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马克思主义政治经济学的研究任务是：
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物质资料生产是
人类最基本的实践活动
马克思主义政治经济学的研究对象
马克思主义政治经济学研究的起点
人类生存和社会发展的基础
______是研究马克思主义政治经济学的枢纽
古典政治经济学和空想社会主义学说是
马克思主义政治经济学的理论基础
马克思主义政治经济学的基石
马克思主义政治经济学的主要理论来源
马克思主义政治经济学的研究对象
下列关于马克思主义政治经济学的说法正确的是
马克思主义政治经济学是教条，是凝固不变的教义
马克思主义政治经济学不是教条，不是凝固不变的教义
马克思主义政治经济学处于不断发展之中
马克思主义政治经济学提出了一些关于未来社会主义的经济思想
我们应该在坚持中发展，在发展中坚持马克思主义政治经济学
马克思主义政治经济学是对英国古典政治经济学的继承
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Asmorepeopleliveclosertogetherandastheyusemachines toproduceleisuretheyfindthattheirleisureandeventheirworkinghours becomespoiltbyaby-productoftheirmachines--namelynoise.Noiseis nowadaysinthenews;ithasacquiredpoliticalstatusandpublicopinionsare demandingmoreandmoreinsistentlythatsomethingmustbedoneabout it.46Tocontrolnoiseistodemandmuchself-discipline annoyancearisesoftenfromlackofcommoncourtesyasenseofproportion thereisusuallyaconflictofinterestifanoiseistobestoppedthe expenditureofmoneyanditisfarmoreeconomicaltodothisearlyratherthan lateandfinallytechnicalknowledge.Technical difficultiesoftenarisefromthesubjective-objectivenatureoftheproblem. Youcandefinetheexcessivespeedofamotor-carintermsofapointerreading onaspeedometer.Butcanyoudefineexcessivenoiseinthesameway47You findthatwithanyexistingsimplenoise-metervehicleswhicharejudgedto beequallynoisymayshowconsiderabledifferenceonthemeter. Thoughtheidealcurefornoiseistostopitatitssourcethismayin manycasesbeimpossible.Thenextremedyistoabsorbitonthewaytothe ear.48Domesticnoisesmayperhapsbecontrolledby forethoughtandcourtesyandindustrialnoisesbygoodplanningandtechnical improvement.Butifwearegoingtoallowfastmotor-cyclesandheavydiesel lorriestopasscontinuouslythroughresidentialandbusinessdistrictsthe communitymustdecideonthecontrolitneedstoexerciseforinthelongrun ithasgottopayforit.49Andifanationistotakepartinmodernair transportitmustenterintointernationalagreementsonthenoisecontrol measuresitwillimposeatitsairports-andherethecostofanyrealcontrolis tobemeasuredinmillionsofdollars.Jetenginesmaybemodifiedtoreduce theirnoiselevelorinsulationfromairtrafficnoisemaybeprovidedbythe purchaseoflandaroundairportsortheinsulationofbuildings.50One estimateisthat＄5.7billionwouldberequiredtoequipallexistingjet engineswithnoisecontroldevices;howeverconsideringthecurrentstateof thearteventakingthisstepwillnotreducenoiselevelsatallpointsto acceptablevalues.Somecombinationofmethodsisprobablynecessary.
Text3 Everyyear100millionholiday-makers aredrawntotheMediterranean.Withonethirdoftheworld’stouristtradeit isthemostpopularofalltheholidaydestinations:itisalsothemost polluted.Ithasonly1percentoftheworld’sseasurfacebut carriesmorethanhalftheoilandtarfloatingonthewaters.Thousandsof factoriespourtheirpoisonintotheMediterraneanandalmosteverycitytown andvillageonthecoastsluicesitssewageuntreatedintothesea. TheresultisthattheMediterraneanwhichnurturedsomany civilizationsisgravelyill-thefirstoftheseastofallvictimtothe abilitiesandattitudesthatevolvedaroundit.Andthepopulationdoesnot merelystiflethelifeofthesea-itthreatensthepeoplewhoinhabitandvisit itsshores.Typhoidparatyphoiddysenterypolioviral hepatitisandfoodpoisoningareendemicintheareaandthereareperiodic outbreaksofcholera.Themournfullitanyofdiseaseiscaused bysewage.Eight-fivepercentofthewastefromtheMediterranean’s120coastal citiesispushedoutintothewaterswheretheirpeopleandvisitorsbatheand fish.Whatismoremostcitiesjustdropitinstraightoffthebeach;rare indeedaretheplaceslikeCannesandTelAvivwhichpipeitevenhalfamile offshore.Lessthan100000ofGreece’sfourmillioncoastal peoplehavetheirsewageproperlytreated-andGreeceisoneofthecleaner countriesofthenorthernshore.Theworstpartsoftheseaare Israeli/LebanoncoastandbetweenBarcelonaandGenoawhichflushesoutover 200tonsofsewageeachyearforeverymileofitslength.Not surprisinglyvastareasoftheshallowsareawashwithbacteriaanditdoesn’t takelongforthesetoreachpeople.ProfessorWilliamBrumfitoftheRoyalFree HospitaloncecalculatedthatanyonewhogoesforaswimintheMediterranean hasaoneinsevenchanceofgettingsomesortofdisease.Otherscientistssay thisisanoverestimate;butalmostallofthemagreethatbathersareat risk.Anevengreaterdangerlurksintheseductiveseafood dishesthataddsomuchinteresttoholidaymenu.Shellfishareprimecarriers ofmanyofthemostviciousdiseasesofthearea.Theyoftengrowamid pollution.Andeveniftheydon’ttheyarefrequentlyinfectedbythepopular practiceoffresheningthemup-throwingfilthywateroverthemin markets.Industryaddsitsownpoisons.Factoriesclusterround thecoastlineandeventhemostmodernrarelyhasproperwaste-treatmentplant. Theydoasmuchdamagetotheseaassewage.Fifteenthousandfactoriesfoulthe ItalianLihurianRiviera.SixtythousandpollutetheTyrrhenianSeabetween SardiniaSicilyandthewestItaliancoast!ThelagoonofVenicealonereceives theeffluentsof76factories.Thousandsoftonsofpesticides areblownoffthefieldsintotheseadetergentsfrommillionsofsinkskill fishandfertilizersflushedouttoseanourishexplosionsofplanktonwhich coverbatherswithitchyslime.Thenthereistheoil-130000 tonspouringeachyearfromships115000tonsmorefromindustriesroundthe shore.RecentstudiesshowthattheMediterraneanisfourtimesaspollutedas thenorthAtlantic20timesasbadasthenorth-eastPacific. Apartfromthenine-mile-wideStraitofGibraltartheMediterraneanis landlockedvirtuallyunabletocleanseitself.Ittakes80yearsforthewater toberenewedthroughthenarrowshallowstraitsfartooslowaprocessto copewiththeremorselessrushofpollution.JudgingfromthecontextthewordlurkLine1Para.9probablymeans______.
Thefirsttwostagesinthedevelopment ofcivilizedmanwereprobablytheinventionofprimitiveweaponsandthe discoveryoffirealthoughnobodyknowsexactlywhenpeopleacquiredtheuse of1.The2of languageisalsoobscure.Nodoubtitbeganverygradually.Animalshaveafew criesthatserve3signals4eventhe highestapeshavenotbeenfoundabletopronouncewords5 withthemostintensiveprofessionalinstruction.Thesuperior brainofmanisapparently6forthemasteringofspeech. Whenmanbecamesufficientlyintelligentwemustsupposethathe7 thenumberofcriesfordifferentpurposes.Itwasagreatclay 8hediscoveredthatspeedcouldbeusedfornarrative.There arethosewhothinkthat9picturelanguageprecededoral language.Aman10apictureonthewallofhiscaveto show11directionhehadgoneor12 preyhehopedtocatch.Probablypicturelanguageandorallanguage developedsidebyside.Iaminclinedtothinkthatlanguage13 themostimportantsinglefactorinthedevelopmentofman. Twoimportantstagescamenot14beforethedawnof writtenhistory.Thefirstwasthedomesticationofanimals;thesecondwas agriculture.Agriculturewas15inhumanprogresstowhich subsequentlytherewasnothingcomparable16ourown machineage.Agriculturemadepossible17immenseincrease inthenumberofthehumanspeciesintheregionswhereitcouldbesuccessfully practised.18wereatfirstonlythoseinwhichnature fertilizedthesoil19eachharvest.Agriculturemetwith violentresistancefromthepastoralnomadsbuttheagriculturalwayoflife prevailedintheend20thephysicalcomfortsit provided.
Thefirsttwostagesinthedevelopment ofcivilizedmanwereprobablytheinventionofprimitiveweaponsandthe discoveryoffirealthoughnobodyknowsexactlywhenpeopleacquiredtheuse of1.The2of languageisalsoobscure.Nodoubtitbeganverygradually.Animalshaveafew criesthatserve3signals4eventhe highestapeshavenotbeenfoundabletopronouncewords5 withthemostintensiveprofessionalinstruction.Thesuperior brainofmanisapparently6forthemasteringofspeech. Whenmanbecamesufficientlyintelligentwemustsupposethathe7 thenumberofcriesfordifferentpurposes.Itwasagreatclay 8hediscoveredthatspeedcouldbeusedfornarrative.There arethosewhothinkthat9picturelanguageprecededoral language.Aman10apictureonthewallofhiscaveto show11directionhehadgoneor12 preyhehopedtocatch.Probablypicturelanguageandorallanguage developedsidebyside.Iaminclinedtothinkthatlanguage13 themostimportantsinglefactorinthedevelopmentofman. Twoimportantstagescamenot14beforethedawnof writtenhistory.Thefirstwasthedomesticationofanimals;thesecondwas agriculture.Agriculturewas15inhumanprogresstowhich subsequentlytherewasnothingcomparable16ourown machineage.Agriculturemadepossible17immenseincrease inthenumberofthehumanspeciesintheregionswhereitcouldbesuccessfully practised.18wereatfirstonlythoseinwhichnature fertilizedthesoil19eachharvest.Agriculturemetwith violentresistancefromthepastoralnomadsbuttheagriculturalwayoflife prevailedintheend20thephysicalcomfortsit provided.
Text2 Centuriesagomandiscoveredthat removingmoisturefromfoodhelpstopreserveitandthattheeasiestwaytodo thisistoexposethefoodtosunandwind.InthiswaytheNorthAmerican IndiansproducepemmicantheScandinaviansmakestockfishandtheArabsdry datesandapricotleather.Allfoodscontainwater-cabbageand otherleafvegetablescontainasmuchas93%waterpotatoesandotherroot vegetables80%leanmeat75%andfishanythingfrom80%to60%dependingonhow fattyitis.Ifthiswaterisremovedtheactivityofthebacteriathatcause foodtodeteriorateischecked.Fruitissun-driedinAsia MinorGreeceSpainandotherMediterraneancountriesandalsoinCalifornia SouthAfricaandAustralia.Themethodsusedvarybutingeneralthefruitis spreadoutontraysindryingyardsinthehotsun.Inordertoprevent darkeningpearspeachesandapricotsareexposedtothefumesofburning sulfurbeforedrying.Plumsformakingprunesandcertainvarietiesofgrapes formakingraisinsandcurrantsaredippedinanalkalinesolutioninorderto cracktheskinsofthefruitslightlyandremovetheirwaxcoatingso increasingtherateofdrying.Nowadaysmostfoodsaredried mechanically.Theconventionalmethodofsuchdehydrationistoputfoodin chambersthroughwhichhotairisblownattemperaturesofabout110℃atentry toabout43℃atexit.Thisistheusualmethodfordryingsuchthingsas vegetablesmincedmeatandfish.Liquidssuchasmilkcoffee teasoupsandeggsmaybedriedbypouringthemoveraheatedhorizontalsteel cylinderorbysprayingthemintoachamberthroughwhichacurrentofhotair passes.Inthefirstcasethedriedmaterialisscrapedofftherollerasa thinfilmwhichisthenbrokenupintosmallthoughstillrelativelycoarse flakes;inthesecondprocessitfallstothebottomofthechamberasafine powder.Whererecognizablepiecesofmeatandvegetablesarerequiredasin souptheingredientsaredriedseparatelyandthenmixed.Dried foodstakeuplessroomandweighlessthanthesamefoodpackedincansor frozenandtheydonotneedtobestoredinspecialconditions.Forthese reasonstheyareinvaluabletoclimbersexplorersandsoldiersinbattlewho havelittlestoragespace.Theyarealsopopularwithhousewivesbecauseit takessolittletimetocookthem.Usuallyitisjustacaseofreplacingthe dried-outmoisturewithboilingwater.Howisthefruitsun-driedinSouthAfrica
Thefirsttwostagesinthedevelopment ofcivilizedmanwereprobablytheinventionofprimitiveweaponsandthe discoveryoffirealthoughnobodyknowsexactlywhenpeopleacquiredtheuse of1.The2of languageisalsoobscure.Nodoubtitbeganverygradually.Animalshaveafew criesthatserve3signals4eventhe highestapeshavenotbeenfoundabletopronouncewords5 withthemostintensiveprofessionalinstruction.Thesuperior brainofmanisapparently6forthemasteringofspeech. Whenmanbecamesufficientlyintelligentwemustsupposethathe7 thenumberofcriesfordifferentpurposes.Itwasagreatclay 8hediscoveredthatspeedcouldbeusedfornarrative.There arethosewhothinkthat9picturelanguageprecededoral language.Aman10apictureonthewallofhiscaveto show11directionhehadgoneor12 preyhehopedtocatch.Probablypicturelanguageandorallanguage developedsidebyside.Iaminclinedtothinkthatlanguage13 themostimportantsinglefactorinthedevelopmentofman. Twoimportantstagescamenot14beforethedawnof writtenhistory.Thefirstwasthedomesticationofanimals;thesecondwas agriculture.Agriculturewas15inhumanprogresstowhich subsequentlytherewasnothingcomparable16ourown machineage.Agriculturemadepossible17immenseincrease inthenumberofthehumanspeciesintheregionswhereitcouldbesuccessfully practised.18wereatfirstonlythoseinwhichnature fertilizedthesoil19eachharvest.Agriculturemetwith violentresistancefromthepastoralnomadsbuttheagriculturalwayoflife prevailedintheend20thephysicalcomfortsit provided.
Text4 Itishardtogetanyagreementonthe precisemeaningofthetermsocialclassIneverydaylifepeopletendtohave adifferentapproachtothosetheyconsidertheirequalsfromthatwhichthey assumewithpeopletheyconsiderhigherorlowerthanthemselvesinthesocial scale.Thecriteriaweusetoplaceanewacquaintancehoweverareacomplex mixtureoffactors.Dresswayofspeakingareaofresidenceinagivencityor provinceeducationandmannersallplayapart.Inthe eighteenth-centuryoneofthefirstmoderneconomistsAdamSmiththoughtthat thewholeannualproduceofthelandandlaborofeverycountry’provided revenuetothreedifferentordersofpeople:Thosewholivebyrentthosewho livebywagesthosewholivebyprofit.Eachsuccessivestageofthe industrialrevolutionhowevermadethesocialstructuremore complicated.Manyintermediategroupsgrewupduringthe nineteenth-centurybetweentheuppermiddleclassandtheworkingclass.There weresmall-scaleindustrialistsaswellaslargeonessmallshopkeepersand tradesmenofficialsandsalariedemployeesskilledandunskilledworkersand professionalmensuchasdoctorsandteachers.Farmersandpeasantscontinuedin allcountriesasindependentgroups.Duringthenineteenthand earlytwentiethcenturiesthepossessionofwealthinevitablyaffecteda person’ssocialposition.Intelligentindustrialistswithinitiativemade fortunesbytheirwitswhichliftedthemintoaneconomicgroupfarhigherthan theirworking-classparents.Buttheylackedthesocialtrainingoftheupper classwhodespisedthemasthenewrich.Theyoftensent theirsonsanddaughterstospecialschoolstoacquiresocialtraining.Here theirchildrenmixedwiththechildrenoftheupperclasseswereacceptedby themandveryoftenfoundmarriagepartnersfromamongthem.Inthesamewaya thriftyhardworkinglabourerthoughnotcleverenoughhimselfmightsavefor hissonenoughtopayforanextendedsecondaryschooleducationinthehope thathewouldmoveintoawhite-collar’occupationcarryingwithitahigher salaryandmoveupinthesocialscale.Inthetwentiethcentury theincreasedtaxationofhigherincomesthegrowthofthesocialservicesand thewiderdevelopmentofeducationalopportunityhaveconsiderablyalteredthe socialoutlook.Theupperclassesnolongerarethesoleoreventhemain possessorsofwealthpowerandeducationthoughinheritedsocialposition stillcarriesconsiderableprestige.Manypeopletodayare hostiletowardsclassdistinctionsandprivilegesandhopetoachievea classlesssociety.Thetroubleisthatasoneinequalityisremovedanother tendstotakeitsplaceandthebestthathasasfarbeenattemptedisa societyinwhichdistinctionsareelasticandinwhicheverymemberhasfair opportunitiesformakingthebestofhis abilities.AdamSmith’ssocialmake-upwasinvalidatedby______.
A.HumanbehaviorB.Culture attributesC.PhysiologyofHomosapiensD. ClassificationofHomosapiensE.Humansociety F.StructureofHomosapiensHumancommonnamegiventoany individualofthespeciesHomosapiensandbyextensiontotheentirespecies. Thetermisalsoappliedtocertainspeciesthatweretheevolutionary forerunnersofHomosapiens.Scientistsconsideralllivingpeoplemembersofa singlespecies.41.__________Homosapiensisidentifiedfor purposesofclassificationasananimalwithabackboneandsegmentedspinal cordthatsucklesitsyoung;thatgestatesitsyoungwiththeaidofaplacenta; thatisequippedwithfive-digitedextremitiesacollarboneandasinglepair ofmammaryglandsonthechest;andthathaseyesatthefrontofthehead stereoscopicvisionandaproportionatelylargebrain.Thespeciesbelongsto thefamilyHominidaethegeneralcharacteristicsofwhicharediscussed below.42.__________Thedetailsofskeletal structuredistinguishingHomosapiensfromthenearestprimaterelatives-the gorillachimpanzeeandorangutan-stemlargelyfromaveryearlyadaptationto acompletelyerectpostureandatwo-footedstridingwalk.TheuniquelyS-shaped spinalcolumnplacesthecenterofgravityofthehumanbodydirectlyoverthe areaofsupportprovidedbythefeetthusgivingstabilityandbalanceinthe uptightposition.Completebipedalisminthehumanfreedthe handtobecomeasupremelysensitiveinstrumentforprecisemanipulationand grasping.Themostimportantstructuraldetailinthisrefinementisthe elongatedhumanthumbwhichcanrotatefreelyandisfullyopposabletothe otherfingers.Thephysiologicalrequirementsforspeechweresecondarily establishedbyerectposturewhichpositionsthevocalcordsforcontrolled breathingandbytheskilleduseofthehands.Thelatterdevelopmentoccursin associationwiththeenlargementandspecializationofabrainareathatisa prerequisiteforrefinedcontrolofthelipsandtongue. 43.__________ThelargebrainofHomosapiensisapproximately doublethatofearlyhumantoolmakers.Thisgreatincreaseinsizeinonly2 millionyearswasachievedbyaprocesscalledneotenywhichisthe prolongationofretentionofimmaturecharacteristics.Thejuvenilestageof brainandskulldevelopmentisprolongedsothattheygrowforalongerperiod oftimeinrelationtothetimerequiredtoreachsexualmaturity.Unlikethe earlyhumanadultskullwithitsslopingforeheadandprominentjawthemodem humanskull-withbiologicallyinsignificantvariations-retainsintomaturitya proportionatelylargesizeinrelationtotherestofthebodyahigh-rounded domestraight-planedfaceandreducedjawsizeallcloselyresemblingthe characteristicsoftheskullinthejuvenilechimpanzee.Itsenlargeddimensions requiredadaptationsforpassagethroughthebirthcanal;consequentlythe humanfemalepelviswidensatmaturityandthehumaninfantisborn prematurely.44.__________Thephysiological adaptationsthatmadehumansmoreflexiblethanotherprimatesallowedforthe developmentofawiderangeofabilitiesandanunparalleledversatilityin behavior.Thebrain’sgreatsizecomplexityandslowmaturationwithneural connectionsbeingaddedthoughatleastthefirst12yearsoflifemeantthat learnedbehaviorcouldlargelymodifystereotypedinstinctiveresponses.New environmentaldemandscouldbemetbyrapidadjustmentsratherthanbyslow geneticselection;thussurvivalinawiderangeofhabitatsandunderextreme conditionseventuallybecamepossiblewithoutfurtherspeciesdifferentiation. Eachnewinfanthoweverwithrelativelyfewinnatetraitsyetwithavast numberofpotentialbehaviorsmustbetaughttoachieveitsbiological potentialasahuman.45.__________Thehuman specieshasauniquecapabilityforcultureinthesenseofconsciousthinking andplanningtransmissionofskillsandsystemsofsocialrelationshipsand creativemodificationoftheenvironment.Theintegratedpatternsofbehavior requiredforplanningandfashioningtoolswereaccomplishedatleast2.5 millionyearsagoandsomeformofadvancedcodeforvocalcommunicationmay alsohaveexistedatthistime.By350000yearsagoplannedhuntingfire makingandthewearingofclothingwerewellestablishedaswaspossibly ritualizeddisposalofthedead.Evidenceofreligionrecordedeventsandart datefrom30000to40000yearsagoandimplyadvancedlanguageandethics forthecomplexorderingofsocialgroupsrequiredforsuchactivities.From aboutthattimethegenusHomobegantostabilizeintotheonegeneralized speciesofHomosapiens.
Text4 Itishardtogetanyagreementonthe precisemeaningofthetermsocialclassIneverydaylifepeopletendtohave adifferentapproachtothosetheyconsidertheirequalsfromthatwhichthey assumewithpeopletheyconsiderhigherorlowerthanthemselvesinthesocial scale.Thecriteriaweusetoplaceanewacquaintancehoweverareacomplex mixtureoffactors.Dresswayofspeakingareaofresidenceinagivencityor provinceeducationandmannersallplayapart.Inthe eighteenth-centuryoneofthefirstmoderneconomistsAdamSmiththoughtthat thewholeannualproduceofthelandandlaborofeverycountry’provided revenuetothreedifferentordersofpeople:Thosewholivebyrentthosewho livebywagesthosewholivebyprofit.Eachsuccessivestageofthe industrialrevolutionhowevermadethesocialstructuremore complicated.Manyintermediategroupsgrewupduringthe nineteenth-centurybetweentheuppermiddleclassandtheworkingclass.There weresmall-scaleindustrialistsaswellaslargeonessmallshopkeepersand tradesmenofficialsandsalariedemployeesskilledandunskilledworkersand professionalmensuchasdoctorsandteachers.Farmersandpeasantscontinuedin allcountriesasindependentgroups.Duringthenineteenthand earlytwentiethcenturiesthepossessionofwealthinevitablyaffecteda person’ssocialposition.Intelligentindustrialistswithinitiativemade fortunesbytheirwitswhichliftedthemintoaneconomicgroupfarhigherthan theirworking-classparents.Buttheylackedthesocialtrainingoftheupper classwhodespisedthemasthenewrich.Theyoftensent theirsonsanddaughterstospecialschoolstoacquiresocialtraining.Here theirchildrenmixedwiththechildrenoftheupperclasseswereacceptedby themandveryoftenfoundmarriagepartnersfromamongthem.Inthesamewaya thriftyhardworkinglabourerthoughnotcleverenoughhimselfmightsavefor hissonenoughtopayforanextendedsecondaryschooleducationinthehope thathewouldmoveintoawhite-collar’occupationcarryingwithitahigher salaryandmoveupinthesocialscale.Inthetwentiethcentury theincreasedtaxationofhigherincomesthegrowthofthesocialservicesand thewiderdevelopmentofeducationalopportunityhaveconsiderablyalteredthe socialoutlook.Theupperclassesnolongerarethesoleoreventhemain possessorsofwealthpowerandeducationthoughinheritedsocialposition stillcarriesconsiderableprestige.Manypeopletodayare hostiletowardsclassdistinctionsandprivilegesandhopetoachievea classlesssociety.Thetroubleisthatasoneinequalityisremovedanother tendstotakeitsplaceandthebestthathasasfarbeenattemptedisa societyinwhichdistinctionsareelasticandinwhicheverymemberhasfair opportunitiesformakingthebestofhis abilities.WhichofthefollowingstatementsdoesNOTtrulydescribethenewrich
Text1 Generallyasavinginenergy consumptionisinsufficientincentivefortheconsumertopurchasenewcooking equipmentunlessotherimprovementse.g.shortercookingperiodsfewer cleaningdifficultiesandimprovedappearanceareavailableaswell.Forthe individualthereisanaturalreticencetoincurrapidchangesbecauseofthe valideconomicdesiretoexploitexistingcapitalinvestmenttothemaximum: thisisthemajorproblemwithmanyproposedenergy-thriftmeasures.However caterersshould’appreciatethatbyreducingenergywastages;theywillnotonly besavingmoneybutalsoimprovingtheworkingenvironmentwithintheir kitchens.Retro-fittingexistingcookerswith energy-conservationimprovementsinordertoraiseachievableefficiencieswill occuronlyrarely.Forthemostimmediatesignificantimpactnationallywith respecttoreducingtheenergyexpendeduponcookingbettermanagementis recommended.Lawsonsuggestedthatabout16PJperyearcouldbesavedinthe Britishcateringsectorbyadoptingimprovedoperationalpractices.Ifonly10% oftheenergyusedforcateringpurposesinthedomesticsectorcouldalsobe savedoverallnationalsavingswouldamounttoapproximately44PJperannum. Toachievethisaimacomprehensiveandstraight-forwardprogramof energy-thrifteducationforhousewivescooksandkitchenmanagersisneeded. Thiswillrequireallconcernedtoexerciseconsiderablepersonal discipline.Thepresentapproachwherebyindividualsmake purchasingdecisionsmainlyonvisualandfirst-costgrounds-partlybecausethe cookingapplianceandfoodmanufacturingindustriesrarelyprovideadequate scientificdatatosupporttheirclaims-shouldbesupplementedbyother considerations.Foodistoofundamentaltohumanlifehealthandhappinessto beconsideredanunworthysubjectbyintellectuals.Forexampleeventhe typicalBritonwhotendstobecasualabouteatingcomparedwithmostofhis foreigncounterpartsspendsbetween5%and13%ofhiswakinghourspreparing cookingand/orcleaningaway’aftermeals.Neverthelessenergywastageprevails bothonanationalscalee.g.storingvastquantitiesoffoodatsub-ambient temperaturesinso-calledfoodmountains;andonanindividualscalee.g. performinghoboperationswithoutplacinglidsonthepansemployed .Ifenergywastagesaretobereducedcooks______.
Direction:Youlearnedfromtoday’spaperthatyourfriendMr.WangHuiwasrecentlyappointededitor-in-chiefofTheEveningNews.Writehimalettertoexpressyourcordialcongratulations. Youshouldwrite100wordsonANSWERSHEET2.Donotsignyourownnameattheendoftheletter.UseLiMinginsteadYoudonotneedtowriteyouraddress.
Text3 Everyyear100millionholiday-makers aredrawntotheMediterranean.Withonethirdoftheworld’stouristtradeit isthemostpopularofalltheholidaydestinations:itisalsothemost polluted.Ithasonly1percentoftheworld’sseasurfacebut carriesmorethanhalftheoilandtarfloatingonthewaters.Thousandsof factoriespourtheirpoisonintotheMediterraneanandalmosteverycitytown andvillageonthecoastsluicesitssewageuntreatedintothesea. TheresultisthattheMediterraneanwhichnurturedsomany civilizationsisgravelyill-thefirstoftheseastofallvictimtothe abilitiesandattitudesthatevolvedaroundit.Andthepopulationdoesnot merelystiflethelifeofthesea-itthreatensthepeoplewhoinhabitandvisit itsshores.Typhoidparatyphoiddysenterypolioviral hepatitisandfoodpoisoningareendemicintheareaandthereareperiodic outbreaksofcholera.Themournfullitanyofdiseaseiscaused bysewage.Eight-fivepercentofthewastefromtheMediterranean’s120coastal citiesispushedoutintothewaterswheretheirpeopleandvisitorsbatheand fish.Whatismoremostcitiesjustdropitinstraightoffthebeach;rare indeedaretheplaceslikeCannesandTelAvivwhichpipeitevenhalfamile offshore.Lessthan100000ofGreece’sfourmillioncoastal peoplehavetheirsewageproperlytreated-andGreeceisoneofthecleaner countriesofthenorthernshore.Theworstpartsoftheseaare Israeli/LebanoncoastandbetweenBarcelonaandGenoawhichflushesoutover 200tonsofsewageeachyearforeverymileofitslength.Not surprisinglyvastareasoftheshallowsareawashwithbacteriaanditdoesn’t takelongforthesetoreachpeople.ProfessorWilliamBrumfitoftheRoyalFree HospitaloncecalculatedthatanyonewhogoesforaswimintheMediterranean hasaoneinsevenchanceofgettingsomesortofdisease.Otherscientistssay thisisanoverestimate;butalmostallofthemagreethatbathersareat risk.Anevengreaterdangerlurksintheseductiveseafood dishesthataddsomuchinteresttoholidaymenu.Shellfishareprimecarriers ofmanyofthemostviciousdiseasesofthearea.Theyoftengrowamid pollution.Andeveniftheydon’ttheyarefrequentlyinfectedbythepopular practiceoffresheningthemup-throwingfilthywateroverthemin markets.Industryaddsitsownpoisons.Factoriesclusterround thecoastlineandeventhemostmodernrarelyhasproperwaste-treatmentplant. Theydoasmuchdamagetotheseaassewage.Fifteenthousandfactoriesfoulthe ItalianLihurianRiviera.SixtythousandpollutetheTyrrhenianSeabetween SardiniaSicilyandthewestItaliancoast!ThelagoonofVenicealonereceives theeffluentsof76factories.Thousandsoftonsofpesticides areblownoffthefieldsintotheseadetergentsfrommillionsofsinkskill fishandfertilizersflushedouttoseanourishexplosionsofplanktonwhich coverbatherswithitchyslime.Thenthereistheoil-130000 tonspouringeachyearfromships115000tonsmorefromindustriesroundthe shore.RecentstudiesshowthattheMediterraneanisfourtimesaspollutedas thenorthAtlantic20timesasbadasthenorth-eastPacific. Apartfromthenine-mile-wideStraitofGibraltartheMediterraneanis landlockedvirtuallyunabletocleanseitself.Ittakes80yearsforthewater toberenewedthroughthenarrowshallowstraitsfartooslowaprocessto copewiththeremorselessrushofpollution.AccordingtothepassagetheMediterranean______.
Thefirsttwostagesinthedevelopment ofcivilizedmanwereprobablytheinventionofprimitiveweaponsandthe discoveryoffirealthoughnobodyknowsexactlywhenpeopleacquiredtheuse of1.The2of languageisalsoobscure.Nodoubtitbeganverygradually.Animalshaveafew criesthatserve3signals4eventhe highestapeshavenotbeenfoundabletopronouncewords5 withthemostintensiveprofessionalinstruction.Thesuperior brainofmanisapparently6forthemasteringofspeech. Whenmanbecamesufficientlyintelligentwemustsupposethathe7 thenumberofcriesfordifferentpurposes.Itwasagreatclay 8hediscoveredthatspeedcouldbeusedfornarrative.There arethosewhothinkthat9picturelanguageprecededoral language.Aman10apictureonthewallofhiscaveto show11directionhehadgoneor12 preyhehopedtocatch.Probablypicturelanguageandorallanguage developedsidebyside.Iaminclinedtothinkthatlanguage13 themostimportantsinglefactorinthedevelopmentofman. Twoimportantstagescamenot14beforethedawnof writtenhistory.Thefirstwasthedomesticationofanimals;thesecondwas agriculture.Agriculturewas15inhumanprogresstowhich subsequentlytherewasnothingcomparable16ourown machineage.Agriculturemadepossible17immenseincrease inthenumberofthehumanspeciesintheregionswhereitcouldbesuccessfully practised.18wereatfirstonlythoseinwhichnature fertilizedthesoil19eachharvest.Agriculturemetwith violentresistancefromthepastoralnomadsbuttheagriculturalwayoflife prevailedintheend20thephysicalcomfortsit provided.
Text2 Centuriesagomandiscoveredthat removingmoisturefromfoodhelpstopreserveitandthattheeasiestwaytodo thisistoexposethefoodtosunandwind.InthiswaytheNorthAmerican IndiansproducepemmicantheScandinaviansmakestockfishandtheArabsdry datesandapricotleather.Allfoodscontainwater-cabbageand otherleafvegetablescontainasmuchas93%waterpotatoesandotherroot vegetables80%leanmeat75%andfishanythingfrom80%to60%dependingonhow fattyitis.Ifthiswaterisremovedtheactivityofthebacteriathatcause foodtodeteriorateischecked.Fruitissun-driedinAsia MinorGreeceSpainandotherMediterraneancountriesandalsoinCalifornia SouthAfricaandAustralia.Themethodsusedvarybutingeneralthefruitis spreadoutontraysindryingyardsinthehotsun.Inordertoprevent darkeningpearspeachesandapricotsareexposedtothefumesofburning sulfurbeforedrying.Plumsformakingprunesandcertainvarietiesofgrapes formakingraisinsandcurrantsaredippedinanalkalinesolutioninorderto cracktheskinsofthefruitslightlyandremovetheirwaxcoatingso increasingtherateofdrying.Nowadaysmostfoodsaredried mechanically.Theconventionalmethodofsuchdehydrationistoputfoodin chambersthroughwhichhotairisblownattemperaturesofabout110℃atentry toabout43℃atexit.Thisistheusualmethodfordryingsuchthingsas vegetablesmincedmeatandfish.Liquidssuchasmilkcoffee teasoupsandeggsmaybedriedbypouringthemoveraheatedhorizontalsteel cylinderorbysprayingthemintoachamberthroughwhichacurrentofhotair passes.Inthefirstcasethedriedmaterialisscrapedofftherollerasa thinfilmwhichisthenbrokenupintosmallthoughstillrelativelycoarse flakes;inthesecondprocessitfallstothebottomofthechamberasafine powder.Whererecognizablepiecesofmeatandvegetablesarerequiredasin souptheingredientsaredriedseparatelyandthenmixed.Dried foodstakeuplessroomandweighlessthanthesamefoodpackedincansor frozenandtheydonotneedtobestoredinspecialconditions.Forthese reasonstheyareinvaluabletoclimbersexplorersandsoldiersinbattlewho havelittlestoragespace.Theyarealsopopularwithhousewivesbecauseit takessolittletimetocookthem.Usuallyitisjustacaseofreplacingthe dried-outmoisturewithboilingwater.Howisthepowderedmilkmadeaccordingtothepassage
Text3 Everyyear100millionholiday-makers aredrawntotheMediterranean.Withonethirdoftheworld’stouristtradeit isthemostpopularofalltheholidaydestinations:itisalsothemost polluted.Ithasonly1percentoftheworld’sseasurfacebut carriesmorethanhalftheoilandtarfloatingonthewaters.Thousandsof factoriespourtheirpoisonintotheMediterraneanandalmosteverycitytown andvillageonthecoastsluicesitssewageuntreatedintothesea. TheresultisthattheMediterraneanwhichnurturedsomany civilizationsisgravelyill-thefirstoftheseastofallvictimtothe abilitiesandattitudesthatevolvedaroundit.Andthepopulationdoesnot merelystiflethelifeofthesea-itthreatensthepeoplewhoinhabitandvisit itsshores.Typhoidparatyphoiddysenterypolioviral hepatitisandfoodpoisoningareendemicintheareaandthereareperiodic outbreaksofcholera.Themournfullitanyofdiseaseiscaused bysewage.Eight-fivepercentofthewastefromtheMediterranean’s120coastal citiesispushedoutintothewaterswheretheirpeopleandvisitorsbatheand fish.Whatismoremostcitiesjustdropitinstraightoffthebeach;rare indeedaretheplaceslikeCannesandTelAvivwhichpipeitevenhalfamile offshore.Lessthan100000ofGreece’sfourmillioncoastal peoplehavetheirsewageproperlytreated-andGreeceisoneofthecleaner countriesofthenorthernshore.Theworstpartsoftheseaare Israeli/LebanoncoastandbetweenBarcelonaandGenoawhichflushesoutover 200tonsofsewageeachyearforeverymileofitslength.Not surprisinglyvastareasoftheshallowsareawashwithbacteriaanditdoesn’t takelongforthesetoreachpeople.ProfessorWilliamBrumfitoftheRoyalFree HospitaloncecalculatedthatanyonewhogoesforaswimintheMediterranean hasaoneinsevenchanceofgettingsomesortofdisease.Otherscientistssay thisisanoverestimate;butalmostallofthemagreethatbathersareat risk.Anevengreaterdangerlurksintheseductiveseafood dishesthataddsomuchinteresttoholidaymenu.Shellfishareprimecarriers ofmanyofthemostviciousdiseasesofthearea.Theyoftengrowamid pollution.Andeveniftheydon’ttheyarefrequentlyinfectedbythepopular practiceoffresheningthemup-throwingfilthywateroverthemin markets.Industryaddsitsownpoisons.Factoriesclusterround thecoastlineandeventhemostmodernrarelyhasproperwaste-treatmentplant. Theydoasmuchdamagetotheseaassewage.Fifteenthousandfactoriesfoulthe ItalianLihurianRiviera.SixtythousandpollutetheTyrrhenianSeabetween SardiniaSicilyandthewestItaliancoast!ThelagoonofVenicealonereceives theeffluentsof76factories.Thousandsoftonsofpesticides areblownoffthefieldsintotheseadetergentsfrommillionsofsinkskill fishandfertilizersflushedouttoseanourishexplosionsofplanktonwhich coverbatherswithitchyslime.Thenthereistheoil-130000 tonspouringeachyearfromships115000tonsmorefromindustriesroundthe shore.RecentstudiesshowthattheMediterraneanisfourtimesaspollutedas thenorthAtlantic20timesasbadasthenorth-eastPacific. Apartfromthenine-mile-wideStraitofGibraltartheMediterraneanis landlockedvirtuallyunabletocleanseitself.Ittakes80yearsforthewater toberenewedthroughthenarrowshallowstraitsfartooslowaprocessto copewiththeremorselessrushofpollution.ItmaybeinferredthattheMediterraneanis______.
Thefirsttwostagesinthedevelopment ofcivilizedmanwereprobablytheinventionofprimitiveweaponsandthe discoveryoffirealthoughnobodyknowsexactlywhenpeopleacquiredtheuse of1.The2of languageisalsoobscure.Nodoubtitbeganverygradually.Animalshaveafew criesthatserve3signals4eventhe highestapeshavenotbeenfoundabletopronouncewords5 withthemostintensiveprofessionalinstruction.Thesuperior brainofmanisapparently6forthemasteringofspeech. Whenmanbecamesufficientlyintelligentwemustsupposethathe7 thenumberofcriesfordifferentpurposes.Itwasagreatclay 8hediscoveredthatspeedcouldbeusedfornarrative.There arethosewhothinkthat9picturelanguageprecededoral language.Aman10apictureonthewallofhiscaveto show11directionhehadgoneor12 preyhehopedtocatch.Probablypicturelanguageandorallanguage developedsidebyside.Iaminclinedtothinkthatlanguage13 themostimportantsinglefactorinthedevelopmentofman. Twoimportantstagescamenot14beforethedawnof writtenhistory.Thefirstwasthedomesticationofanimals;thesecondwas agriculture.Agriculturewas15inhumanprogresstowhich subsequentlytherewasnothingcomparable16ourown machineage.Agriculturemadepossible17immenseincrease inthenumberofthehumanspeciesintheregionswhereitcouldbesuccessfully practised.18wereatfirstonlythoseinwhichnature fertilizedthesoil19eachharvest.Agriculturemetwith violentresistancefromthepastoralnomadsbuttheagriculturalwayoflife prevailedintheend20thephysicalcomfortsit provided.
Asmorepeopleliveclosertogetherandastheyusemachines toproduceleisuretheyfindthattheirleisureandeventheirworkinghours becomespoiltbyaby-productoftheirmachines--namelynoise.Noiseis nowadaysinthenews;ithasacquiredpoliticalstatusandpublicopinionsare demandingmoreandmoreinsistentlythatsomethingmustbedoneabout it.46Tocontrolnoiseistodemandmuchself-discipline annoyancearisesoftenfromlackofcommoncourtesyasenseofproportion thereisusuallyaconflictofinterestifanoiseistobestoppedthe expenditureofmoneyanditisfarmoreeconomicaltodothisearlyratherthan lateandfinallytechnicalknowledge.Technical difficultiesoftenarisefromthesubjective-objectivenatureoftheproblem. Youcandefinetheexcessivespeedofamotor-carintermsofapointerreading onaspeedometer.Butcanyoudefineexcessivenoiseinthesameway47You findthatwithanyexistingsimplenoise-metervehicleswhicharejudgedto beequallynoisymayshowconsiderabledifferenceonthemeter. Thoughtheidealcurefornoiseistostopitatitssourcethismayin manycasesbeimpossible.Thenextremedyistoabsorbitonthewaytothe ear.48Domesticnoisesmayperhapsbecontrolledby forethoughtandcourtesyandindustrialnoisesbygoodplanningandtechnical improvement.Butifwearegoingtoallowfastmotor-cyclesandheavydiesel lorriestopasscontinuouslythroughresidentialandbusinessdistrictsthe communitymustdecideonthecontrolitneedstoexerciseforinthelongrun ithasgottopayforit.49Andifanationistotakepartinmodernair transportitmustenterintointernationalagreementsonthenoisecontrol measuresitwillimposeatitsairports-andherethecostofanyrealcontrolis tobemeasuredinmillionsofdollars.Jetenginesmaybemodifiedtoreduce theirnoiselevelorinsulationfromairtrafficnoisemaybeprovidedbythe purchaseoflandaroundairportsortheinsulationofbuildings.50One estimateisthat＄5.7billionwouldberequiredtoequipallexistingjet engineswithnoisecontroldevices;howeverconsideringthecurrentstateof thearteventakingthisstepwillnotreducenoiselevelsatallpointsto acceptablevalues.Somecombinationofmethodsisprobablynecessary.
Text1 Generallyasavinginenergy consumptionisinsufficientincentivefortheconsumertopurchasenewcooking equipmentunlessotherimprovementse.g.shortercookingperiodsfewer cleaningdifficultiesandimprovedappearanceareavailableaswell.Forthe individualthereisanaturalreticencetoincurrapidchangesbecauseofthe valideconomicdesiretoexploitexistingcapitalinvestmenttothemaximum: thisisthemajorproblemwithmanyproposedenergy-thriftmeasures.However caterersshould’appreciatethatbyreducingenergywastages;theywillnotonly besavingmoneybutalsoimprovingtheworkingenvironmentwithintheir kitchens.Retro-fittingexistingcookerswith energy-conservationimprovementsinordertoraiseachievableefficiencieswill occuronlyrarely.Forthemostimmediatesignificantimpactnationallywith respecttoreducingtheenergyexpendeduponcookingbettermanagementis recommended.Lawsonsuggestedthatabout16PJperyearcouldbesavedinthe Britishcateringsectorbyadoptingimprovedoperationalpractices.Ifonly10% oftheenergyusedforcateringpurposesinthedomesticsectorcouldalsobe savedoverallnationalsavingswouldamounttoapproximately44PJperannum. Toachievethisaimacomprehensiveandstraight-forwardprogramof energy-thrifteducationforhousewivescooksandkitchenmanagersisneeded. Thiswillrequireallconcernedtoexerciseconsiderablepersonal discipline.Thepresentapproachwherebyindividualsmake purchasingdecisionsmainlyonvisualandfirst-costgrounds-partlybecausethe cookingapplianceandfoodmanufacturingindustriesrarelyprovideadequate scientificdatatosupporttheirclaims-shouldbesupplementedbyother considerations.Foodistoofundamentaltohumanlifehealthandhappinessto beconsideredanunworthysubjectbyintellectuals.Forexampleeventhe typicalBritonwhotendstobecasualabouteatingcomparedwithmostofhis foreigncounterpartsspendsbetween5%and13%ofhiswakinghourspreparing cookingand/orcleaningaway’aftermeals.Neverthelessenergywastageprevails bothonanationalscalee.g.storingvastquantitiesoffoodatsub-ambient temperaturesinso-calledfoodmountains;andonanindividualscalee.g. performinghoboperationswithoutplacinglidsonthepansemployed .Foodissofundamentaltohumanlifethat_______.
A.HumanbehaviorB.Culture attributesC.PhysiologyofHomosapiensD. ClassificationofHomosapiensE.Humansociety F.StructureofHomosapiensHumancommonnamegiventoany individualofthespeciesHomosapiensandbyextensiontotheentirespecies. Thetermisalsoappliedtocertainspeciesthatweretheevolutionary forerunnersofHomosapiens.Scientistsconsideralllivingpeoplemembersofa singlespecies.41.__________Homosapiensisidentifiedfor purposesofclassificationasananimalwithabackboneandsegmentedspinal cordthatsucklesitsyoung;thatgestatesitsyoungwiththeaidofaplacenta; thatisequippedwithfive-digitedextremitiesacollarboneandasinglepair ofmammaryglandsonthechest;andthathaseyesatthefrontofthehead stereoscopicvisionandaproportionatelylargebrain.Thespeciesbelongsto thefamilyHominidaethegeneralcharacteristicsofwhicharediscussed below.42.__________Thedetailsofskeletal structuredistinguishingHomosapiensfromthenearestprimaterelatives-the gorillachimpanzeeandorangutan-stemlargelyfromaveryearlyadaptationto acompletelyerectpostureandatwo-footedstridingwalk.TheuniquelyS-shaped spinalcolumnplacesthecenterofgravityofthehumanbodydirectlyoverthe areaofsupportprovidedbythefeetthusgivingstabilityandbalanceinthe uptightposition.Completebipedalisminthehumanfreedthe handtobecomeasupremelysensitiveinstrumentforprecisemanipulationand grasping.Themostimportantstructuraldetailinthisrefinementisthe elongatedhumanthumbwhichcanrotatefreelyandisfullyopposabletothe otherfingers.Thephysiologicalrequirementsforspeechweresecondarily establishedbyerectposturewhichpositionsthevocalcordsforcontrolled breathingandbytheskilleduseofthehands.Thelatterdevelopmentoccursin associationwiththeenlargementandspecializationofabrainareathatisa prerequisiteforrefinedcontrolofthelipsandtongue. 43.__________ThelargebrainofHomosapiensisapproximately doublethatofearlyhumantoolmakers.Thisgreatincreaseinsizeinonly2 millionyearswasachievedbyaprocesscalledneotenywhichisthe prolongationofretentionofimmaturecharacteristics.Thejuvenilestageof brainandskulldevelopmentisprolongedsothattheygrowforalongerperiod oftimeinrelationtothetimerequiredtoreachsexualmaturity.Unlikethe earlyhumanadultskullwithitsslopingforeheadandprominentjawthemodem humanskull-withbiologicallyinsignificantvariations-retainsintomaturitya proportionatelylargesizeinrelationtotherestofthebodyahigh-rounded domestraight-planedfaceandreducedjawsizeallcloselyresemblingthe characteristicsoftheskullinthejuvenilechimpanzee.Itsenlargeddimensions requiredadaptationsforpassagethroughthebirthcanal;consequentlythe humanfemalepelviswidensatmaturityandthehumaninfantisborn prematurely.44.__________Thephysiological adaptationsthatmadehumansmoreflexiblethanotherprimatesallowedforthe developmentofawiderangeofabilitiesandanunparalleledversatilityin behavior.Thebrain’sgreatsizecomplexityandslowmaturationwithneural connectionsbeingaddedthoughatleastthefirst12yearsoflifemeantthat learnedbehaviorcouldlargelymodifystereotypedinstinctiveresponses.New environmentaldemandscouldbemetbyrapidadjustmentsratherthanbyslow geneticselection;thussurvivalinawiderangeofhabitatsandunderextreme conditionseventuallybecamepossiblewithoutfurtherspeciesdifferentiation. Eachnewinfanthoweverwithrelativelyfewinnatetraitsyetwithavast numberofpotentialbehaviorsmustbetaughttoachieveitsbiological potentialasahuman.45.__________Thehuman specieshasauniquecapabilityforcultureinthesenseofconsciousthinking andplanningtransmissionofskillsandsystemsofsocialrelationshipsand creativemodificationoftheenvironment.Theintegratedpatternsofbehavior requiredforplanningandfashioningtoolswereaccomplishedatleast2.5 millionyearsagoandsomeformofadvancedcodeforvocalcommunicationmay alsohaveexistedatthistime.By350000yearsagoplannedhuntingfire makingandthewearingofclothingwerewellestablishedaswaspossibly ritualizeddisposalofthedead.Evidenceofreligionrecordedeventsandart datefrom30000to40000yearsagoandimplyadvancedlanguageandethics forthecomplexorderingofsocialgroupsrequiredforsuchactivities.From aboutthattimethegenusHomobegantostabilizeintotheonegeneralized speciesofHomosapiens.
Text1 Generallyasavinginenergy consumptionisinsufficientincentivefortheconsumertopurchasenewcooking equipmentunlessotherimprovementse.g.shortercookingperiodsfewer cleaningdifficultiesandimprovedappearanceareavailableaswell.Forthe individualthereisanaturalreticencetoincurrapidchangesbecauseofthe valideconomicdesiretoexploitexistingcapitalinvestmenttothemaximum: thisisthemajorproblemwithmanyproposedenergy-thriftmeasures.However caterersshould’appreciatethatbyreducingenergywastages;theywillnotonly besavingmoneybutalsoimprovingtheworkingenvironmentwithintheir kitchens.Retro-fittingexistingcookerswith energy-conservationimprovementsinordertoraiseachievableefficiencieswill occuronlyrarely.Forthemostimmediatesignificantimpactnationallywith respecttoreducingtheenergyexpendeduponcookingbettermanagementis recommended.Lawsonsuggestedthatabout16PJperyearcouldbesavedinthe Britishcateringsectorbyadoptingimprovedoperationalpractices.Ifonly10% oftheenergyusedforcateringpurposesinthedomesticsectorcouldalsobe savedoverallnationalsavingswouldamounttoapproximately44PJperannum. Toachievethisaimacomprehensiveandstraight-forwardprogramof energy-thrifteducationforhousewivescooksandkitchenmanagersisneeded. Thiswillrequireallconcernedtoexerciseconsiderablepersonal discipline.Thepresentapproachwherebyindividualsmake purchasingdecisionsmainlyonvisualandfirst-costgrounds-partlybecausethe cookingapplianceandfoodmanufacturingindustriesrarelyprovideadequate scientificdatatosupporttheirclaims-shouldbesupplementedbyother considerations.Foodistoofundamentaltohumanlifehealthandhappinessto beconsideredanunworthysubjectbyintellectuals.Forexampleeventhe typicalBritonwhotendstobecasualabouteatingcomparedwithmostofhis foreigncounterpartsspendsbetween5%and13%ofhiswakinghourspreparing cookingand/orcleaningaway’aftermeals.Neverthelessenergywastageprevails bothonanationalscalee.g.storingvastquantitiesoffoodatsub-ambient temperaturesinso-calledfoodmountains;andonanindividualscalee.g. performinghoboperationswithoutplacinglidsonthepansemployed .WhichofthefollowingstatementsisNOTtrueaccordingtothetext
A.HumanbehaviorB.Culture attributesC.PhysiologyofHomosapiensD. ClassificationofHomosapiensE.Humansociety F.StructureofHomosapiensHumancommonnamegiventoany individualofthespeciesHomosapiensandbyextensiontotheentirespecies. Thetermisalsoappliedtocertainspeciesthatweretheevolutionary forerunnersofHomosapiens.Scientistsconsideralllivingpeoplemembersofa singlespecies.41.__________Homosapiensisidentifiedfor purposesofclassificationasananimalwithabackboneandsegmentedspinal cordthatsucklesitsyoung;thatgestatesitsyoungwiththeaidofaplacenta; thatisequippedwithfive-digitedextremitiesacollarboneandasinglepair ofmammaryglandsonthechest;andthathaseyesatthefrontofthehead stereoscopicvisionandaproportionatelylargebrain.Thespeciesbelongsto thefamilyHominidaethegeneralcharacteristicsofwhicharediscussed below.42.__________Thedetailsofskeletal structuredistinguishingHomosapiensfromthenearestprimaterelatives-the gorillachimpanzeeandorangutan-stemlargelyfromaveryearlyadaptationto acompletelyerectpostureandatwo-footedstridingwalk.TheuniquelyS-shaped spinalcolumnplacesthecenterofgravityofthehumanbodydirectlyoverthe areaofsupportprovidedbythefeetthusgivingstabilityandbalanceinthe uptightposition.Completebipedalisminthehumanfreedthe handtobecomeasupremelysensitiveinstrumentforprecisemanipulationand grasping.Themostimportantstructuraldetailinthisrefinementisthe elongatedhumanthumbwhichcanrotatefreelyandisfullyopposabletothe otherfingers.Thephysiologicalrequirementsforspeechweresecondarily establishedbyerectposturewhichpositionsthevocalcordsforcontrolled breathingandbytheskilleduseofthehands.Thelatterdevelopmentoccursin associationwiththeenlargementandspecializationofabrainareathatisa prerequisiteforrefinedcontrolofthelipsandtongue. 43.__________ThelargebrainofHomosapiensisapproximately doublethatofearlyhumantoolmakers.Thisgreatincreaseinsizeinonly2 millionyearswasachievedbyaprocesscalledneotenywhichisthe prolongationofretentionofimmaturecharacteristics.Thejuvenilestageof brainandskulldevelopmentisprolongedsothattheygrowforalongerperiod oftimeinrelationtothetimerequiredtoreachsexualmaturity.Unlikethe earlyhumanadultskullwithitsslopingforeheadandprominentjawthemodem humanskull-withbiologicallyinsignificantvariations-retainsintomaturitya proportionatelylargesizeinrelationtotherestofthebodyahigh-rounded domestraight-planedfaceandreducedjawsizeallcloselyresemblingthe characteristicsoftheskullinthejuvenilechimpanzee.Itsenlargeddimensions requiredadaptationsforpassagethroughthebirthcanal;consequentlythe humanfemalepelviswidensatmaturityandthehumaninfantisborn prematurely.44.__________Thephysiological adaptationsthatmadehumansmoreflexiblethanotherprimatesallowedforthe developmentofawiderangeofabilitiesandanunparalleledversatilityin behavior.Thebrain’sgreatsizecomplexityandslowmaturationwithneural connectionsbeingaddedthoughatleastthefirst12yearsoflifemeantthat learnedbehaviorcouldlargelymodifystereotypedinstinctiveresponses.New environmentaldemandscouldbemetbyrapidadjustmentsratherthanbyslow geneticselection;thussurvivalinawiderangeofhabitatsandunderextreme conditionseventuallybecamepossiblewithoutfurtherspeciesdifferentiation. Eachnewinfanthoweverwithrelativelyfewinnatetraitsyetwithavast numberofpotentialbehaviorsmustbetaughttoachieveitsbiological potentialasahuman.45.__________Thehuman specieshasauniquecapabilityforcultureinthesenseofconsciousthinking andplanningtransmissionofskillsandsystemsofsocialrelationshipsand creativemodificationoftheenvironment.Theintegratedpatternsofbehavior requiredforplanningandfashioningtoolswereaccomplishedatleast2.5 millionyearsagoandsomeformofadvancedcodeforvocalcommunicationmay alsohaveexistedatthistime.By350000yearsagoplannedhuntingfire makingandthewearingofclothingwerewellestablishedaswaspossibly ritualizeddisposalofthedead.Evidenceofreligionrecordedeventsandart datefrom30000to40000yearsagoandimplyadvancedlanguageandethics forthecomplexorderingofsocialgroupsrequiredforsuchactivities.From aboutthattimethegenusHomobegantostabilizeintotheonegeneralized speciesofHomosapiens.
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