresultinthrowing8manyopponentswhoaremoreaccustomedtodealingwiththe9ofplayerswhoareright-handed.Thisiswhyinmany10ataprofessionallevela11proportionofplayersareleft-handedthaninthepopulationasawhole. Theword"right"inmanylanguagesmeans"correct"oris12withlawfulnesswhereasthewordsassociated13"left"suchas"sinister"generallyhave14associations.Moreoveramonganumberofprimitivepeoplesthereis15closeassociationbetweendeathandthelefthand. Inthepastin16westernsocietieschildrenwereoftenforcedtousetheirrighthandsespeciallytowritewith.Insomecasesthelefthandwas17behindthechild’sbacksothatitcouldnotbeused.Ifinthefuturetheyareallowedtochoose18willcertainlybemoreleft-handersandprobably19peoplewithminorpsychologicaldisturbancesasaresultofbeingforcedtousetheir20hand. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.14
Themajorityofpeopleaboutnineoutoftenareright-handed.1untilrecentlypeoplewhowereleft-handedwereconsidered2andoncechildrenshowedthistendencytheywereforcedtousetheirrighthands.Todayleft-handednessisgenerally3butitisstilladisadvantageinaworld4mostpeopleareright-handed.Forexamplemosttoolsandimplementsarestill5forright-handedpeople. Insports6contrastdoingthingswiththelefthandorfoot.isoftenanadvantage.Throwingkickingpunchingorbattingfromthe"7"sidemayresultinthrowing8manyopponentswhoaremoreaccustomedtodealingwiththe9ofplayerswhoareright-handed.Thisiswhyinmany10ataprofessionallevela11proportionofplayersareleft-handedthaninthepopulationasawhole. Theword"right"inmanylanguagesmeans"correct"oris12withlawfulnesswhereasthewordsassociated13"left"suchas"sinister"generallyhave14associations.Moreoveramonganumberofprimitivepeoplesthereis15closeassociationbetweendeathandthelefthand. Inthepastin16westernsocietieschildrenwereoftenforcedtousetheirrighthandsespeciallytowritewith.Insomecasesthelefthandwas17behindthechild’sbacksothatitcouldnotbeused.Ifinthefuturetheyareallowedtochoose18willcertainlybemoreleft-handersandprobably19peoplewithminorpsychologicaldisturbancesasaresultofbeingforcedtousetheir20hand. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.10
Themajorityofpeopleaboutnineoutoftenareright-handed.1untilrecentlypeoplewhowereleft-handedwereconsidered2andoncechildrenshowedthistendencytheywereforcedtousetheirrighthands.Todayleft-handednessisgenerally3butitisstilladisadvantageinaworld4mostpeopleareright-handed.Forexamplemosttoolsandimplementsarestill5forright-handedpeople. Insports6contrastdoingthingswiththelefthandorfoot.isoftenanadvantage.Throwingkickingpunchingorbattingfromthe"7"sidemayresultinthrowing8manyopponentswhoaremoreaccustomedtodealingwiththe9ofplayerswhoareright-handed.Thisiswhyinmany10ataprofessionallevela11proportionofplayersareleft-handedthaninthepopulationasawhole. Theword"right"inmanylanguagesmeans"correct"oris12withlawfulnesswhereasthewordsassociated13"left"suchas"sinister"generallyhave14associations.Moreoveramonganumberofprimitivepeoplesthereis15closeassociationbetweendeathandthelefthand. Inthepastin16westernsocietieschildrenwereoftenforcedtousetheirrighthandsespeciallytowritewith.Insomecasesthelefthandwas17behindthechild’sbacksothatitcouldnotbeused.Ifinthefuturetheyareallowedtochoose18willcertainlybemoreleft-handersandprobably19peoplewithminorpsychologicaldisturbancesasaresultofbeingforcedtousetheir20hand. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.12
Cultureisthesumtotalofallthetraditionscustomsbeliefandwaysoflifeofagivengroupofhumanbeings.Inthissenseeverygrouphasaculturehoweversavageundevelopedoruncivilizeditmayseemtous. Totheprofessionalanthropologistthereisnointrinsicsuperiorityofonecultureoveranotherjustastotheprofessionallinguistthereisnointrinsichierarchyamonglanguages. Peopleoncethoughtofthelanguagesofbackwardgroupsassavageundevelopedformofspeechconsistinglargelyofgruntsandgroans.Whileitispossiblethatlanguageingeneralbeganasaseriesofgruntsandgroansitisafactestablishedbythestudyof"backward"languagesthatnospokentongueanswersthatdescriptiontoday.Mostlanguagesofuncivilizedgroupsarebyourmostseverestandardsextremelycomplexdelicateandingeniouspiecesofmachineryforthetransferofideas.Theyfallbehindthewesternlanguagesnotintheirsoundpatternsorgrammaticalstructureswhichusuallyarefullyadequateforalllanguageneedsbutonlyintheirvocabularieswhichreflecttheobjectsandactivitiesknowntotheirspeakers.Eveninthisdepartmenthowevertwothingsaretohenoted:1.Alllanguagesseemtopossessthemachineryforvocabularyexpansion;eitherbyputtingtogetherwordsalreadyinexistenceorbyborrowingthemfromotherlanguagesandadaptingthemtotheirownsystem.2.Theobjectsandactivitiesrequiringnamesanddistinctionsin"backward"languageswhiledifferentfromours;areoftensurprisinglynumerousandcomplicated.Awesternlanguagedistinguishesmerelybetweentwodegreesofremoteness"this"and"that";somelanguagesoftheAmericanIndiansdistinguishbetweenwhatisclosetothespeakerorthepersonaddressedorremotefrombothoroutofsightorinthepastorinthefuture. Thisstudyoflanguageinturncastsanewlightupontheclaimoftheanthropologiststhatallculturesaretoviewedindependentlyandwithoutideasofrankorhierarchy. Judgingfromthepassagetheauthormightbe
Researchersinvestigatingbrainsizeandmentalabilitysaytheirworkoffersevidencethateducationprotectsthemindfromthebrain’sphysicaldeterioration. 46isknownthatthebrainshrinksasthebodyagesbuttheeffectsonmentalabilityaredifferentfrompersontoperson.Interestinglyinastudyofelderlymenandwomenthosewhohadmoreeducationactuallyhadmorebrainshrinkage. "Thatmayseemlikebadnews"saidstudyauthorDr.EdwardCoffeyaprofessorofpsychiatryandofneurologyatHenryFordHealthSysteminDetroit. 47Howeverheexplainedthefindingsuggeststhateducationallowspeopletowithstandmorebraintissuelossbeforetheirmentalfunctioningbeginstobreakdown.. ThestudypublishedintheJulyissueofNeurologyisthefirsttoprovidebiologicalevidencetosupportaconceptcalledthe"reserve"hypothesisaccordingtotheresearchers.Inrecentyearsinvestigatorshavedevelopedtheideathatpeoplewhoaremoreeducatedhavegreatercognitivereservestodrawuponasthebrainages;inessencetheyhavemorebraintissuetospare. 48Examiningbrainscansof320healthymenandwomenaged66to90researchersfoundthatforeachyearofeducationthesubjectshadtherewasgreatershrinkageoftheouterlayerofthebrainknownasthecortex.Yetontestsofcognitionandmemoryallparticipantsscoredintherangeindicatingnormal. "Everyonehassomedegreeofbrainshrinkage"Coffeysaid."Peopleloseonaverage2.5percentperdecadestartinginadulthood." Thereishowevera"remarkablerange"ofshrinkageamongpeoplewhoshownosignsofmentaldeclineCoffeynoted.Overallhealthhesaidaccountsforsomedifferencesinbrainsize.Alcoholordruguseaswellasmedicalconditionssuchasdiabetesandhighbloodpressurecontributetobraintissuelossthroughoutadulthood. IntheabsenceofsuchmedicalconditionsCoffeysaideducationlevelhelpsexplaintherangeofbrainshrinkageexhibitedamongthementally-fitelderly.Themore-educatedcanwithstandgreaterloss. 49Coffeyandcolleaguesgaugedshrinkageofthecortexbymeasuringthecerebrospinalfluidsurroundingthebrain.Thegreatertheamountoffluidthegreaterthecorticalshrinkage. Controllingforthehealthfactorsthatcontributetobraininjurytheresearchersfoundthateducationwasrelatedtotheseverityofbrainshrinkage.Foreachyearofeducationfromfirstgradeonsubjectshadanaverageof1.77millilitersmorecerebrospinalfluidaroundthebrain.Justhoweducationmightaffectbraincellsisunknown. 50Intheirreporttheresearchersspeculatedthatinpeoplewithmoreeducationcertainbrainstructuresdeeperthanthecortexmaystayintacttocompensateforcorticalshrinkage. Examiningbrainscansof320healthymenandwomenaged66to90researchersfoundthatforeachyearofeducationthesubjectshadtherewasgreatershrinkageoftheouterlayerofthebrainknownasthecortex.
Themajorityofpeopleaboutnineoutoftenareright-handed.1untilrecentlypeoplewhowereleft-handedwereconsidered2andoncechildrenshowedthistendencytheywereforcedtousetheirrighthands.Todayleft-handednessisgenerally3butitisstilladisadvantageinaworld4mostpeopleareright-handed.Forexamplemosttoolsandimplementsarestill5forright-handedpeople. Insports6contrastdoingthingswiththelefthandorfoot.isoftenanadvantage.Throwingkickingpunchingorbattingfromthe"7"sidemayresultinthrowing8manyopponentswhoaremoreaccustomedtodealingwiththe9ofplayerswhoareright-handed.Thisiswhyinmany10ataprofessionallevela11proportionofplayersareleft-handedthaninthepopulationasawhole. Theword"right"inmanylanguagesmeans"correct"oris12withlawfulnesswhereasthewordsassociated13"left"suchas"sinister"generallyhave14associations.Moreoveramonganumberofprimitivepeoplesthereis15closeassociationbetweendeathandthelefthand. Inthepastin16westernsocietieschildrenwereoftenforcedtousetheirrighthandsespeciallytowritewith.Insomecasesthelefthandwas17behindthechild’sbacksothatitcouldnotbeused.Ifinthefuturetheyareallowedtochoose18willcertainlybemoreleft-handersandprobably19peoplewithminorpsychologicaldisturbancesasaresultofbeingforcedtousetheir20hand. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.20
[A]Humanhistorycontainsgreatstoriesthatcanhelpusappreciatemoreaboutpastlife. [B]Thegreatachievementcanprovidemotivationforlearners. [C]Makingusmorehumanmorethananythingelseisthepurposeofstudyinghistory. [D]Learninghistorycanleadamorecolorfullife. [E]Historycantelluswhenweshouldgiveup. [F]Historycanteachusalessonfromitsmistakes. Thespeakerallegesthatstudyinghistoryisvaluableonlyinsofarasitisrelevanttoourdailylives.Ifindthisallegationtobespecious.Itwronglysuggeststhathistoryisnototherwiseinstructiveandthatitsrelevancetooureverydaylivesislimited.Tothecontrarystudyinghistoryprovidesinspirationinnumerablelessonsforlivingandusefulvalueclarificationandperspective—allofwhichhelpusdecidehowtoliveourlives. 41.______ Tobeginwithlearningaboutgreathumanachievementsofthepastprovidesinspiration.Forexampleastudentinspiredbythecourageandtenacityofhistory’sgreatexplorersmightdecideasaresulttopursueacareerinarcheologyoceanographyorastronomy.Thisdecisioncaninturnprofoundlyaffectthatstudent’severydaylife—inschoolandbeyond.Evenforstudentsnotinclinedtopursuethesesortsofcareersstudyinghistoricalexamplesofcourageinthefaceofadversitycanprovidemotivationtofacetheirownpersonalfearsinlife.Inshortlearningaboutgrandaccomplishmentsofthepastcanhelpusgetthroughtheeverydaybusinessoflivingwhateverthatbusinessmightbebyemboldeningusandliftingourspirits. 42.______ Inadditionmistakesofthepastcanteachusasasocietyhowtoavoidrepeatingthosemistakes.Forexamplehistorycanteachustheinappropriatenessofaddressingcertainsocialissuesparticularlymoralonesonasocietallevel.AttemptstolegislatemoralityinvariablyfailasaptlyillustratedbytheProhibitionexperimentintheU.S.duringthe1930s.Hopefullyasasocietywecanapplythislessonbyadoptingamoreenlightenedlegislativeapproachtowardsuchissuesasfreespeechcriminalizationofdrugusecriminaljusticeandequalrightsunderthelaw. 43.______ Studyinghumanhistorycanalsohelpusunderstandandappreciatethemoresvaluesandidealsofpastcultures.Aheightenedawarenessofculturalevolutioninturnhelpsusformulateinformedandreflectivevaluesandidealsforourselves.Basedonthesevaluesandidealsstudentscandeterminetheirauthenticlifepathaswellashowtheyshouldallottheirtimeandinteractwithothersonaday-to-daybasis. 44.______ Finallyitmightbetemptingtoimplyfromthespeaker’sallegationthatstudyinghistoryhaslittlerelevanceevenforthemundanechoresthatoccupysomuchofourtimeeachdayandthereforeisoflittlevalue.Howeverfromhistorywelearnnottotakeeverydayactivitiesandthingsforgranted.Byunderstandingthehistoryofmoneyandbankingwecantransformanotherwiseroutinetriptothebankintoanenlightenedexperienceoravisittothegrocerystoreintoanhomagetothemanyinventorsscientistsengineersandentrepreneursofthepastwhohavemadesuchconveniencepossibletoday.Andwecanfullyappreciateourfreedomtogoaboutourdaffyliveslargelyaswechooseonlybyunderstandingourpoliticalheritage.Inshortappreciatinghistorycanservetoelevateoureverydaychorestorichermoreinterestingandmoreenjoyableexperiences. 45.______ Insumthespeakerfailstorecognizethatinallouractivitiesanddecisions--fromourgrandesttoourmostrote--historycaninspireinformguideandnurture.Inthefinalanalysistostudyhistoryistogainthecapacitytobemorehuman--andIwouldbehard-pressedtoimagineaworthierend. 42
Effectivecommunicationisessentialforallorganisations.ItlinkstheactivitiesofthevariouspartsoftheorganisationandensuresthateveryoneisworkingtowardsaCommongoal.Itisalsoextremelyimportantformotivatingemployees.Staffneedtoknowhowtheyaregettingonwhattheyaredoingrightandinwhichareastheycouldimprove.Workingalonecanbeextremelydifficultanditismucheasierifsomeonetakesaninterestandprovidessupport.Employeesneedtounderstandwhytheirjobisimportantandhowitcontributestotheoverallsuccessofthefirm.Personalcommunicationshouldalsoincludetargetsetting.Peopleusuallyrespondwelltogoalsprovidedtheseareagreedbetweenthemanagerandsubordinateandnotimposed. Howeverfirmsoftenhavecommunicationsproblemsthatcanunderminetheirperformance.Inmanycasestheseproblemsoccurbecausemessagesarepassedoninaninappropriateway.Thereareofcourseseveralwaysofconveyinginformationtoothersintheorganisation.Theseincludespeakingtothemdirectlye-mailingtelephoningorsendingamemo.Themostappropriatemethoddependsonwhatexactlyitisyouarecommunicating.Forexampleanythingthatisparticularlysensitiveorconfidentialsuchasanemployee’sappraisalshouldbedoneface-to-face. Oneofthemainproblemsforseniorexecutivesisthattheydonothavethetimeorresourcesneededtocommunicateeffectively.Inlargecompaniesforexampleitisimpossibleforseniormanagerstomeetanddiscussprogresswitheachemployeeindividually.Obviouslythistaskcanbedelegatedbutatthecostofcreatingagapbetweenseniormanagementandstaff.Asaresultmanagersareoftenforcedtouseothermethodsofcommunication.Likememosornoteseveniftheyknowthesearenotnecessarilythemostsuitablemeansofpassingonmessages. Theuseoftechnologysuchase-mailmobilephonesandnetworksystemisspeedingupcommunicationimmensely.Howeverthisdoesnotmeanthatmoreinvestmentintechnologyautomaticallyprovesbeneficialsystemscanbecomeoutdatedoremployeesmaylackappropriatetraining.Therearemanycommunicationstoolsnowavailablebutafirmcannotaffordallofthem.Evenifitcoulditdoesnotactuallyneedthemall.Thepotentialgainsmustbeweighedupagainstthecostsandfirmsshouldrealisethatmorecommunicationdoesnotnecessarilymeanbettercommunication. Asthenumberofpeopleinvolvedinanorganisationincreasetheuseofwrittencommunicationrisesevenfaster.Insteadofaquickconversationtosortsomethingoutnumerousmessagescanbepassedbackwardsandforwards.Thiscanleadtoatremendousamountofpaperworkandisoftenlesseffectivethanfacetofacecommunication.Whenyouareactuallytalkingtosomeoneyoucandiscussthingsuntilyouarehappytheyhaveunderstoodandfeedbackisimmediate.Withwrittenmessageshoweveryouareneverquitesurehowitwillbereceived.Whatyouthinkyouhavesaidandwhattheotherpersonthinksyouhavesaidcanbeverydifferent. Theamountofwritteninformationgeneratedinlargeorganisationstodaycanleadtocommunicationoverload.Somuchinformationisgatheredthatitgetsinthe-wayofmakingdecisions.Takealookattheaveragemanager’sdeskandyouwillseetheproblem—itisoftencoveredinlettersreportsandmemos.Thisoverloadcanleadtoinefficiencies.Forexamplemanagersmaynotbeabletofindtheinformationtheywantwhentheyneedit.Communicationisalsobecomingmoredifficultwiththechangesoccurringinemploymentpatterns.Withmorepeopleworkingpart-timeandworkingfromhomemanagingcommunicationisbecomingincreasinglycomplex. Whatadviceisgivenaboutthecommunicationtoolsmadeavailablebytechnology
Cultureisthesumtotalofallthetraditionscustomsbeliefandwaysoflifeofagivengroupofhumanbeings.Inthissenseeverygrouphasaculturehoweversavageundevelopedoruncivilizeditmayseemtous. Totheprofessionalanthropologistthereisnointrinsicsuperiorityofonecultureoveranotherjustastotheprofessionallinguistthereisnointrinsichierarchyamonglanguages. Peopleoncethoughtofthelanguagesofbackwardgroupsassavageundevelopedformofspeechconsistinglargelyofgruntsandgroans.Whileitispossiblethatlanguageingeneralbeganasaseriesofgruntsandgroansitisafactestablishedbythestudyof"backward"languagesthatnospokentongueanswersthatdescriptiontoday.Mostlanguagesofuncivilizedgroupsarebyourmostseverestandardsextremelycomplexdelicateandingeniouspiecesofmachineryforthetransferofideas.Theyfallbehindthewesternlanguagesnotintheirsoundpatternsorgrammaticalstructureswhichusuallyarefullyadequateforalllanguageneedsbutonlyintheirvocabularieswhichreflecttheobjectsandactivitiesknowntotheirspeakers.Eveninthisdepartmenthowevertwothingsaretohenoted:1.Alllanguagesseemtopossessthemachineryforvocabularyexpansion;eitherbyputtingtogetherwordsalreadyinexistenceorbyborrowingthemfromotherlanguagesandadaptingthemtotheirownsystem.2.Theobjectsandactivitiesrequiringnamesanddistinctionsin"backward"languageswhiledifferentfromours;areoftensurprisinglynumerousandcomplicated.Awesternlanguagedistinguishesmerelybetweentwodegreesofremoteness"this"and"that";somelanguagesoftheAmericanIndiansdistinguishbetweenwhatisclosetothespeakerorthepersonaddressedorremotefrombothoroutofsightorinthepastorinthefuture. Thisstudyoflanguageinturncastsanewlightupontheclaimoftheanthropologiststhatallculturesaretoviewedindependentlyandwithoutideasofrankorhierarchy. TheexampleofAmericanIndianlanguagesinthepassageistoillustratethat
By1800abouthalfthepopulationofBrazilhadcomefromAfrica.SohadabouthalfthepopulationofVenezuela.SohadasmallerbutstilllargepartofallthepopulationofTrans-AtlanticrepublicswhetherinNorthCentralorSouthAfricaorintheCaribbeanislands.ItwasthesemenandwomenofAfricandescentconqueredthewildernessoftheAmericasclearingandworkingincountlessfarmsandplantationsfoundingandopeninginnumerableminesofironorpreciousmetals.HarshandpainfulasitwastheoverseasslavetradelikethenotmuchlesspainfulmovementofmillionsofhungryandjoblessmenandwomenfromEuropelaidthefoundationsofAmericanrepublics.TheseAfricansbeyondtheseashavetheirplaceinthestoryofAfricathestoryofWestAfricaforwhattheyattemptedandachievedwasalsoareflectionofthestrongandindependentcivilizationfromwhichtheycame.ConsiderforexampletheheroicandsuccessfulstruggleforindependenceconductedbytheslavesoftheCaribbeanlandofSt.Domingue.In1789atthemomentoftheFrenchRevolutionthisFrenchcolonyintheCaribbeanwasprobablythewealthiestcolonyintheworld.ItstensofthousandsofAfricanslave-workersproducedenormousquantitiesofsugarwholeEuropeancommunitieslivedofftheprofits. WhennewsoftheRevolutioninFrancereachedSt.Dominguetheseslavesclaimedtheirshareinitsidealsandbenefits.Theydemandedtheirfreedom.Whendeniedthistheyroseinrevoltagainsttheirmasters.InyearsofhardfightingagainstlargearmiessentbyFranceandafterwardsagainstlargearmiessentbyBritainthesemenofSt.DominguewontheirfreedomandfoundedtheRepublicofHaiti.Yetmorethanhalfthesesoldiersoffreedomhadmadethe"middlepassage"acrosstheAtlantic.MorethanhalfinotherwordshadbeenborninAfricahadspenttheirchildhoodinAfricaandhadlearnedinAfricatheirrespectforfreedom;whilenearlyalltherestwerethechildrenofparentsorgrandparentsborninAfrica.AndtheywereledbyAfricans:bymenofgeniusandcouragesuchasBoukmantheunforgettableToussaintLouvertureandDessalines. RaisedbyToussaintandhisAfricansthebanneroffreedomacrosstheAtlanticwascarriedfrompeopletopeople.Manythrewofftheirbondage.LargenumbersofmenofAfricanoriginfoughtinthearmiesthatmadetheUnitedStateswhattheyaretoday.ItwasageneralofAfricandescentAntonioMaceowholedthemilitarystruggleforCubanindependenceagainstSpainin1868. LikeothermenofvisionMaceohadnotimeforracismforthefalseideathatoneraceofmenisbetterorworsethananyother.SomeofthewhitesofCubadisagreedwithhim.TheywereSpanishsettlerswhothoughtthatwhitewasgoingtobebetterthanblackeveninanindependentCuba. OnedayMaceowasapproachedbyaSpanishCubanwhosuggestedthattheregimentsofindependencearmyshouldbedividedintowhitesandnon-whites.MaceomadehimareplywhichbecamefamousinCuba."Ifyouwerenotwhite"Maceosaidtothisman"Iwouldhaveyoushotonthespot.ButIdonotwishtobeaccusedofbeingracialistasyouareandsoIletyougobutwiththewarningthatIshallnotbesopatientanothertime.Therevolutionhasnocolor." MaceodecidednottoshoottheSpanishCubanbecause
Researchersinvestigatingbrainsizeandmentalabilitysaytheirworkoffersevidencethateducationprotectsthemindfromthebrain’sphysicaldeterioration. 46isknownthatthebrainshrinksasthebodyagesbuttheeffectsonmentalabilityaredifferentfrompersontoperson.Interestinglyinastudyofelderlymenandwomenthosewhohadmoreeducationactuallyhadmorebrainshrinkage. "Thatmayseemlikebadnews"saidstudyauthorDr.EdwardCoffeyaprofessorofpsychiatryandofneurologyatHenryFordHealthSysteminDetroit. 47Howeverheexplainedthefindingsuggeststhateducationallowspeopletowithstandmorebraintissuelossbeforetheirmentalfunctioningbeginstobreakdown.. ThestudypublishedintheJulyissueofNeurologyisthefirsttoprovidebiologicalevidencetosupportaconceptcalledthe"reserve"hypothesisaccordingtotheresearchers.Inrecentyearsinvestigatorshavedevelopedtheideathatpeoplewhoaremoreeducatedhavegreatercognitivereservestodrawuponasthebrainages;inessencetheyhavemorebraintissuetospare. 48Examiningbrainscansof320healthymenandwomenaged66to90researchersfoundthatforeachyearofeducationthesubjectshadtherewasgreatershrinkageoftheouterlayerofthebrainknownasthecortex.Yetontestsofcognitionandmemoryallparticipantsscoredintherangeindicatingnormal. "Everyonehassomedegreeofbrainshrinkage"Coffeysaid."Peopleloseonaverage2.5percentperdecadestartinginadulthood." Thereishowevera"remarkablerange"ofshrinkageamongpeoplewhoshownosignsofmentaldeclineCoffeynoted.Overallhealthhesaidaccountsforsomedifferencesinbrainsize.Alcoholordruguseaswellasmedicalconditionssuchasdiabetesandhighbloodpressurecontributetobraintissuelossthroughoutadulthood. IntheabsenceofsuchmedicalconditionsCoffeysaideducationlevelhelpsexplaintherangeofbrainshrinkageexhibitedamongthementally-fitelderly.Themore-educatedcanwithstandgreaterloss. 49Coffeyandcolleaguesgaugedshrinkageofthecortexbymeasuringthecerebrospinalfluidsurroundingthebrain.Thegreatertheamountoffluidthegreaterthecorticalshrinkage. Controllingforthehealthfactorsthatcontributetobraininjurytheresearchersfoundthateducationwasrelatedtotheseverityofbrainshrinkage.Foreachyearofeducationfromfirstgradeonsubjectshadanaverageof1.77millilitersmorecerebrospinalfluidaroundthebrain.Justhoweducationmightaffectbraincellsisunknown. 50Intheirreporttheresearchersspeculatedthatinpeoplewithmoreeducationcertainbrainstructuresdeeperthanthecortexmaystayintacttocompensateforcorticalshrinkage. isknownthatthebrainshrinksasthebodyagesbuttheeffectsonmentalabilityaredifferentfrompersontoperson.
By1800abouthalfthepopulationofBrazilhadcomefromAfrica.SohadabouthalfthepopulationofVenezuela.SohadasmallerbutstilllargepartofallthepopulationofTrans-AtlanticrepublicswhetherinNorthCentralorSouthAfricaorintheCaribbeanislands.ItwasthesemenandwomenofAfricandescentconqueredthewildernessoftheAmericasclearingandworkingincountlessfarmsandplantationsfoundingandopeninginnumerableminesofironorpreciousmetals.HarshandpainfulasitwastheoverseasslavetradelikethenotmuchlesspainfulmovementofmillionsofhungryandjoblessmenandwomenfromEuropelaidthefoundationsofAmericanrepublics.TheseAfricansbeyondtheseashavetheirplaceinthestoryofAfricathestoryofWestAfricaforwhattheyattemptedandachievedwasalsoareflectionofthestrongandindependentcivilizationfromwhichtheycame.ConsiderforexampletheheroicandsuccessfulstruggleforindependenceconductedbytheslavesoftheCaribbeanlandofSt.Domingue.In1789atthemomentoftheFrenchRevolutionthisFrenchcolonyintheCaribbeanwasprobablythewealthiestcolonyintheworld.ItstensofthousandsofAfricanslave-workersproducedenormousquantitiesofsugarwholeEuropeancommunitieslivedofftheprofits. WhennewsoftheRevolutioninFrancereachedSt.Dominguetheseslavesclaimedtheirshareinitsidealsandbenefits.Theydemandedtheirfreedom.Whendeniedthistheyroseinrevoltagainsttheirmasters.InyearsofhardfightingagainstlargearmiessentbyFranceandafterwardsagainstlargearmiessentbyBritainthesemenofSt.DominguewontheirfreedomandfoundedtheRepublicofHaiti.Yetmorethanhalfthesesoldiersoffreedomhadmadethe"middlepassage"acrosstheAtlantic.MorethanhalfinotherwordshadbeenborninAfricahadspenttheirchildhoodinAfricaandhadlearnedinAfricatheirrespectforfreedom;whilenearlyalltherestwerethechildrenofparentsorgrandparentsborninAfrica.AndtheywereledbyAfricans:bymenofgeniusandcouragesuchasBoukmantheunforgettableToussaintLouvertureandDessalines. RaisedbyToussaintandhisAfricansthebanneroffreedomacrosstheAtlanticwascarriedfrompeopletopeople.Manythrewofftheirbondage.LargenumbersofmenofAfricanoriginfoughtinthearmiesthatmadetheUnitedStateswhattheyaretoday.ItwasageneralofAfricandescentAntonioMaceowholedthemilitarystruggleforCubanindependenceagainstSpainin1868. LikeothermenofvisionMaceohadnotimeforracismforthefalseideathatoneraceofmenisbetterorworsethananyother.SomeofthewhitesofCubadisagreedwithhim.TheywereSpanishsettlerswhothoughtthatwhitewasgoingtobebetterthanblackeveninanindependentCuba. OnedayMaceowasapproachedbyaSpanishCubanwhosuggestedthattheregimentsofindependencearmyshouldbedividedintowhitesandnon-whites.MaceomadehimareplywhichbecamefamousinCuba."Ifyouwerenotwhite"Maceosaidtothisman"Iwouldhaveyoushotonthespot.ButIdonotwishtobeaccusedofbeingracialistasyouareandsoIletyougobutwiththewarningthatIshallnotbesopatientanothertime.Therevolutionhasnocolor." TotheauthortheimportantthingabouttherevolutionofSt.Domingueisthat
Directions: Lookatthefollowingpictureandwrite’anarticleonhappiness.Yourarticleshouldcoverthepointsbelow: 1describethepicture 2interpretitsmeaningand 3giveyoursuggestionastothebestwaytofindhappiness. Youshouldneatlywrite160--200wordsonANSWERSHEET2.
Researchersinvestigatingbrainsizeandmentalabilitysaytheirworkoffersevidencethateducationprotectsthemindfromthebrain’sphysicaldeterioration. 46isknownthatthebrainshrinksasthebodyagesbuttheeffectsonmentalabilityaredifferentfrompersontoperson.Interestinglyinastudyofelderlymenandwomenthosewhohadmoreeducationactuallyhadmorebrainshrinkage. "Thatmayseemlikebadnews"saidstudyauthorDr.EdwardCoffeyaprofessorofpsychiatryandofneurologyatHenryFordHealthSysteminDetroit. 47Howeverheexplainedthefindingsuggeststhateducationallowspeopletowithstandmorebraintissuelossbeforetheirmentalfunctioningbeginstobreakdown.. ThestudypublishedintheJulyissueofNeurologyisthefirsttoprovidebiologicalevidencetosupportaconceptcalledthe"reserve"hypothesisaccordingtotheresearchers.Inrecentyearsinvestigatorshavedevelopedtheideathatpeoplewhoaremoreeducatedhavegreatercognitivereservestodrawuponasthebrainages;inessencetheyhavemorebraintissuetospare. 48Examiningbrainscansof320healthymenandwomenaged66to90researchersfoundthatforeachyearofeducationthesubjectshadtherewasgreatershrinkageoftheouterlayerofthebrainknownasthecortex.Yetontestsofcognitionandmemoryallparticipantsscoredintherangeindicatingnormal. "Everyonehassomedegreeofbrainshrinkage"Coffeysaid."Peopleloseonaverage2.5percentperdecadestartinginadulthood." Thereishowevera"remarkablerange"ofshrinkageamongpeoplewhoshownosignsofmentaldeclineCoffeynoted.Overallhealthhesaidaccountsforsomedifferencesinbrainsize.Alcoholordruguseaswellasmedicalconditionssuchasdiabetesandhighbloodpressurecontributetobraintissuelossthroughoutadulthood. IntheabsenceofsuchmedicalconditionsCoffeysaideducationlevelhelpsexplaintherangeofbrainshrinkageexhibitedamongthementally-fitelderly.Themore-educatedcanwithstandgreaterloss. 49Coffeyandcolleaguesgaugedshrinkageofthecortexbymeasuringthecerebrospinalfluidsurroundingthebrain.Thegreatertheamountoffluidthegreaterthecorticalshrinkage. Controllingforthehealthfactorsthatcontributetobraininjurytheresearchersfoundthateducationwasrelatedtotheseverityofbrainshrinkage.Foreachyearofeducationfromfirstgradeonsubjectshadanaverageof1.77millilitersmorecerebrospinalfluidaroundthebrain.Justhoweducationmightaffectbraincellsisunknown. 50Intheirreporttheresearchersspeculatedthatinpeoplewithmoreeducationcertainbrainstructuresdeeperthanthecortexmaystayintacttocompensateforcorticalshrinkage. Intheirreporttheresearchersspeculatedthatinpeoplewithmoreeducationcertainbrainstructuresdeeperthanthecortexmaystayintacttocompensateforcorticalshrinkage.
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