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1) Describe the trend 2) And give your comments. "Aging of Population in China"
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Itistheworld’sfourth-most-importantfoodcropaftermaizewheatandrice.ItprovidesmorecaloriesmorequicklyusinglesslandandinawiderrangeofclimatesthananyOtherplant.ItisofCoursethepotato.TheUnitedNationshasdeclared2008theInternationalYearofthePotato.IthopesthatgreaterawarenessofthemeritsofpotatoeswillcontributetotheachievementofitsMillenniumDevelopmentGoalsbyhelpingtoalleviatepovertyimprovefoodsecurityandpromoteeconomicdevelopment.Itisalwaystheinternationalyearofthisormonthofthat.Butthepotato’sunusualhistorymeansitiswellworthcelebratingbyreadersofTheEconomistbecausethepotatoisintertwinedwitheconomicdevelopmenttradeliberalisationandglobalisation.UnlikelythoughitseemsthepotatopromotedeconomicdevelopmentbyunderpinningtheindustrialrevolutioninEnglandinthe19thcentury.Itprovidedacheapsourceofcaloriesandwaseasytocultivatesoitliberatedworkersfromtheland.PotatoesbecamepopularinthenorthofEnglandaspeopletherespecialisedinlivestockfarminganddomesticindustrywhilefarmersinthesouthwherethesoilwasmoresuitableconcentratedonwheatproduction.Byahappyaccidentthisconcentratedindustrialactivityintheregionswherecoalwasreadilyavailableandapotato-drivenpopulationboomprovidedampleworkersforthenewfactories.FriedrichEngelsevendeclaredthatthepotatowastheequalofironforitshistoricallyrevolutionaryrole.ThepotatopromotedfreetradebycontributingtotheabolitionofBritain’sCornLaws-thecausewhichpromptedthefoundingofTheEconomistin1843.TheCornLawsrestrictedimportsofgrainintotheUnitedKingdominordertoprotectdomesticwheatproducers.Landownerssupportedthelawssincecheapimportedgrainwouldreducetheirincomebutindustrialistsopposedthembecauseimportswoulddrivedownthecostoffoodallowingpeopletospendmoreonmanufacturedgoods.UltimatelyitwasnottheeloquenceoftheargumentsagainsttheCornLawsthatledtotheirabolition-andmore’sthepity.ItwasthetragedyoftheIrishpotatofamineof1845inwhich1millionIrishperishedwhenthepotatocroponwhichtheysubsistedsuccumbedtoblight.TheneedtoimportgraintorelievethesituationinIrelandforcedthegovernmentwhichwasdominatedbylandownerswhobackedtheCornLawstoreverseitsposition.ThispavedthewayforliberalisationinotherareasandfreetradebecameBritishpolicy.AstheDukeofWellingtoncomplainedatthetimerottenpotatoeshavedoneitall.IntheformofFrenchfriesservedalongsideburgersandCoca-Colapotatoesarenowaniconofglobalisation.ThisisquiteaturnaroundgiventhescepticismwhichfirstgreetedthemontheirarrivalintheOldWorldinthe16thcentury.Spudswerevariouslythoughttocauseleprosytobefitonlyforanimalstobeassociatedwiththedevilortobepoisonous.Theytookholdin18thcenturyEuropeonlywhenwarandfaminemeanttherewasnothingelsetoeat;peoplethenrealisedjusthowversatileandreliabletheywere.AsAdamSmithoneofthepotato’smanyadmirersobservedatthetimeTheverygeneralusewhichismadeofpotatoesinthesekingdomsasfoodformanisaconvincingproofthattheprejudicesofanationwithregardtodiethoweverdeeplyrootedarebynomeansunconquerable.Mashedfriedboiledandroastahumbletuberchangedtheworldandfree-tradingglobaliserseverywhereshouldcelebrateit.Whatistheultimatepurposeofestablishing2008theInternationalYearofthePotato
DoanimalshaverightsThisishowthequestionisusuallyput.Itsoundslikeausefulgroundclearingwaytostart.46Actuallyitisn’tbecauseitassumesthatthereisanagreedaccountofhumanrightswhichissomethingtheworlddoesnothave. Ononeviewofrightstobesureitnecessarilyfollowsthatanimalshavenone.47Somephilosophersarguethatfightsexistonlywithinasocialcontractaspartofanexchangeofdutiesandentitlements.Thereforeanimalscannothaverights.Theideaofpunishingatigerthatkillssomebodyisabsurdforexactlythesamereasonsoistheideathattigershaverights.Howeverthisisonlyoneaccountandbynomeansanuncontestedone.Itdeniesrightsnotonlytoanimalsbutalsotosomepeopleforinstancetoinfantsthementallyincapableandfuturegenerations.Inadditionitisunclearwhatforceacontractcanhaveforpeoplewhoneverconsentedtoithowdoyoureplytosomebodywhosays"Idon’tlikethiscontract" Thepointisthat:withoutagreementontherightsofpeoplearguingabouttherightsofanimalsisfruitless.48Itleadsthediscussiontoextremesattheoutset:itinvitesyoutothinkthatanimalsshouldbetreatedeitherwiththeconsiderationhumansextendtootherhumansorwithnoconsiderationatall.Thisisafalsechoice.Bettertostartwithanothermorefundamentalquestion:isthewaywetreatanimalsamoralissueatall Manydenyit.49Arguingfromtheviewthathumansaredifferentfromanimalsineveryrelevantrespectextremistsofthiskindthinkthatanimalslieoutsidetheareaofmoralchoice.Anyregardforthesufferingofanimalsisseenasamistake--asentimentaldisplacementoffeelingthatshouldproperlybedirectedtootherhumans. Thisviewwhichholdsthattorturingamonkeyismorallyequivalenttochoppingwoodmayseembravely"logical".Infactitissimplyshallow:theconfusedcenterisrighttorejectit.Themostelementaryformofmoralreasoning---theethicalequivalentoflearningtocrawl--istoweighothers’interestsagainstone’sown.Thisinmmrequiressympathyandimagination:withoutthemthereisnocapacityformoralthought.Toseeananimalinpainisenoughformosttoengagesympathy.50Whenthathappensitisnotamistake:itismankind’sinstinctformoralreasoninginactionaninstinctthatshouldbeencouragedratherthanlaughedat. Whenthathappensitisnotamistake:itismankind’sinstinctformoralreasoninginactionaninstinctthatshouldbeencouragedratherthanlaughedat.
ScoresofworkersfromMTVNetworkswalkedoffthejobyesterdayafternoonfillingthesidewalkoutsidetheheadquartersofitscorporateparentViacomtoprotestrecentchangesinbenefits.Thewalkouthighlightedtheconcernsofacategoryofworkerswhoaresometimescalledpermalancers:permanentfreelancerswhoworklikefull-timeemployeesbutdonotreceivethesamebenefits.WavingsignsthatreadShameonViacomtheworkersmostofthemintheir20sdemandedthatMTVNetworksreverseaplantoreducehealthanddentalbenefitsforfreelancersbeginningOnJan.1st.InastatementMTVNetworksnotedthatitsbenefitsprogramforfull-timeemployeeshadalsoundergonechangesanditemphasizedthattheplanforfreelancerswasstillhighlycompetitivewithintheindustry.Manyfreelancersreceivenocorporatebenefits.Butsomeoftheprotestersassertedthatcorporationswerecompetingtoseewhichcouldprovidethemostmediocrehealthcarecoverage.MatthewYondawhoworksatNickelodeonheldasignthatlabeledthenetworkSick-elodeon.I’veworkedhereeverydayforthreeyears-I’mnotafreelancerMr.Yondasaid.Theyjustcallusfreelancersinordertobarusfromgettingthesamebenefitsasemployees.ThechangestothebenefitspackagewereannouncedlastTuesday.Freelancersweretoldthattheywouldbecomeeligibleforbenefitsafter160daysofworkbeginninginJanuary.Whilethateasedpreviouseligibilityruleswhichrequiredfreelancerstoworkfor52weeksbeforebecomingeligibleitwouldhaverequiredallfreelancersnotyeteligibleforbenefitstostartthewaitingperiodoveragainonJan.1st.The401kplanwasalsoremoved.OnThursdayacknowledgingthecomplaintsMTVNetworksreinstatedthe401kplanandsaidfreelancerswhohadworkedconsistentlysinceMarchwouldbeeligible.FueledbyaseriesofblogpostsonthemediaWebsiteGawker-thefirstpostwasheadlinedTheViacomPermalanceSlaveSystem-aloosecohortoffreelancerscreatedproteststickersanddistributedwalkoutflierslastweek.CarolineO’HareaunitmanagerwhohasworkedforMTVformorethantwoyearssaidthenewhealthcareplan-withhigherdeductiblesanda$2000caponhospitalexpenseseachyear-hadprovokedoutrage.Theythinktheycantreatuslikechildrenthatdon’thavefamiliesmortgagesordreamsofretirementshesaid.OutsideViacom’sheadquartersseveralworkersheldposterswiththewordsThere’stoomanyofustoignore.Itwasunclearhowmanyfreelancersareonthecompany’spayroll;anMTVNetworks’spokeswomansaidthefigurewasnotknownbecauseitrisesandfallsthroughouttheyear.Thecompanyhas5500full-timeemployeesexcludingfreelancersaroundtheworld.Twofreelancersandonefull-timeemployeewhoaskednottobeidentifiedforfearofretributionestimatedthatthepercentageoffreelancersinsomedepartmentsexceeded75percent.AnotherlaboractionisexpectedtotakeplaceoutsideViacomlaterthisweek.MembersoftheWritersGuildofAmericawhohavebeenonstrikeforfiveweeksareexpectedtopicketthereonThursday.WhichofthefollowingisNOTtrueaccordingtothetext
Twenty-sevenyearsagoEgyptreviseditssecularconstitutiontoenshrineMuslimshariaastheprincipalsourceoflegislation.Tomostcitizensmostofthetimethatseemingcontradiction-betweensecularismandreligion-hasnotmademuchdifference.NineintenEgyptiansareSunniMuslimsandexpectIslamtogovernsuchthingsasmarriagedivorceandinheritance.NearlyalltherestprofessChristianityorJudaismfaithsrecognisedandprotectedinIslam.ButtothesmallminoritywhoembraceotherfaithsorwhohavetriedtoleaveIslamithasuntillatelymadeanincreasinglytroublingdifference.MembersofEgypt’s2000-strongBahaicommunityforinstancehavefoundtheycannotstatetheirreligiononthenationalidentitycardsthatallEgyptiansareobligedtoproducetosecuresuchthingsasdriver’slicensesbankaccountssocialinsuranceandstateschooling.HundredsofCopticChristianswhohaveconvertedtoIslamoftentoescapetheOrthodoxsect’sbanondivorcefindtheycannotreverttotheiroriginalfaith.InsomecaseschildrenraisedasChristianshavediscoveredthatbecauseadivorcedparentconvertedtoIslamtheytoohavebecomeofficiallyMuslimandcannotclaimotherwise.Suchrestrictionsonreligiousfreedomarenotdirectlyaproductofshariasayhuman-rightscampaignersbutratherofrigidinterpretationsofIslamiclawbyover-zealousofficials.IntheirstrictviewBahaibeliefcannotberecognisedasalegitimatefaithsinceitaroseinthe19thcenturylongafterIslamstakeditsclaimtobethefinalrevelationinachainofpropheciesbeginningwithAdam.LikewisetheybrandanyattempttoleaveIslamwhateverthecircumstancesasaformofapostasypunishablebydeath.Butsuchviewshavelatelybeenchallenged.LastyearAliGomaatheGrandMuftiwhoisthegovernment’shighestreligiousadviserdeclaredthatnowhereinIslam’ssacredtextsdiditsaythatapostasyneedbepunishedinthepresentratherthanbyGodintheafterlife.InthepastmonthEgyptiancourtshaveissuedtworulingsthatwhilerestrictedinscopeshouldeasesomebothersomestrictures.Bahaismaynowleavethespaceforreligionontheiridentitycardsblank.TwelveformerChristianswonalawsuitandmaynowreturntotheiroriginalfaithonconditionthattheiridentitydocumentsnotetheirpreviousadherencetoIslam.Smallstepsperhapsbuttheypointthewaytowardsfreedomofchoiceandcitizenshipbasedonequalrightsratherthanmembershipofaprivilegedreligion.Whatisthemainpurposeofthistext
Weakdollarorno$46000-thepriceforasingleyearofundergraduateinstructionamidtheredbrickofHarvardYard-is1Butnowadayscostis2barriertoentryatmanyofAmerica’sbestuniversities.Formidablefinancial-assistancepolicieshave3feesorslashedthemdeeplyforneedystudents.AndlastmonthHarvardannouncedanewplandesignedto4thesticker-shockforundergraduatesfrommiddleandevenupper-incomefamiliestoo. SincethenotherrichAmericanuniversitieshaveunveiled5initiatives.YaleHarvard’sbitterest6revealeditsplansonJanuary14th.Studentswhosefamiliesmake7than$60000ayearwillpaynothingatall.Familiesearningupto$200000ayearwillhavetopayanaverageof10%oftheirincomes.Theuniversitywill8itsfinancial-assistancebudgetby43%toover$80m. Harvardwillhaveasimilararrangementforfamiliesmakingupto$180000.ThatmakesthepriceofgoingtoHarvardorYale9toattendingastate-rununiversityformiddle-andupper-incomestudents.Theuniversitieswillalsonotrequireanystudenttotakeout10topayfortheir11apolicyintroducedbyPrincetonin2001andbytheUniversityofPennsylvaniajustafterHarvard’s12.Noapplicantwhogainsadmissionofficialssayshouldfeel13togoelsewherebecauseheorshecan’taffordthefees. Noneofthatisquiteasaltruisticasitsounds.HarvardandYaleareafterallnowlikelytoluremorestudentsawayfrompreviously14optionsparticularlystate-rununiversities15theiralreadyimpressiveadmissionsfiguresandreputations. Theschemesalsoprovidea16forstructuringuniversityfeesinwhichhighpricesforrichstudentshelpoffsetmodestpricesforpooreronesandfamiliesareless17onfederalgrantsandgovernment-backedloans. Lesswealthyprivatecollegeswhosefeesarehighwillnotbeableto18HarvardorYaleeasily.ButAmerica’sstate-rununiversitieswhichhavetraditionallykepttheirfeeslowandstablemightwelltryadifferentiated19schemeastheyraisecashtocompeteacademicallywiththeirprivate20.IndeedtheUniversityofCaliforniasystemhasalreadystartedtoimplementasliding-feescale. 12
Weakdollarorno$46000-thepriceforasingleyearofundergraduateinstructionamidtheredbrickofHarvardYard-is1Butnowadayscostis2barriertoentryatmanyofAmerica’sbestuniversities.Formidablefinancial-assistancepolicieshave3feesorslashedthemdeeplyforneedystudents.AndlastmonthHarvardannouncedanewplandesignedto4thesticker-shockforundergraduatesfrommiddleandevenupper-incomefamiliestoo. SincethenotherrichAmericanuniversitieshaveunveiled5initiatives.YaleHarvard’sbitterest6revealeditsplansonJanuary14th.Studentswhosefamiliesmake7than$60000ayearwillpaynothingatall.Familiesearningupto$200000ayearwillhavetopayanaverageof10%oftheirincomes.Theuniversitywill8itsfinancial-assistancebudgetby43%toover$80m. Harvardwillhaveasimilararrangementforfamiliesmakingupto$180000.ThatmakesthepriceofgoingtoHarvardorYale9toattendingastate-rununiversityformiddle-andupper-incomestudents.Theuniversitieswillalsonotrequireanystudenttotakeout10topayfortheir11apolicyintroducedbyPrincetonin2001andbytheUniversityofPennsylvaniajustafterHarvard’s12.Noapplicantwhogainsadmissionofficialssayshouldfeel13togoelsewherebecauseheorshecan’taffordthefees. Noneofthatisquiteasaltruisticasitsounds.HarvardandYaleareafterallnowlikelytoluremorestudentsawayfrompreviously14optionsparticularlystate-rununiversities15theiralreadyimpressiveadmissionsfiguresandreputations. Theschemesalsoprovidea16forstructuringuniversityfeesinwhichhighpricesforrichstudentshelpoffsetmodestpricesforpooreronesandfamiliesareless17onfederalgrantsandgovernment-backedloans. Lesswealthyprivatecollegeswhosefeesarehighwillnotbeableto18HarvardorYaleeasily.ButAmerica’sstate-rununiversitieswhichhavetraditionallykepttheirfeeslowandstablemightwelltryadifferentiated19schemeastheyraisecashtocompeteacademicallywiththeirprivate20.IndeedtheUniversityofCaliforniasystemhasalreadystartedtoimplementasliding-feescale. 6
Weakdollarorno$46000-thepriceforasingleyearofundergraduateinstructionamidtheredbrickofHarvardYard-is1Butnowadayscostis2barriertoentryatmanyofAmerica’sbestuniversities.Formidablefinancial-assistancepolicieshave3feesorslashedthemdeeplyforneedystudents.AndlastmonthHarvardannouncedanewplandesignedto4thesticker-shockforundergraduatesfrommiddleandevenupper-incomefamiliestoo. SincethenotherrichAmericanuniversitieshaveunveiled5initiatives.YaleHarvard’sbitterest6revealeditsplansonJanuary14th.Studentswhosefamiliesmake7than$60000ayearwillpaynothingatall.Familiesearningupto$200000ayearwillhavetopayanaverageof10%oftheirincomes.Theuniversitywill8itsfinancial-assistancebudgetby43%toover$80m. Harvardwillhaveasimilararrangementforfamiliesmakingupto$180000.ThatmakesthepriceofgoingtoHarvardorYale9toattendingastate-rununiversityformiddle-andupper-incomestudents.Theuniversitieswillalsonotrequireanystudenttotakeout10topayfortheir11apolicyintroducedbyPrincetonin2001andbytheUniversityofPennsylvaniajustafterHarvard’s12.Noapplicantwhogainsadmissionofficialssayshouldfeel13togoelsewherebecauseheorshecan’taffordthefees. Noneofthatisquiteasaltruisticasitsounds.HarvardandYaleareafterallnowlikelytoluremorestudentsawayfrompreviously14optionsparticularlystate-rununiversities15theiralreadyimpressiveadmissionsfiguresandreputations. Theschemesalsoprovidea16forstructuringuniversityfeesinwhichhighpricesforrichstudentshelpoffsetmodestpricesforpooreronesandfamiliesareless17onfederalgrantsandgovernment-backedloans. Lesswealthyprivatecollegeswhosefeesarehighwillnotbeableto18HarvardorYaleeasily.ButAmerica’sstate-rununiversitieswhichhavetraditionallykepttheirfeeslowandstablemightwelltryadifferentiated19schemeastheyraisecashtocompeteacademicallywiththeirprivate20.IndeedtheUniversityofCaliforniasystemhasalreadystartedtoimplementasliding-feescale. 18
Itistheworld’sfourth-most-importantfoodcropaftermaizewheatandrice.ItprovidesmorecaloriesmorequicklyusinglesslandandinawiderrangeofclimatesthananyOtherplant.ItisofCoursethepotato.TheUnitedNationshasdeclared2008theInternationalYearofthePotato.IthopesthatgreaterawarenessofthemeritsofpotatoeswillcontributetotheachievementofitsMillenniumDevelopmentGoalsbyhelpingtoalleviatepovertyimprovefoodsecurityandpromoteeconomicdevelopment.Itisalwaystheinternationalyearofthisormonthofthat.Butthepotato’sunusualhistorymeansitiswellworthcelebratingbyreadersofTheEconomistbecausethepotatoisintertwinedwitheconomicdevelopmenttradeliberalisationandglobalisation.UnlikelythoughitseemsthepotatopromotedeconomicdevelopmentbyunderpinningtheindustrialrevolutioninEnglandinthe19thcentury.Itprovidedacheapsourceofcaloriesandwaseasytocultivatesoitliberatedworkersfromtheland.PotatoesbecamepopularinthenorthofEnglandaspeopletherespecialisedinlivestockfarminganddomesticindustrywhilefarmersinthesouthwherethesoilwasmoresuitableconcentratedonwheatproduction.Byahappyaccidentthisconcentratedindustrialactivityintheregionswherecoalwasreadilyavailableandapotato-drivenpopulationboomprovidedampleworkersforthenewfactories.FriedrichEngelsevendeclaredthatthepotatowastheequalofironforitshistoricallyrevolutionaryrole.ThepotatopromotedfreetradebycontributingtotheabolitionofBritain’sCornLaws-thecausewhichpromptedthefoundingofTheEconomistin1843.TheCornLawsrestrictedimportsofgrainintotheUnitedKingdominordertoprotectdomesticwheatproducers.Landownerssupportedthelawssincecheapimportedgrainwouldreducetheirincomebutindustrialistsopposedthembecauseimportswoulddrivedownthecostoffoodallowingpeopletospendmoreonmanufacturedgoods.UltimatelyitwasnottheeloquenceoftheargumentsagainsttheCornLawsthatledtotheirabolition-andmore’sthepity.ItwasthetragedyoftheIrishpotatofamineof1845inwhich1millionIrishperishedwhenthepotatocroponwhichtheysubsistedsuccumbedtoblight.TheneedtoimportgraintorelievethesituationinIrelandforcedthegovernmentwhichwasdominatedbylandownerswhobackedtheCornLawstoreverseitsposition.ThispavedthewayforliberalisationinotherareasandfreetradebecameBritishpolicy.AstheDukeofWellingtoncomplainedatthetimerottenpotatoeshavedoneitall.IntheformofFrenchfriesservedalongsideburgersandCoca-Colapotatoesarenowaniconofglobalisation.ThisisquiteaturnaroundgiventhescepticismwhichfirstgreetedthemontheirarrivalintheOldWorldinthe16thcentury.Spudswerevariouslythoughttocauseleprosytobefitonlyforanimalstobeassociatedwiththedevilortobepoisonous.Theytookholdin18thcenturyEuropeonlywhenwarandfaminemeanttherewasnothingelsetoeat;peoplethenrealisedjusthowversatileandreliabletheywere.AsAdamSmithoneofthepotato’smanyadmirersobservedatthetimeTheverygeneralusewhichismadeofpotatoesinthesekingdomsasfoodformanisaconvincingproofthattheprejudicesofanationwithregardtodiethoweverdeeplyrootedarebynomeansunconquerable.Mashedfriedboiledandroastahumbletuberchangedtheworldandfree-tradingglobaliserseverywhereshouldcelebrateit.AccordingtothetextwhichofthefollowingisNOTtrueaboutBritain’sCornLaws
RememberSecondLifethevirtualworldthatwassupposedtobecomealmostasimportantasthefirstoneNowpopulatedbynomorethan84000avatarsatatimeithasturnedouttobeaprimeexampleofhowshort-livedInternetfadscanbe.Yetifmanyadultsseemtohavegivenuponvirtualworldsthosethatcatertochildrenandteenagersarethriving.Severalhaveevenfoundawaytomakemoney.InAmericanearly10millionchildrenandteenagersvisitvirtualworldsregularlyestimateseMarketeramarketresearcher-anumberthefirmexpectstoincreaseto15millionby2013．AsinJanuarytherewere112virtualworldsdesignedforunder-18swithanother81indevelopmentaccordingtoEngageDigitalMediaamarketresearchfirm.Allcatertodifferentagegroupsandtastes.InClubPenguinthemarketleaderwhichwasboughtbyDisneyin2007forawhopping$700millionprimary-schoolchildrencantakeonapenguinpersonafitouttheirowniglooandplaygames.HabboHotelaservicerunfromFinlandisaglobalhangoutforteenagerswhowanttocustomisetheirownroomsandmeetinpublicplacestoattendevents.GalaOnlinebasedinSiliconValleyofferssimilaractivitiesbutisvisitedmostlybyolderteenswhoareintoMangacomics.Notahitwithadvertiserstheseonlineworldsearnmostoftheirmoneyfromthesaleofvirtualgoodssuchasitemstospruceupanavataroraprivateroom.Theyarepaidforinaprivatecurrencywhichmembersearnbyparticipatinginvariousactivitiestradingitemsorbuyingthemwithrealdollars.Thissortofstealthtaxseemstowork.AtGalaOnlineusersspendmorethan$1millionpermonthonvirtualitemssaysCraigShermanthefirm’schiefexecutive.RunningsuchavirtualeconomyisnoteasywhichiswhyGaiahashiredafull-timeeconomisttograpplewithproblemsthatarewellknownintherealworldsuchasinflationandanunequaldistributionofwealth.Thereareotherbarriersthatcouldlimitthegrowthofvirtualworldsfortheyoungbutthemainoneisparents.Manydonotwanttheiroffspringroamingvirtualworldseitherbecausetheyaretoocommercialorarethoughttobetoodangerous.Keepingthemsafeisoneofthebiggestrunningcostsbecausetheirsponsorshavetoemployrealpeopletopolicetheirrealms.YoungstersarealsoaficklebunchsaysSimonLeveneofAccelPartnersaventure-capitalfirm.Justaschildrenmovefromonetoytoanothertheyreadilyswitchworldsorsocialnetworksoftenwithoutsayinggoodbye.EvensoDebraAhoWilliamsonananalystateMarketerbelievestheseworldsareatraininggroundforthethree-dimensionalweb.Ifvirtualworldsforadultswhichsofarhavebeenabletoretainonlyhardcoreusersmanagetohangonforafewyearstheymayyethaveasecondlife.WhatcanweinferfromSimonLevene’scomments
Weakdollarorno$46000-thepriceforasingleyearofundergraduateinstructionamidtheredbrickofHarvardYard-is1Butnowadayscostis2barriertoentryatmanyofAmerica’sbestuniversities.Formidablefinancial-assistancepolicieshave3feesorslashedthemdeeplyforneedystudents.AndlastmonthHarvardannouncedanewplandesignedto4thesticker-shockforundergraduatesfrommiddleandevenupper-incomefamiliestoo. SincethenotherrichAmericanuniversitieshaveunveiled5initiatives.YaleHarvard’sbitterest6revealeditsplansonJanuary14th.Studentswhosefamiliesmake7than$60000ayearwillpaynothingatall.Familiesearningupto$200000ayearwillhavetopayanaverageof10%oftheirincomes.Theuniversitywill8itsfinancial-assistancebudgetby43%toover$80m. Harvardwillhaveasimilararrangementforfamiliesmakingupto$180000.ThatmakesthepriceofgoingtoHarvardorYale9toattendingastate-rununiversityformiddle-andupper-incomestudents.Theuniversitieswillalsonotrequireanystudenttotakeout10topayfortheir11apolicyintroducedbyPrincetonin2001andbytheUniversityofPennsylvaniajustafterHarvard’s12.Noapplicantwhogainsadmissionofficialssayshouldfeel13togoelsewherebecauseheorshecan’taffordthefees. Noneofthatisquiteasaltruisticasitsounds.HarvardandYaleareafterallnowlikelytoluremorestudentsawayfrompreviously14optionsparticularlystate-rununiversities15theiralreadyimpressiveadmissionsfiguresandreputations. Theschemesalsoprovidea16forstructuringuniversityfeesinwhichhighpricesforrichstudentshelpoffsetmodestpricesforpooreronesandfamiliesareless17onfederalgrantsandgovernment-backedloans. Lesswealthyprivatecollegeswhosefeesarehighwillnotbeableto18HarvardorYaleeasily.ButAmerica’sstate-rununiversitieswhichhavetraditionallykepttheirfeeslowandstablemightwelltryadifferentiated19schemeastheyraisecashtocompeteacademicallywiththeirprivate20.IndeedtheUniversityofCaliforniasystemhasalreadystartedtoimplementasliding-feescale. 4
Weakdollarorno$46000-thepriceforasingleyearofundergraduateinstructionamidtheredbrickofHarvardYard-is1Butnowadayscostis2barriertoentryatmanyofAmerica’sbestuniversities.Formidablefinancial-assistancepolicieshave3feesorslashedthemdeeplyforneedystudents.AndlastmonthHarvardannouncedanewplandesignedto4thesticker-shockforundergraduatesfrommiddleandevenupper-incomefamiliestoo. SincethenotherrichAmericanuniversitieshaveunveiled5initiatives.YaleHarvard’sbitterest6revealeditsplansonJanuary14th.Studentswhosefamiliesmake7than$60000ayearwillpaynothingatall.Familiesearningupto$200000ayearwillhavetopayanaverageof10%oftheirincomes.Theuniversitywill8itsfinancial-assistancebudgetby43%toover$80m. Harvardwillhaveasimilararrangementforfamiliesmakingupto$180000.ThatmakesthepriceofgoingtoHarvardorYale9toattendingastate-rununiversityformiddle-andupper-incomestudents.Theuniversitieswillalsonotrequireanystudenttotakeout10topayfortheir11apolicyintroducedbyPrincetonin2001andbytheUniversityofPennsylvaniajustafterHarvard’s12.Noapplicantwhogainsadmissionofficialssayshouldfeel13togoelsewherebecauseheorshecan’taffordthefees. Noneofthatisquiteasaltruisticasitsounds.HarvardandYaleareafterallnowlikelytoluremorestudentsawayfrompreviously14optionsparticularlystate-rununiversities15theiralreadyimpressiveadmissionsfiguresandreputations. Theschemesalsoprovidea16forstructuringuniversityfeesinwhichhighpricesforrichstudentshelpoffsetmodestpricesforpooreronesandfamiliesareless17onfederalgrantsandgovernment-backedloans. Lesswealthyprivatecollegeswhosefeesarehighwillnotbeableto18HarvardorYaleeasily.ButAmerica’sstate-rununiversitieswhichhavetraditionallykepttheirfeeslowandstablemightwelltryadifferentiated19schemeastheyraisecashtocompeteacademicallywiththeirprivate20.IndeedtheUniversityofCaliforniasystemhasalreadystartedtoimplementasliding-feescale. 10
Weakdollarorno$46000-thepriceforasingleyearofundergraduateinstructionamidtheredbrickofHarvardYard-is1Butnowadayscostis2barriertoentryatmanyofAmerica’sbestuniversities.Formidablefinancial-assistancepolicieshave3feesorslashedthemdeeplyforneedystudents.AndlastmonthHarvardannouncedanewplandesignedto4thesticker-shockforundergraduatesfrommiddleandevenupper-incomefamiliestoo. SincethenotherrichAmericanuniversitieshaveunveiled5initiatives.YaleHarvard’sbitterest6revealeditsplansonJanuary14th.Studentswhosefamiliesmake7than$60000ayearwillpaynothingatall.Familiesearningupto$200000ayearwillhavetopayanaverageof10%oftheirincomes.Theuniversitywill8itsfinancial-assistancebudgetby43%toover$80m. Harvardwillhaveasimilararrangementforfamiliesmakingupto$180000.ThatmakesthepriceofgoingtoHarvardorYale9toattendingastate-rununiversityformiddle-andupper-incomestudents.Theuniversitieswillalsonotrequireanystudenttotakeout10topayfortheir11apolicyintroducedbyPrincetonin2001andbytheUniversityofPennsylvaniajustafterHarvard’s12.Noapplicantwhogainsadmissionofficialssayshouldfeel13togoelsewherebecauseheorshecan’taffordthefees. Noneofthatisquiteasaltruisticasitsounds.HarvardandYaleareafterallnowlikelytoluremorestudentsawayfrompreviously14optionsparticularlystate-rununiversities15theiralreadyimpressiveadmissionsfiguresandreputations. Theschemesalsoprovidea16forstructuringuniversityfeesinwhichhighpricesforrichstudentshelpoffsetmodestpricesforpooreronesandfamiliesareless17onfederalgrantsandgovernment-backedloans. Lesswealthyprivatecollegeswhosefeesarehighwillnotbeableto18HarvardorYaleeasily.ButAmerica’sstate-rununiversitieswhichhavetraditionallykepttheirfeeslowandstablemightwelltryadifferentiated19schemeastheyraisecashtocompeteacademicallywiththeirprivate20.IndeedtheUniversityofCaliforniasystemhasalreadystartedtoimplementasliding-feescale. 14
Twenty-sevenyearsagoEgyptreviseditssecularconstitutiontoenshrineMuslimshariaastheprincipalsourceoflegislation.Tomostcitizensmostofthetimethatseemingcontradiction-betweensecularismandreligion-hasnotmademuchdifference.NineintenEgyptiansareSunniMuslimsandexpectIslamtogovernsuchthingsasmarriagedivorceandinheritance.NearlyalltherestprofessChristianityorJudaismfaithsrecognisedandprotectedinIslam.ButtothesmallminoritywhoembraceotherfaithsorwhohavetriedtoleaveIslamithasuntillatelymadeanincreasinglytroublingdifference.MembersofEgypt’s2000-strongBahaicommunityforinstancehavefoundtheycannotstatetheirreligiononthenationalidentitycardsthatallEgyptiansareobligedtoproducetosecuresuchthingsasdriver’slicensesbankaccountssocialinsuranceandstateschooling.HundredsofCopticChristianswhohaveconvertedtoIslamoftentoescapetheOrthodoxsect’sbanondivorcefindtheycannotreverttotheiroriginalfaith.InsomecaseschildrenraisedasChristianshavediscoveredthatbecauseadivorcedparentconvertedtoIslamtheytoohavebecomeofficiallyMuslimandcannotclaimotherwise.Suchrestrictionsonreligiousfreedomarenotdirectlyaproductofshariasayhuman-rightscampaignersbutratherofrigidinterpretationsofIslamiclawbyover-zealousofficials.IntheirstrictviewBahaibeliefcannotberecognisedasalegitimatefaithsinceitaroseinthe19thcenturylongafterIslamstakeditsclaimtobethefinalrevelationinachainofpropheciesbeginningwithAdam.LikewisetheybrandanyattempttoleaveIslamwhateverthecircumstancesasaformofapostasypunishablebydeath.Butsuchviewshavelatelybeenchallenged.LastyearAliGomaatheGrandMuftiwhoisthegovernment’shighestreligiousadviserdeclaredthatnowhereinIslam’ssacredtextsdiditsaythatapostasyneedbepunishedinthepresentratherthanbyGodintheafterlife.InthepastmonthEgyptiancourtshaveissuedtworulingsthatwhilerestrictedinscopeshouldeasesomebothersomestrictures.Bahaismaynowleavethespaceforreligionontheiridentitycardsblank.TwelveformerChristianswonalawsuitandmaynowreturntotheiroriginalfaithonconditionthattheiridentitydocumentsnotetheirpreviousadherencetoIslam.Smallstepsperhapsbuttheypointthewaytowardsfreedomofchoiceandcitizenshipbasedonequalrightsratherthanmembershipofaprivilegedreligion.WhichofthefollowingstatementsisTRUEaccordingtothetext
LongbeforemanlivedontheEarththerewerefishesreptilesbirdsinsectsandsomemammals.Althoughsomeoftheseanimalswereancestorsofkindslivingtodayothersarenowextinctthatistheyhavenodescendantsalivenow.Neverthelessweknowagreatdealaboutmanyofthembecausetheirbonesandshellshavebeenpreservedintherocksasfossils. 41.______Thatkindofrockinwhichtheremainsarefoundtellsusmuchaboutthenatureoftheoriginallandoftenoftheplantsthatgrewonitandevenofitsclimate. Whenananimaldiesthebodyitsbonesorshellmayoftenbecarriedawaybystreamsintolakesortheseaandtheregetcoveredupbymud.Iftheanimallivedintheseaitsbodywouldprobablysinkandbecoveredwithmud.Moreandmoremudwouldfalluponituntilthebonesorshellbecomeembeddedandpreserved.42．______Thusitfollowsthattheremustbemanykindsofmammalsbirdsandinsectsofwhichweknownothing 43．______Laterformsaremorecomplexandamongthesearethesea-liliesrelationsofthestar-fisheswhichhadlongarmsandwereattachedbyalongstalktotheseabedortorocks.Therewerealsocrab-likecreatureswhosebodieswerecoveredwithahornysubstanceThebodysegmentseachhadtwopairsoflegsonepairforwalkingonthesandybottomtheotherforswimming.Theheadwasakindofshieldwithapairofcompoundeyesoftenwiththousandsoflenses.Theywereusuallyaninchortwolongbutsomewere2feet. Theshellfishhavealonghistoryintherockandmanydifferentkindsareknown.Ofthesetheammonitesareveryinterestingandimportant.Theyhaveashellcomposedofmanychamberseachrepresentingatemporaryhomeoftheanimal.Astheyounggrewlargeritgrewanewchamberandsealedoffthepreviousone.ThousandsofthesecanbeseenintherocksontheDorsetCoast. Thefirstanimalswithtruebackboneswerefishesfirstknownintherocksof375millionyearsago.About300millionyearsagotheamphibianstheanimalsabletolivebothonlandandinwaterappeared.Theyweregiantsometimes8feetlongandmanyofthemlivedintheswampypoolsinwhichourcoalseamorlayerformed.44．______About75millionyearsagotheAgeofReptileswasoverandmostofthegroupsdiedout.Themammalsquicklydevelopedandwecantracetheevolutionofmanyfamiliaranimalssuchastheelephantandhorse.45．______ [A]Thebestindexfossilstendtobemarinecreatures.Theseanimalsevolvedrapidlyandspreadoverlargeareasoftheworld. [B]Theamphibiansgaverisetothereptilesandfornearly150millionyearstheseweretheprincipalformsoflifeonlandintheseaandintheair. [C]Manyofthelatermammalsthoughnowextinctwereknowntoprimitivemanandwerefeaturedbyhimincavepaintingsandonbonecarvings. [D]Nearlyallofthefossilsthatweknowwerepreservedinrocksformedbywateractionandmostoftheseareofanimalsthatlivedinornearwater. [E]Theearliestanimalswhoseremainshavebeenfoundwereallverysimplekindsandlivedinthesea. [F]Manyfactorscaninfluencehowfossilsarepreservedinrocks.Remainsofanorganismmaybereplacedbymineralsdissolvedbyanacidicsolutiontoleaveonlytheirimpressionorsimplyreducedtoamorestableform. [G]Fromthemwecantelltheirsizeandshapehowtheywalkedthekindoffoodtheyate.Veryoccasionallytherocksshowimpressionofskinsothatapartfromcolorwecanbuildupareasonablyaccuratepictureofananimalthatdiedmillionsofyearsago. 44
ScoresofworkersfromMTVNetworkswalkedoffthejobyesterdayafternoonfillingthesidewalkoutsidetheheadquartersofitscorporateparentViacomtoprotestrecentchangesinbenefits.Thewalkouthighlightedtheconcernsofacategoryofworkerswhoaresometimescalledpermalancers:permanentfreelancerswhoworklikefull-timeemployeesbutdonotreceivethesamebenefits.WavingsignsthatreadShameonViacomtheworkersmostofthemintheir20sdemandedthatMTVNetworksreverseaplantoreducehealthanddentalbenefitsforfreelancersbeginningOnJan.1st.InastatementMTVNetworksnotedthatitsbenefitsprogramforfull-timeemployeeshadalsoundergonechangesanditemphasizedthattheplanforfreelancerswasstillhighlycompetitivewithintheindustry.Manyfreelancersreceivenocorporatebenefits.Butsomeoftheprotestersassertedthatcorporationswerecompetingtoseewhichcouldprovidethemostmediocrehealthcarecoverage.MatthewYondawhoworksatNickelodeonheldasignthatlabeledthenetworkSick-elodeon.I’veworkedhereeverydayforthreeyears-I’mnotafreelancerMr.Yondasaid.Theyjustcallusfreelancersinordertobarusfromgettingthesamebenefitsasemployees.ThechangestothebenefitspackagewereannouncedlastTuesday.Freelancersweretoldthattheywouldbecomeeligibleforbenefitsafter160daysofworkbeginninginJanuary.Whilethateasedpreviouseligibilityruleswhichrequiredfreelancerstoworkfor52weeksbeforebecomingeligibleitwouldhaverequiredallfreelancersnotyeteligibleforbenefitstostartthewaitingperiodoveragainonJan.1st.The401kplanwasalsoremoved.OnThursdayacknowledgingthecomplaintsMTVNetworksreinstatedthe401kplanandsaidfreelancerswhohadworkedconsistentlysinceMarchwouldbeeligible.FueledbyaseriesofblogpostsonthemediaWebsiteGawker-thefirstpostwasheadlinedTheViacomPermalanceSlaveSystem-aloosecohortoffreelancerscreatedproteststickersanddistributedwalkoutflierslastweek.CarolineO’HareaunitmanagerwhohasworkedforMTVformorethantwoyearssaidthenewhealthcareplan-withhigherdeductiblesanda$2000caponhospitalexpenseseachyear-hadprovokedoutrage.Theythinktheycantreatuslikechildrenthatdon’thavefamiliesmortgagesordreamsofretirementshesaid.OutsideViacom’sheadquartersseveralworkersheldposterswiththewordsThere’stoomanyofustoignore.Itwasunclearhowmanyfreelancersareonthecompany’spayroll;anMTVNetworks’spokeswomansaidthefigurewasnotknownbecauseitrisesandfallsthroughouttheyear.Thecompanyhas5500full-timeemployeesexcludingfreelancersaroundtheworld.Twofreelancersandonefull-timeemployeewhoaskednottobeidentifiedforfearofretributionestimatedthatthepercentageoffreelancersinsomedepartmentsexceeded75percent.AnotherlaboractionisexpectedtotakeplaceoutsideViacomlaterthisweek.MembersoftheWritersGuildofAmericawhohavebeenonstrikeforfiveweeksareexpectedtopicketthereonThursday.WhichofthefollowingisNOTtrueonMTVNetworks’newbenefitsplanforfreelancers
RememberSecondLifethevirtualworldthatwassupposedtobecomealmostasimportantasthefirstoneNowpopulatedbynomorethan84000avatarsatatimeithasturnedouttobeaprimeexampleofhowshort-livedInternetfadscanbe.Yetifmanyadultsseemtohavegivenuponvirtualworldsthosethatcatertochildrenandteenagersarethriving.Severalhaveevenfoundawaytomakemoney.InAmericanearly10millionchildrenandteenagersvisitvirtualworldsregularlyestimateseMarketeramarketresearcher-anumberthefirmexpectstoincreaseto15millionby2013．AsinJanuarytherewere112virtualworldsdesignedforunder-18swithanother81indevelopmentaccordingtoEngageDigitalMediaamarketresearchfirm.Allcatertodifferentagegroupsandtastes.InClubPenguinthemarketleaderwhichwasboughtbyDisneyin2007forawhopping$700millionprimary-schoolchildrencantakeonapenguinpersonafitouttheirowniglooandplaygames.HabboHotelaservicerunfromFinlandisaglobalhangoutforteenagerswhowanttocustomisetheirownroomsandmeetinpublicplacestoattendevents.GalaOnlinebasedinSiliconValleyofferssimilaractivitiesbutisvisitedmostlybyolderteenswhoareintoMangacomics.Notahitwithadvertiserstheseonlineworldsearnmostoftheirmoneyfromthesaleofvirtualgoodssuchasitemstospruceupanavataroraprivateroom.Theyarepaidforinaprivatecurrencywhichmembersearnbyparticipatinginvariousactivitiestradingitemsorbuyingthemwithrealdollars.Thissortofstealthtaxseemstowork.AtGalaOnlineusersspendmorethan$1millionpermonthonvirtualitemssaysCraigShermanthefirm’schiefexecutive.RunningsuchavirtualeconomyisnoteasywhichiswhyGaiahashiredafull-timeeconomisttograpplewithproblemsthatarewellknownintherealworldsuchasinflationandanunequaldistributionofwealth.Thereareotherbarriersthatcouldlimitthegrowthofvirtualworldsfortheyoungbutthemainoneisparents.Manydonotwanttheiroffspringroamingvirtualworldseitherbecausetheyaretoocommercialorarethoughttobetoodangerous.Keepingthemsafeisoneofthebiggestrunningcostsbecausetheirsponsorshavetoemployrealpeopletopolicetheirrealms.YoungstersarealsoaficklebunchsaysSimonLeveneofAccelPartnersaventure-capitalfirm.Justaschildrenmovefromonetoytoanothertheyreadilyswitchworldsorsocialnetworksoftenwithoutsayinggoodbye.EvensoDebraAhoWilliamsonananalystateMarketerbelievestheseworldsareatraininggroundforthethree-dimensionalweb.Ifvirtualworldsforadultswhichsofarhavebeenabletoretainonlyhardcoreusersmanagetohangonforafewyearstheymayyethaveasecondlife.Whydoonlinegamesnotmeanahitwithadvertisers
Weakdollarorno$46000-thepriceforasingleyearofundergraduateinstructionamidtheredbrickofHarvardYard-is1Butnowadayscostis2barriertoentryatmanyofAmerica’sbestuniversities.Formidablefinancial-assistancepolicieshave3feesorslashedthemdeeplyforneedystudents.AndlastmonthHarvardannouncedanewplandesignedto4thesticker-shockforundergraduatesfrommiddleandevenupper-incomefamiliestoo. SincethenotherrichAmericanuniversitieshaveunveiled5initiatives.YaleHarvard’sbitterest6revealeditsplansonJanuary14th.Studentswhosefamiliesmake7than$60000ayearwillpaynothingatall.Familiesearningupto$200000ayearwillhavetopayanaverageof10%oftheirincomes.Theuniversitywill8itsfinancial-assistancebudgetby43%toover$80m. Harvardwillhaveasimilararrangementforfamiliesmakingupto$180000.ThatmakesthepriceofgoingtoHarvardorYale9toattendingastate-rununiversityformiddle-andupper-incomestudents.Theuniversitieswillalsonotrequireanystudenttotakeout10topayfortheir11apolicyintroducedbyPrincetonin2001andbytheUniversityofPennsylvaniajustafterHarvard’s12.Noapplicantwhogainsadmissionofficialssayshouldfeel13togoelsewherebecauseheorshecan’taffordthefees. Noneofthatisquiteasaltruisticasitsounds.HarvardandYaleareafterallnowlikelytoluremorestudentsawayfrompreviously14optionsparticularlystate-rununiversities15theiralreadyimpressiveadmissionsfiguresandreputations. Theschemesalsoprovidea16forstructuringuniversityfeesinwhichhighpricesforrichstudentshelpoffsetmodestpricesforpooreronesandfamiliesareless17onfederalgrantsandgovernment-backedloans. Lesswealthyprivatecollegeswhosefeesarehighwillnotbeableto18HarvardorYaleeasily.ButAmerica’sstate-rununiversitieswhichhavetraditionallykepttheirfeeslowandstablemightwelltryadifferentiated19schemeastheyraisecashtocompeteacademicallywiththeirprivate20.IndeedtheUniversityofCaliforniasystemhasalreadystartedtoimplementasliding-feescale. 2
Twenty-sevenyearsagoEgyptreviseditssecularconstitutiontoenshrineMuslimshariaastheprincipalsourceoflegislation.Tomostcitizensmostofthetimethatseemingcontradiction-betweensecularismandreligion-hasnotmademuchdifference.NineintenEgyptiansareSunniMuslimsandexpectIslamtogovernsuchthingsasmarriagedivorceandinheritance.NearlyalltherestprofessChristianityorJudaismfaithsrecognisedandprotectedinIslam.ButtothesmallminoritywhoembraceotherfaithsorwhohavetriedtoleaveIslamithasuntillatelymadeanincreasinglytroublingdifference.MembersofEgypt’s2000-strongBahaicommunityforinstancehavefoundtheycannotstatetheirreligiononthenationalidentitycardsthatallEgyptiansareobligedtoproducetosecuresuchthingsasdriver’slicensesbankaccountssocialinsuranceandstateschooling.HundredsofCopticChristianswhohaveconvertedtoIslamoftentoescapetheOrthodoxsect’sbanondivorcefindtheycannotreverttotheiroriginalfaith.InsomecaseschildrenraisedasChristianshavediscoveredthatbecauseadivorcedparentconvertedtoIslamtheytoohavebecomeofficiallyMuslimandcannotclaimotherwise.Suchrestrictionsonreligiousfreedomarenotdirectlyaproductofshariasayhuman-rightscampaignersbutratherofrigidinterpretationsofIslamiclawbyover-zealousofficials.IntheirstrictviewBahaibeliefcannotberecognisedasalegitimatefaithsinceitaroseinthe19thcenturylongafterIslamstakeditsclaimtobethefinalrevelationinachainofpropheciesbeginningwithAdam.LikewisetheybrandanyattempttoleaveIslamwhateverthecircumstancesasaformofapostasypunishablebydeath.Butsuchviewshavelatelybeenchallenged.LastyearAliGomaatheGrandMuftiwhoisthegovernment’shighestreligiousadviserdeclaredthatnowhereinIslam’ssacredtextsdiditsaythatapostasyneedbepunishedinthepresentratherthanbyGodintheafterlife.InthepastmonthEgyptiancourtshaveissuedtworulingsthatwhilerestrictedinscopeshouldeasesomebothersomestrictures.Bahaismaynowleavethespaceforreligionontheiridentitycardsblank.TwelveformerChristianswonalawsuitandmaynowreturntotheiroriginalfaithonconditionthattheiridentitydocumentsnotetheirpreviousadherencetoIslam.Smallstepsperhapsbuttheypointthewaytowardsfreedomofchoiceandcitizenshipbasedonequalrightsratherthanmembershipofaprivilegedreligion.AccordingtothetextwhatimpactdidtherevisionofEgypt’ssecularconstitutionhaveonitscitizens’lives
Itishardtogetagriponfood.TheUN’sWorldHealthOrganisationworriesaboutdiminishingsuppliesandincreasedpricesinpoorcountries;recentriotsandnear-riotsinHaitiBangladeshandEgyptweresparkedbythegrowingcostofwheatandrice.ButasPaulRobertsobservesin"TheEndofFood"thedevelopedworldhaslivedthrough"anearmiraculousperiodduringwhichthethingsweateseemedtogrowonlymoreplentifulmoresecuremorenutritiousandsimplybetter."46．Inthesecondhalfofthe20thcenturyworldoutputofcornwheatandcerealcropsmorethantripled.Yetthereisnotenoughtofeedtherichtheaspirationalandthepoorintheworld.Agoldenagehasbeentransformedquitesuddenlyintoaglobalcrisis. MrRobertsinsiststhatmodernagribusinessisunsustainableandbecomingmoreso."Preciselyatthemomentinhistorywhenweneedtoshiftoursystemoffoodproductionintooverdriveouragriculturalengineisbreakingdown"hesays.Theindustryhastakencheapoilforgranted.Oilfuelstransportationandfarmmachineryandnaturalgasisthebasisofsyntheticnitrogenproductionpriceshavetripledsince2002.Agricultureaccountsforthree-quartersoffreshwateruseandwaterisbecominganincreasinglyscarceandexpensiveresource.Climatechangemakessomeoldassumptionsaboutfarmingredundant.47．Acombinationofthesefactorshesayswillultimatelyforceacompleterethinkingofthewaywemakefood. Foryearsgovernmentsubsidieshelddowngrainpricesmakingfoodcheaper.48．Waterwasalsoplentiful-ittakes1000tonnesofwatertoproduceatonneofgrain-andaningeniousprocessknownasHaber-Boschmakessyntheticnitrogenfertilisereasilyavailabletograinfarmers.Ruthlessprice-cuttingatsupermarketsmeansconsumershavegrownaccustomedtoeatingtoomuch.Inthelate19thcenturyEuropeansalreadythoughtAmericansatethreeorfourtimesmorethanwasnecessary.Themostdamagingconsequenceisthatby200031%ofAmericanadultswereobesewithanother16%definedasoverweight.Americanairlinesspend$275millionayearmoreonfuelsimplytolifttheheavierpassengers.MrRobertsclaimsthateveryyearobesitycauses400000prematuredeathsinAmerica.Foodhasbecomeasdeadlyastobacco. AfruitfulstartwouldbetohalvethesizeofportionsinallAmericanrestaurantsbutmostconsumersarereluctantrethinkers.49．Eatingorganicproductcouldbeapartialsolutionalthoughonestudysuggeststhatthecostofavoidingintensivefarmchemicalswouldmeana31%increaseinfoodprices.Governmentscientistsbelievethatgeneticallymodifiedcropsmightbetheonlywayoutofthecrisisbutamajorityofconsumersarereluctanttolisten. Isthereamodelforthefuture50．FashionablyMr.Robertsbelievesthatalocalsystembasedoneasilyobtainableseasonalfoodsthatdonotneedtobetransportedhugedistanceswouldformpartofasolution.Theeconomicsandgreeneryofthisarefarfromproven.MrRobertscanfindonlyonecountrythathasmade"seriousefforts"inthisdirection:Cubahardlyacomfortingexample.Thecomingfoodcrisiswarnstheauthorisasintractableasglobalwarmingandnolessurgent. 48
DoanimalshaverightsThisishowthequestionisusuallyput.Itsoundslikeausefulgroundclearingwaytostart.46Actuallyitisn’tbecauseitassumesthatthereisanagreedaccountofhumanrightswhichissomethingtheworlddoesnothave. Ononeviewofrightstobesureitnecessarilyfollowsthatanimalshavenone.47Somephilosophersarguethatfightsexistonlywithinasocialcontractaspartofanexchangeofdutiesandentitlements.Thereforeanimalscannothaverights.Theideaofpunishingatigerthatkillssomebodyisabsurdforexactlythesamereasonsoistheideathattigershaverights.Howeverthisisonlyoneaccountandbynomeansanuncontestedone.Itdeniesrightsnotonlytoanimalsbutalsotosomepeopleforinstancetoinfantsthementallyincapableandfuturegenerations.Inadditionitisunclearwhatforceacontractcanhaveforpeoplewhoneverconsentedtoithowdoyoureplytosomebodywhosays"Idon’tlikethiscontract" Thepointisthat:withoutagreementontherightsofpeoplearguingabouttherightsofanimalsisfruitless.48Itleadsthediscussiontoextremesattheoutset:itinvitesyoutothinkthatanimalsshouldbetreatedeitherwiththeconsiderationhumansextendtootherhumansorwithnoconsiderationatall.Thisisafalsechoice.Bettertostartwithanothermorefundamentalquestion:isthewaywetreatanimalsamoralissueatall Manydenyit.49Arguingfromtheviewthathumansaredifferentfromanimalsineveryrelevantrespectextremistsofthiskindthinkthatanimalslieoutsidetheareaofmoralchoice.Anyregardforthesufferingofanimalsisseenasamistake--asentimentaldisplacementoffeelingthatshouldproperlybedirectedtootherhumans. Thisviewwhichholdsthattorturingamonkeyismorallyequivalenttochoppingwoodmayseembravely"logical".Infactitissimplyshallow:theconfusedcenterisrighttorejectit.Themostelementaryformofmoralreasoning---theethicalequivalentoflearningtocrawl--istoweighothers’interestsagainstone’sown.Thisinmmrequiressympathyandimagination:withoutthemthereisnocapacityformoralthought.Toseeananimalinpainisenoughformosttoengagesympathy.50Whenthathappensitisnotamistake:itismankind’sinstinctformoralreasoninginactionaninstinctthatshouldbeencouragedratherthanlaughedat. Itleadsthediscussiontoextremesattheoutset:itinvitesyoutothinkthatanimalsshouldbetreatedeitherwiththe
Weakdollarorno$46000-thepriceforasingleyearofundergraduateinstructionamidtheredbrickofHarvardYard-is1Butnowadayscostis2barriertoentryatmanyofAmerica’sbestuniversities.Formidablefinancial-assistancepolicieshave3feesorslashedthemdeeplyforneedystudents.AndlastmonthHarvardannouncedanewplandesignedto4thesticker-shockforundergraduatesfrommiddleandevenupper-incomefamiliestoo. SincethenotherrichAmericanuniversitieshaveunveiled5initiatives.YaleHarvard’sbitterest6revealeditsplansonJanuary14th.Studentswhosefamiliesmake7than$60000ayearwillpaynothingatall.Familiesearningupto$200000ayearwillhavetopayanaverageof10%oftheirincomes.Theuniversitywill8itsfinancial-assistancebudgetby43%toover$80m. Harvardwillhaveasimilararrangementforfamiliesmakingupto$180000.ThatmakesthepriceofgoingtoHarvardorYale9toattendingastate-rununiversityformiddle-andupper-incomestudents.Theuniversitieswillalsonotrequireanystudenttotakeout10topayfortheir11apolicyintroducedbyPrincetonin2001andbytheUniversityofPennsylvaniajustafterHarvard’s12.Noapplicantwhogainsadmissionofficialssayshouldfeel13togoelsewherebecauseheorshecan’taffordthefees. Noneofthatisquiteasaltruisticasitsounds.HarvardandYaleareafterallnowlikelytoluremorestudentsawayfrompreviously14optionsparticularlystate-rununiversities15theiralreadyimpressiveadmissionsfiguresandreputations. Theschemesalsoprovidea16forstructuringuniversityfeesinwhichhighpricesforrichstudentshelpoffsetmodestpricesforpooreronesandfamiliesareless17onfederalgrantsandgovernment-backedloans. Lesswealthyprivatecollegeswhosefeesarehighwillnotbeableto18HarvardorYaleeasily.ButAmerica’sstate-rununiversitieswhichhavetraditionallykepttheirfeeslowandstablemightwelltryadifferentiated19schemeastheyraisecashtocompeteacademicallywiththeirprivate20.IndeedtheUniversityofCaliforniasystemhasalreadystartedtoimplementasliding-feescale. 16
Itishardtogetagriponfood.TheUN’sWorldHealthOrganisationworriesaboutdiminishingsuppliesandincreasedpricesinpoorcountries;recentriotsandnear-riotsinHaitiBangladeshandEgyptweresparkedbythegrowingcostofwheatandrice.ButasPaulRobertsobservesin"TheEndofFood"thedevelopedworldhaslivedthrough"anearmiraculousperiodduringwhichthethingsweateseemedtogrowonlymoreplentifulmoresecuremorenutritiousandsimplybetter."46．Inthesecondhalfofthe20thcenturyworldoutputofcornwheatandcerealcropsmorethantripled.Yetthereisnotenoughtofeedtherichtheaspirationalandthepoorintheworld.Agoldenagehasbeentransformedquitesuddenlyintoaglobalcrisis. MrRobertsinsiststhatmodernagribusinessisunsustainableandbecomingmoreso."Preciselyatthemomentinhistorywhenweneedtoshiftoursystemoffoodproductionintooverdriveouragriculturalengineisbreakingdown"hesays.Theindustryhastakencheapoilforgranted.Oilfuelstransportationandfarmmachineryandnaturalgasisthebasisofsyntheticnitrogenproductionpriceshavetripledsince2002.Agricultureaccountsforthree-quartersoffreshwateruseandwaterisbecominganincreasinglyscarceandexpensiveresource.Climatechangemakessomeoldassumptionsaboutfarmingredundant.47．Acombinationofthesefactorshesayswillultimatelyforceacompleterethinkingofthewaywemakefood. Foryearsgovernmentsubsidieshelddowngrainpricesmakingfoodcheaper.48．Waterwasalsoplentiful-ittakes1000tonnesofwatertoproduceatonneofgrain-andaningeniousprocessknownasHaber-Boschmakessyntheticnitrogenfertilisereasilyavailabletograinfarmers.Ruthlessprice-cuttingatsupermarketsmeansconsumershavegrownaccustomedtoeatingtoomuch.Inthelate19thcenturyEuropeansalreadythoughtAmericansatethreeorfourtimesmorethanwasnecessary.Themostdamagingconsequenceisthatby200031%ofAmericanadultswereobesewithanother16%definedasoverweight.Americanairlinesspend$275millionayearmoreonfuelsimplytolifttheheavierpassengers.MrRobertsclaimsthateveryyearobesitycauses400000prematuredeathsinAmerica.Foodhasbecomeasdeadlyastobacco. AfruitfulstartwouldbetohalvethesizeofportionsinallAmericanrestaurantsbutmostconsumersarereluctantrethinkers.49．Eatingorganicproductcouldbeapartialsolutionalthoughonestudysuggeststhatthecostofavoidingintensivefarmchemicalswouldmeana31%increaseinfoodprices.Governmentscientistsbelievethatgeneticallymodifiedcropsmightbetheonlywayoutofthecrisisbutamajorityofconsumersarereluctanttolisten. Isthereamodelforthefuture50．FashionablyMr.Robertsbelievesthatalocalsystembasedoneasilyobtainableseasonalfoodsthatdonotneedtobetransportedhugedistanceswouldformpartofasolution.Theeconomicsandgreeneryofthisarefarfromproven.MrRobertscanfindonlyonecountrythathasmade"seriousefforts"inthisdirection:Cubahardlyacomfortingexample.Thecomingfoodcrisiswarnstheauthorisasintractableasglobalwarmingandnolessurgent. 50
Energywillbeoneofthedefiningissuesofthiscentury.Onethingisclear:theeraof1oilisover.Whatwealldonextwilldeterminehowwellwemeettheenergyneedsoftheentireworldinthiscenturyand2. Demandissoaringlike3before.Aspopulationsgrowandeconomies4millionsinthedevelopingworldareenjoyingthebenefitsofalifestylethat5increasingamountsofenergy.Infactsomesaythatin20yearstheworldwill640%moreoilthanitdoestoday.Atthesametimemanyoftheworld’soilandgasfieldsare7.Andnewenergydiscoveriesaremainlyoccurringinplaceswhereresourcesaredifficultto8physicallyeconomicallyandevenpolitically.Whengrowingdemandmeets9suppliestheresultismore10forthesameresources. Wecanwaituntilacrisisforcesustodosomething.11wecan12toworkingtogetherandstartbyaskingthe13questions:HowdowemeettheenergyneedsofthedevelopingworldandthoseofindustrializednationsWhatrolewillrenewablesand14energiesplayWhatisthebestwaytoprotectourenvironmentHowdoweaccelerateourconservationefforts15actionswetakewemustlooknotjusttonextyear16tothenext50years. AtChevronwebelievethatinnovationcollaborationandconservationarethe17onwhichtobuildthisnewworld.Wecannotdothisalone.Corporationsgovernmentsandeverycitizenofthisplanetmustbepartofthesolutionas18astheyarepartoftheproblem.We19scientistsandeducatorspoliticiansandpolicy-makersenvironmentalistsleadersofindustryandeachoneofyoutobepartof20thenexteraofenergy. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.2
LongbeforemanlivedontheEarththerewerefishesreptilesbirdsinsectsandsomemammals.Althoughsomeoftheseanimalswereancestorsofkindslivingtodayothersarenowextinctthatistheyhavenodescendantsalivenow.Neverthelessweknowagreatdealaboutmanyofthembecausetheirbonesandshellshavebeenpreservedintherocksasfossils. 41.______Thatkindofrockinwhichtheremainsarefoundtellsusmuchaboutthenatureoftheoriginallandoftenoftheplantsthatgrewonitandevenofitsclimate. Whenananimaldiesthebodyitsbonesorshellmayoftenbecarriedawaybystreamsintolakesortheseaandtheregetcoveredupbymud.Iftheanimallivedintheseaitsbodywouldprobablysinkandbecoveredwithmud.Moreandmoremudwouldfalluponituntilthebonesorshellbecomeembeddedandpreserved.42．______Thusitfollowsthattheremustbemanykindsofmammalsbirdsandinsectsofwhichweknownothing 43．______Laterformsaremorecomplexandamongthesearethesea-liliesrelationsofthestar-fisheswhichhadlongarmsandwereattachedbyalongstalktotheseabedortorocks.Therewerealsocrab-likecreatureswhosebodieswerecoveredwithahornysubstanceThebodysegmentseachhadtwopairsoflegsonepairforwalkingonthesandybottomtheotherforswimming.Theheadwasakindofshieldwithapairofcompoundeyesoftenwiththousandsoflenses.Theywereusuallyaninchortwolongbutsomewere2feet. Theshellfishhavealonghistoryintherockandmanydifferentkindsareknown.Ofthesetheammonitesareveryinterestingandimportant.Theyhaveashellcomposedofmanychamberseachrepresentingatemporaryhomeoftheanimal.Astheyounggrewlargeritgrewanewchamberandsealedoffthepreviousone.ThousandsofthesecanbeseenintherocksontheDorsetCoast. Thefirstanimalswithtruebackboneswerefishesfirstknownintherocksof375millionyearsago.About300millionyearsagotheamphibianstheanimalsabletolivebothonlandandinwaterappeared.Theyweregiantsometimes8feetlongandmanyofthemlivedintheswampypoolsinwhichourcoalseamorlayerformed.44．______About75millionyearsagotheAgeofReptileswasoverandmostofthegroupsdiedout.Themammalsquicklydevelopedandwecantracetheevolutionofmanyfamiliaranimalssuchastheelephantandhorse.45．______ [A]Thebestindexfossilstendtobemarinecreatures.Theseanimalsevolvedrapidlyandspreadoverlargeareasoftheworld. [B]Theamphibiansgaverisetothereptilesandfornearly150millionyearstheseweretheprincipalformsoflifeonlandintheseaandintheair. [C]Manyofthelatermammalsthoughnowextinctwereknowntoprimitivemanandwerefeaturedbyhimincavepaintingsandonbonecarvings. [D]Nearlyallofthefossilsthatweknowwerepreservedinrocksformedbywateractionandmostoftheseareofanimalsthatlivedinornearwater. [E]Theearliestanimalswhoseremainshavebeenfoundwereallverysimplekindsandlivedinthesea. [F]Manyfactorscaninfluencehowfossilsarepreservedinrocks.Remainsofanorganismmaybereplacedbymineralsdissolvedbyanacidicsolutiontoleaveonlytheirimpressionorsimplyreducedtoamorestableform. [G]Fromthemwecantelltheirsizeandshapehowtheywalkedthekindoffoodtheyate.Veryoccasionallytherocksshowimpressionofskinsothatapartfromcolorwecanbuildupareasonablyaccuratepictureofananimalthatdiedmillionsofyearsago. 42
ScoresofworkersfromMTVNetworkswalkedoffthejobyesterdayafternoonfillingthesidewalkoutsidetheheadquartersofitscorporateparentViacomtoprotestrecentchangesinbenefits.Thewalkouthighlightedtheconcernsofacategoryofworkerswhoaresometimescalledpermalancers:permanentfreelancerswhoworklikefull-timeemployeesbutdonotreceivethesamebenefits.WavingsignsthatreadShameonViacomtheworkersmostofthemintheir20sdemandedthatMTVNetworksreverseaplantoreducehealthanddentalbenefitsforfreelancersbeginningOnJan.1st.InastatementMTVNetworksnotedthatitsbenefitsprogramforfull-timeemployeeshadalsoundergonechangesanditemphasizedthattheplanforfreelancerswasstillhighlycompetitivewithintheindustry.Manyfreelancersreceivenocorporatebenefits.Butsomeoftheprotestersassertedthatcorporationswerecompetingtoseewhichcouldprovidethemostmediocrehealthcarecoverage.MatthewYondawhoworksatNickelodeonheldasignthatlabeledthenetworkSick-elodeon.I’veworkedhereeverydayforthreeyears-I’mnotafreelancerMr.Yondasaid.Theyjustcallusfreelancersinordertobarusfromgettingthesamebenefitsasemployees.ThechangestothebenefitspackagewereannouncedlastTuesday.Freelancersweretoldthattheywouldbecomeeligibleforbenefitsafter160daysofworkbeginninginJanuary.Whilethateasedpreviouseligibilityruleswhichrequiredfreelancerstoworkfor52weeksbeforebecomingeligibleitwouldhaverequiredallfreelancersnotyeteligibleforbenefitstostartthewaitingperiodoveragainonJan.1st.The401kplanwasalsoremoved.OnThursdayacknowledgingthecomplaintsMTVNetworksreinstatedthe401kplanandsaidfreelancerswhohadworkedconsistentlysinceMarchwouldbeeligible.FueledbyaseriesofblogpostsonthemediaWebsiteGawker-thefirstpostwasheadlinedTheViacomPermalanceSlaveSystem-aloosecohortoffreelancerscreatedproteststickersanddistributedwalkoutflierslastweek.CarolineO’HareaunitmanagerwhohasworkedforMTVformorethantwoyearssaidthenewhealthcareplan-withhigherdeductiblesanda$2000caponhospitalexpenseseachyear-hadprovokedoutrage.Theythinktheycantreatuslikechildrenthatdon’thavefamiliesmortgagesordreamsofretirementshesaid.OutsideViacom’sheadquartersseveralworkersheldposterswiththewordsThere’stoomanyofustoignore.Itwasunclearhowmanyfreelancersareonthecompany’spayroll;anMTVNetworks’spokeswomansaidthefigurewasnotknownbecauseitrisesandfallsthroughouttheyear.Thecompanyhas5500full-timeemployeesexcludingfreelancersaroundtheworld.Twofreelancersandonefull-timeemployeewhoaskednottobeidentifiedforfearofretributionestimatedthatthepercentageoffreelancersinsomedepartmentsexceeded75percent.AnotherlaboractionisexpectedtotakeplaceoutsideViacomlaterthisweek.MembersoftheWritersGuildofAmericawhohavebeenonstrikeforfiveweeksareexpectedtopicketthereonThursday.WhatdoesthewordreinstateLine6Paragraph3mostprobablymean
1.Therearetwomodesoftravel. 2.Comparetwomodesoftravelintermsof 1theattractionofpackagetravel; 2theattractionoftravelingonone’sown; 3thedisadvantageofboth. 3.Yourpreference. 以下是某旅行社的宣传资料
Weakdollarorno$46000-thepriceforasingleyearofundergraduateinstructionamidtheredbrickofHarvardYard-is1Butnowadayscostis2barriertoentryatmanyofAmerica’sbestuniversities.Formidablefinancial-assistancepolicieshave3feesorslashedthemdeeplyforneedystudents.AndlastmonthHarvardannouncedanewplandesignedto4thesticker-shockforundergraduatesfrommiddleandevenupper-incomefamiliestoo. SincethenotherrichAmericanuniversitieshaveunveiled5initiatives.YaleHarvard’sbitterest6revealeditsplansonJanuary14th.Studentswhosefamiliesmake7than$60000ayearwillpaynothingatall.Familiesearningupto$200000ayearwillhavetopayanaverageof10%oftheirincomes.Theuniversitywill8itsfinancial-assistancebudgetby43%toover$80m. Harvardwillhaveasimilararrangementforfamiliesmakingupto$180000.ThatmakesthepriceofgoingtoHarvardorYale9toattendingastate-rununiversityformiddle-andupper-incomestudents.Theuniversitieswillalsonotrequireanystudenttotakeout10topayfortheir11apolicyintroducedbyPrincetonin2001andbytheUniversityofPennsylvaniajustafterHarvard’s12.Noapplicantwhogainsadmissionofficialssayshouldfeel13togoelsewherebecauseheorshecan’taffordthefees. Noneofthatisquiteasaltruisticasitsounds.HarvardandYaleareafterallnowlikelytoluremorestudentsawayfrompreviously14optionsparticularlystate-rununiversities15theiralreadyimpressiveadmissionsfiguresandreputations. Theschemesalsoprovidea16forstructuringuniversityfeesinwhichhighpricesforrichstudentshelpoffsetmodestpricesforpooreronesandfamiliesareless17onfederalgrantsandgovernment-backedloans. Lesswealthyprivatecollegeswhosefeesarehighwillnotbeableto18HarvardorYaleeasily.ButAmerica’sstate-rununiversitieswhichhavetraditionallykepttheirfeeslowandstablemightwelltryadifferentiated19schemeastheyraisecashtocompeteacademicallywiththeirprivate20.IndeedtheUniversityofCaliforniasystemhasalreadystartedtoimplementasliding-feescale. 8
Weakdollarorno$46000-thepriceforasingleyearofundergraduateinstructionamidtheredbrickofHarvardYard-is1Butnowadayscostis2barriertoentryatmanyofAmerica’sbestuniversities.Formidablefinancial-assistancepolicieshave3feesorslashedthemdeeplyforneedystudents.AndlastmonthHarvardannouncedanewplandesignedto4thesticker-shockforundergraduatesfrommiddleandevenupper-incomefamiliestoo. SincethenotherrichAmericanuniversitieshaveunveiled5initiatives.YaleHarvard’sbitterest6revealeditsplansonJanuary14th.Studentswhosefamiliesmake7than$60000ayearwillpaynothingatall.Familiesearningupto$200000ayearwillhavetopayanaverageof10%oftheirincomes.Theuniversitywill8itsfinancial-assistancebudgetby43%toover$80m. Harvardwillhaveasimilararrangementforfamiliesmakingupto$180000.ThatmakesthepriceofgoingtoHarvardorYale9toattendingastate-rununiversityformiddle-andupper-incomestudents.Theuniversitieswillalsonotrequireanystudenttotakeout10topayfortheir11apolicyintroducedbyPrincetonin2001andbytheUniversityofPennsylvaniajustafterHarvard’s12.Noapplicantwhogainsadmissionofficialssayshouldfeel13togoelsewherebecauseheorshecan’taffordthefees. Noneofthatisquiteasaltruisticasitsounds.HarvardandYaleareafterallnowlikelytoluremorestudentsawayfrompreviously14optionsparticularlystate-rununiversities15theiralreadyimpressiveadmissionsfiguresandreputations. Theschemesalsoprovidea16forstructuringuniversityfeesinwhichhighpricesforrichstudentshelpoffsetmodestpricesforpooreronesandfamiliesareless17onfederalgrantsandgovernment-backedloans. Lesswealthyprivatecollegeswhosefeesarehighwillnotbeableto18HarvardorYaleeasily.ButAmerica’sstate-rununiversitieswhichhavetraditionallykepttheirfeeslowandstablemightwelltryadifferentiated19schemeastheyraisecashtocompeteacademicallywiththeirprivate20.IndeedtheUniversityofCaliforniasystemhasalreadystartedtoimplementasliding-feescale. 20
Itishardtogetagriponfood.TheUN’sWorldHealthOrganisationworriesaboutdiminishingsuppliesandincreasedpricesinpoorcountries;recentriotsandnear-riotsinHaitiBangladeshandEgyptweresparkedbythegrowingcostofwheatandrice.ButasPaulRobertsobservesin"TheEndofFood"thedevelopedworldhaslivedthrough"anearmiraculousperiodduringwhichthethingsweateseemedtogrowonlymoreplentifulmoresecuremorenutritiousandsimplybetter."46．Inthesecondhalfofthe20thcenturyworldoutputofcornwheatandcerealcropsmorethantripled.Yetthereisnotenoughtofeedtherichtheaspirationalandthepoorintheworld.Agoldenagehasbeentransformedquitesuddenlyintoaglobalcrisis. MrRobertsinsiststhatmodernagribusinessisunsustainableandbecomingmoreso."Preciselyatthemomentinhistorywhenweneedtoshiftoursystemoffoodproductionintooverdriveouragriculturalengineisbreakingdown"hesays.Theindustryhastakencheapoilforgranted.Oilfuelstransportationandfarmmachineryandnaturalgasisthebasisofsyntheticnitrogenproductionpriceshavetripledsince2002.Agricultureaccountsforthree-quartersoffreshwateruseandwaterisbecominganincreasinglyscarceandexpensiveresource.Climatechangemakessomeoldassumptionsaboutfarmingredundant.47．Acombinationofthesefactorshesayswillultimatelyforceacompleterethinkingofthewaywemakefood. Foryearsgovernmentsubsidieshelddowngrainpricesmakingfoodcheaper.48．Waterwasalsoplentiful-ittakes1000tonnesofwatertoproduceatonneofgrain-andaningeniousprocessknownasHaber-Boschmakessyntheticnitrogenfertilisereasilyavailabletograinfarmers.Ruthlessprice-cuttingatsupermarketsmeansconsumershavegrownaccustomedtoeatingtoomuch.Inthelate19thcenturyEuropeansalreadythoughtAmericansatethreeorfourtimesmorethanwasnecessary.Themostdamagingconsequenceisthatby200031%ofAmericanadultswereobesewithanother16%definedasoverweight.Americanairlinesspend$275millionayearmoreonfuelsimplytolifttheheavierpassengers.MrRobertsclaimsthateveryyearobesitycauses400000prematuredeathsinAmerica.Foodhasbecomeasdeadlyastobacco. AfruitfulstartwouldbetohalvethesizeofportionsinallAmericanrestaurantsbutmostconsumersarereluctantrethinkers.49．Eatingorganicproductcouldbeapartialsolutionalthoughonestudysuggeststhatthecostofavoidingintensivefarmchemicalswouldmeana31%increaseinfoodprices.Governmentscientistsbelievethatgeneticallymodifiedcropsmightbetheonlywayoutofthecrisisbutamajorityofconsumersarereluctanttolisten. Isthereamodelforthefuture50．FashionablyMr.Robertsbelievesthatalocalsystembasedoneasilyobtainableseasonalfoodsthatdonotneedtobetransportedhugedistanceswouldformpartofasolution.Theeconomicsandgreeneryofthisarefarfromproven.MrRobertscanfindonlyonecountrythathasmade"seriousefforts"inthisdirection:Cubahardlyacomfortingexample.Thecomingfoodcrisiswarnstheauthorisasintractableasglobalwarmingandnolessurgent. 46
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