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在中国古代“法”与“律”同义是从( )起。
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在中国古代律学史上三分损益法造成的黄钟不能还原的千古难题是由哪位乐律学家来解开的他的律学理论成果还有
下列关于中国古代行政组织思想的评述正确的有
中国古代行政组织思想产生较早,起点也较高
中国古代行政组织思想具有系统性
中国古代行政组织思想有很多值得今天借鉴的内容
中国古代行政组织思想比不上外国同时期的行政组织思想丰富
中国古代行政组织思想源远流长,内容极为丰富
中国古代典籍古今图书集成是
已残缺的中国古代最大的类书
中国古代最大的丛书
中国最大的类书
中国现存规模最大的古代类书
中国古代的法律制度叫做
法
律
书
例
在中国古代法典中首次在篇下设门的是
《新律》
《宋刑统》
《泰始律》
《开皇律》
中国古代成文法典中的总则名例律自中正式形成
曹魏律
晋律
北魏律
北齐律
中国古代法字反映了古代法律的哪些特点
在中国古代,法与刑是通用的
古代法具有神明裁判的特点
法具有了公平的象征意义
古代法具有天然平等的含义
中国古代的律学原从属于
医宗
律宗
法学
儒学
中国古代第一部儒家化的法典是
汉律
新律
晋律
梁律
中国古代的注音法记音法有哪几种
在中国古代最早确定法典篇目为12篇的是
《曹魏律》
《北齐律》
《开皇律》
《永徽律》
中国古代最早将法典的篇数简化为十二篇的是
《魏律》
《晋律》
《大业律》
《北齐律》
属于中国古代史范围的题 标志着中国古代白银货币化的赋役改革是
两税法
一条鞭法
募役法
摊丁入亩
中国古代将收集民歌叫
收藏
采律
采风
踏青
中国古代把具法改为刑名并置于律文之首的法典是
秦律
汉律
曹__律
北齐律
中国古代把具律改为刑名并置于律文之首的法典是
秦律
汉律
曹__律
北齐律
孟德斯鸠论中国古代法
中国古代科技长期领先于世界的根本原因是
中国古代科学家的勤奋努力
中国地理环境有着得天独厚的优越性
中国古代农耕经济的高度繁荣和中央集权制度的建立
中国古代儒学占据统治地位
下面关于法的历史发展说法不正确的是
中国古代的法律制度就是律
法是惩恶扬善,象征公平
律是一律
宋朝的法是宋律
中国古代舞蹈记录法
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Studythefollowinggraphcarefullyandwriteanessayinwhichyoushould1analyzethegraph;2giveyourcommentsonthetrend.[*]
"Inthelongrun"asJohnMaynardKeynesobserved"wearealldead."True.Butcanthe1runbeelongatedinawaythatmakesthelongrun2AndifsohowandatwhatcostPeoplehavedreamtof3sincetimeimmemorial.Theyhavesoughtitsincethefirstalchemistputanelixirof4onthesameshoppinglistasawaytoturnleadintogold.Theyhave5aboutitinfictionfromRiderHaggard’s"She"toFrankHerbert’s"Dune".Andnowwiththegrowthof6knowledgethathasmarkedthepastfewdecadesafewresearchersbelieveitmightbewithin7. Tothinkaboutthequestionitisimportanttounderstandwhyorganisms-people8-ageinthefirstplace.Peoplearelikemachines:they9Thatmuchisobvious.Howeveramachinecanalwaysbe10Agoodmechanicwithastockofsparepartscankeepitgoing11.Eventuallynopartofthe12mayremainbutitstillcarriesonlikeLincoln’sfamousaxethathadthreenewhandlesandtwonewblade. Thequestionofcourseiswhetherthemachineisworth13.Itisherethatpeopleandnature14.Ortoputitslightly15twobitsofnaturedisagreewitheachother.Fromtheindividual’spointofview16isanimperative.Youcannotreproduceunlessyouarealive.Afearofdeathisasensibleevolvedresponseandsince17isasurewayofdyingitisnosurprisethatpeoplewanttostopitinitstracks.Moreovereventheappearanceofageingcanbe18.It19therangeofpotentialsexualpartnerswhofindyouattractive-sinceitisasignthatyouarenotgoingtobe20allthatlongtohelpbringupbaby-andthusagaincurbsyourreproduction. 18
TheSouthdaleshoppingcentreinMinnesotahasanatriumafoodcourtfountainsandacresofparking.ItsshopsincludeaDairyQueenaVictoria’sSecretandapurveyorofcomicT-shirts.ItmaynotseemlikealandmarkasimportanttoarchitecturalhistoryastheLouvreorNewYork’sWoolworthBuilding.Butitis.ohmygod!chimesagroupofteenagegirlsonlearningthattheyarestandingintheworld’sfirsttrueshoppingmall.Thatisthecoolestthinganybodyhassaidtousallday.InthepasthalfcenturySouthdaleanditsmanyimitatorshavetransformedshoppinghabitsurbaneconomiesandteenagespeech.Americanowhassome1100enclosedshoppingmallsaccordingtotheInternationalCouncilofShoppingCentres.CloneshaveappearedfromChennaitoMartinique.Yetthemall’sstoryisfarfromtriumphal.InventedbyaEuropeansocialistwhohatedcarsandcametoderidehisowncreationithasamurkyfuture.WhilemallscontinuetomultiplyoutsideAmericatheyaregraduallydyinginthecountrythatpioneeredthem.Southdale’screatorarrivedinAmericaasarefugeefromNazi-occupiedVienna.VictorGruenwasaJewishbohemianwhobegantodesignshopsforfellowimmigrantsinNewYorkafterfailingincabarettheatre.Hisworkwasadmiredpartlyforitsunclutteredmodernistlookwhichseemedrevolutionaryin1930sAmerica.ButGruen’ssecretwasthewayheusedarcadesandeye-leveldisplaycasestolurecustomersintostoresalmostagainsttheirwill.Asacriticcomplainedhisshopswerelikemousetraps.Afewyearslaterthesamewouldbesaidofhisshoppingmalls.Bythe1940sdepartmentstoreswerealreadymovingtothesuburbs.Somehadbeguntobuildadjacentstripsofshopswhichtheyfilledwithboutiquesinanattempttore-createurbanshoppingdistricts.In1947ashoppingcentreopenedinLosAngelesfeaturingtwodepartmentstoresaclusterofsmallshopsandalargecarpark.Itwasineffectanoutdoorshoppingmall.FineforbalmysouthernCaliforniaperhapsbutnotforMinnesota’sharshclimate.CommissionedtobuildashoppingcentreatSouthdalein1956Gruenthrewaroofoverthestructureandinstalledanair-conditioningsystemtokeepthetemperatureat75°F24℃—whichacontemporarypressreleasecalledEternalSpring.Themallwasborn.Gruengotanextraordinarynumberofthingsrightfirsttime.Hebuiltaslopingroadaroundtheperimeterofthemallsothathalfoftheshoppersenteredonthegroundfloorandhalfonthefirstfloor-somethingthatbecameastandardfeatureofmalls.Southdale’sbalconieswerelowsothatshopperscouldseetheshopsontheflooraboveorbelowthem.Thecarparkhadanimalsignstohelpshoppersrememberthewaybacktotheirvehicles.ItwasasthoughOrvilleandWilburWrighthadnotjustdiscoveredpoweredflightbuthadbuiltaplanewithtraytablesandaduty-freeservice.AccordingtothetextwhichofthefollowingisTRUE
Theconceptionofpovertyandwhatto1aboutithavechangedoverthedecades.UnderSocialDarwinismthelazyandthe2weresupposedtobeatthebottomoftheeconomicladderas3ofthe"lawofsurvivalofthefittest".Societywas4asanetworkofself-sufficientfamilieswhichprovidedfortheirown.5personsoutsideahouseholdorphansthe6elderlyandthecrippledwereprovidedoutdoorreliefgrudginglyandasatemporaryexpedient权宜之计.Althoughitwas7that"thepoorwillalwaysbewithus"theindividualwasexpectedtoimprovehimself8actsofhisownwill.Charitywasthoughttobethe9ofidleness.Bykeepingwageslowlaborerswouldbe10toworkharder. Atabouttheturnofthecenturythebeginningofconcernaboutnatural11broughtuneasinessaboutthepossiblespreadofbeggary.Therewasapotentiallydangerousclassin12ofdiseaseanddisorder.The"poor"were13asdifferentfrom"paupers"Pauperswereindividualswell14tobeingonthelowendofthesocioeconomic15Withoutshameorbitternesstheywouldnotseekindependenceanda"16"life.Forthemountaineersthesubsistencedwellersandsomeslumdwellersthelackofwealth17hasbeenarguedreflectsapreferencenottopaythepsychologicalcostsofthestruggleforfichesorofadoptingthemiddleclassworkethicofstriving.In18theworthypoorstruggledto19theirlotagainstcircumstancesbeyondtheircontrol:lowwagessicknessindustrial20widowhood孀居andsoon. 4
BeforetheeconomyfellapartitwasBritain’ssocietythatwassupposedtobeinterminaldeclineespeciallyintheeyesoftheTories.DavidCamerontheConservativePartyleaderwaswonttobemoanbrokenBritainmiredinmoraldegeneracywithhighratesofteenagepregnancylowratesofmarriageandotherlessquantifiablebreakdownsinthecivilisedschemeofthings.SuchantediluvianworrieswererakedoveragainonJuly13thwhenIainDuncanSmithaformerToryleadercalledforanofficialendorsementofmarriage.MrDuncanSmithcitesseveralreasonstoencouragewedlockincludingfamilystabilitymarriedcouplesaremuchlesslikelytosplitthancohabitingonesandhealthierchildrenwhodobetterinlaterlife.Therewastalkofstate-runcounsellingpro-marriagepropagandainschoolsandmandatorycooling-offperiodsbeforedivorces.MrDuncanSmithfavourstaxbreaksformarriedcouplessomethingthatLabourhaslongrefusedtoendorse.Itistruethatmarriageisadeclininginstitution.Marriageratesareattheirlowestsince1895.Butcuriouslythosewhodomarrynowstaytogetherforlonger.Divorceratesarefallingnotrisingandhavebeenforseveralyears.In200711.9marriedcouplesperthousanduntiedtheknotdownfrom12.2theyearbeforeandthelowestsince1981.Thetimethatdivorcingcouplesendureeachotherbeforeflingingbacktheringshaslengthenedtoo.from10.1yearsin1981to11.7in2007.Indifferencetowardsthesacramentofmarriageappearsstrongestamongtheelderlynotthefecklessyoung.Since2004whentheoveralldivorceratepeakedat14.1perthousandover-60shavebeentheonlypartofthepopulationwhoserateshavecontinuedtorise.Thereareplentyofcompetingexplanationsforthediminishingappealofdivorceandnoeasywaytodiscoverwhicharetrue.Immigrationmayhavehelpedsinceimmigrantfamiliesoftenhavemoreconservativeattitudesthanthedegeneratenatives.Accountantsanddivorcelawyersreckonastringofrecentbigsettlementsmayhaveactedasadeterrentalthoughitcouldequallyhaveencouragedthepoorerpartnersinfinanciallyunequalmarriages.FallingmarriageratesandfallingdivorceratescouldbetwosidesofthesamecoinsaysKathleenKiernanaprofessorofsocialpolicyatYorkUniversity.Theunpopularityofmarriageandtherelativeeaseofdivorcehasleftonlyahardcoreofstablecouplesboundinwedlock.Andtheriseintheaverageageatwhichpeoplegetmarriednow36formenand33forwomenishelpingtoosinceolderbridesandgroomstendtostaytogetherlongerinanycase.Ifsopoliticiansshouldbecautiousabouthandingouttaxbreaks.EveniftheyworkandMsKiernanthinkstheywouldhavetobeenormoustohavemucheffectchivvyingunmarriedcouplesintowedlockislikelytomeanmoredivorcesinthefuture.WhydidIainDuncanSmithcallforanofficialendorsementofmarriage
Theconceptionofpovertyandwhatto1aboutithavechangedoverthedecades.UnderSocialDarwinismthelazyandthe2weresupposedtobeatthebottomoftheeconomicladderas3ofthe"lawofsurvivalofthefittest".Societywas4asanetworkofself-sufficientfamilieswhichprovidedfortheirown.5personsoutsideahouseholdorphansthe6elderlyandthecrippledwereprovidedoutdoorreliefgrudginglyandasatemporaryexpedient权宜之计.Althoughitwas7that"thepoorwillalwaysbewithus"theindividualwasexpectedtoimprovehimself8actsofhisownwill.Charitywasthoughttobethe9ofidleness.Bykeepingwageslowlaborerswouldbe10toworkharder. Atabouttheturnofthecenturythebeginningofconcernaboutnatural11broughtuneasinessaboutthepossiblespreadofbeggary.Therewasapotentiallydangerousclassin12ofdiseaseanddisorder.The"poor"were13asdifferentfrom"paupers"Pauperswereindividualswell14tobeingonthelowendofthesocioeconomic15Withoutshameorbitternesstheywouldnotseekindependenceanda"16"life.Forthemountaineersthesubsistencedwellersandsomeslumdwellersthelackofwealth17hasbeenarguedreflectsapreferencenottopaythepsychologicalcostsofthestruggleforfichesorofadoptingthemiddleclassworkethicofstriving.In18theworthypoorstruggledto19theirlotagainstcircumstancesbeyondtheircontrol:lowwagessicknessindustrial20widowhood孀居andsoon. 18
YamatotheancientnameofJapanessentiallymeansbigharmony.ToachievesuchbalanceJapanesesocietyhasrefinedaplethoraofculturaltraits:humilityloyaltyrespectandconsensus.Inthefieldofbusinesshoweverthisoftenresultsinalackofleaderswhoarewillingtostandoutfromthecrowdpromotethemselvesandactdecisively.ThenailthatsticksupgetshammereddownisacommonJapaneserefrain;thehawkwithtalenthideshistalonsisanother.WhereasAmericanandEuropeanbossesliketoappearonthecoversofglobalbusinessmagazinestheirJapanesecounterpartsarecomfortableintheirobscurity.BusinessinJapanisgenerallyrunasagroupendeavor.Suchdemocraticvirtuesservedthecountrywellinthepost-warperiod.ButtodaytheyholdtoomanyJapanesefirmsback.Japanboastssomeofthebestcompaniesintheworld:ToyotaCanonandNintendoaretheenvyoftheirindustries.ButtheyoperateonaglobalscaleandhavetentativelyembracedsomeunconsensualAmericanmethods.InmuchoftheJapaneseeconomy-especiallyitshugedomesticservicessector-managersareinsomethingofafunk.Firmsdonotgivepromisingyoungstersresponsibilityearlyonbutallocatejobsbyage.Unnecessarilylongworkinghoursarethenormsappingproductivity.Andtherearefewwomenandforeignersinseniorroleswhichnarrowsthetalentpool.Sohowpleasingitistobeabletoreportthesuccessofabusinessleaderwhobreaksthemould.Youngdynamicandcleverheisnotafraidtopushasideoldconservativeknow-nothings.Hedisdainscorporatepoliticsandpromotespeoplebasedonmeritratherthanseniority.Hecanmakemistakeshegotinvolvedinaquestionabletakeover-defenceschemebutheiswildlypopularwithsalarymen:hiseverymoveischronicledweekly.InJunehewasgiventhetopjobatoneofJapan’sbiggestfirms.KosakuShimaofHatsushibaGoyoHoldingshasonlyoneseriousshortcoming:heisnotarealpersonbutamangaorcartooncharacter.FormanycriticsofJapanthatsaysitall:Mr.Shimacouldexistonlyinfiction.Infactthereisroomforthecountry’smanagersandevenitspoliticianstolearnfromhim.MostofthelessonsareforJapan’smanagers.Atpresentbossesrarelysaywhattheythinkbecauseitmightdisrupttheharmonyorbeseenasimmodest.Theirsubordinatesarereluctanttochallengeideasbecausethatwouldcausethebosstoloseface.Sodaftstrategiesfesterratherthangettingculledquickly.Thereislittlerisk-takingorinitiative.ThecruxoftheproblemisJapanesecompanies’cultureofconsensus-baseddecision-making.Callednemawashiliterallygoingaroundtherootsorringibottom-updecisionsithelpedtoestablishanegalitarianworkplace.Inthe1980sWesternmanagementconsultantscooedthatitwasthesourceofJapan’scompetitivestrength.Sometimesitcanbeasinperiodsofcrisiswhenanentirefirmneedstoacceptnewmarchingordersquickly.Butmostofthetimeitstranglesacompany.Relyingonconsensusmeansthatdecisionsaremadeslowlyifatall.Withsomanypeopletopleasetheresultisoftenamediocremorassofcompromises.Andwithsomanyhandsinvolvedthereisnoaccountability;noreasonforindividualstoexcel;nosanctionagainstbaddecisionssothattherearefeweroftheminfuture.OfcoursesometimestheconsensusoftheJapaneseworkplaceisjustaveneeranddecisionsarestillmadefromonhigh.Butthenwhypersistwiththepretenceparticularlyifitdrainsacompany’sefficiencyWhichofthefollowingisnotthefaultcausedbyconsensualJapanesemethodaccordingtothetext
Theconceptionofpovertyandwhatto1aboutithavechangedoverthedecades.UnderSocialDarwinismthelazyandthe2weresupposedtobeatthebottomoftheeconomicladderas3ofthe"lawofsurvivalofthefittest".Societywas4asanetworkofself-sufficientfamilieswhichprovidedfortheirown.5personsoutsideahouseholdorphansthe6elderlyandthecrippledwereprovidedoutdoorreliefgrudginglyandasatemporaryexpedient权宜之计.Althoughitwas7that"thepoorwillalwaysbewithus"theindividualwasexpectedtoimprovehimself8actsofhisownwill.Charitywasthoughttobethe9ofidleness.Bykeepingwageslowlaborerswouldbe10toworkharder. Atabouttheturnofthecenturythebeginningofconcernaboutnatural11broughtuneasinessaboutthepossiblespreadofbeggary.Therewasapotentiallydangerousclassin12ofdiseaseanddisorder.The"poor"were13asdifferentfrom"paupers"Pauperswereindividualswell14tobeingonthelowendofthesocioeconomic15Withoutshameorbitternesstheywouldnotseekindependenceanda"16"life.Forthemountaineersthesubsistencedwellersandsomeslumdwellersthelackofwealth17hasbeenarguedreflectsapreferencenottopaythepsychologicalcostsofthestruggleforfichesorofadoptingthemiddleclassworkethicofstriving.In18theworthypoorstruggledto19theirlotagainstcircumstancesbeyondtheircontrol:lowwagessicknessindustrial20widowhood孀居andsoon. 20
"Inthelongrun"asJohnMaynardKeynesobserved"wearealldead."True.Butcanthe1runbeelongatedinawaythatmakesthelongrun2AndifsohowandatwhatcostPeoplehavedreamtof3sincetimeimmemorial.Theyhavesoughtitsincethefirstalchemistputanelixirof4onthesameshoppinglistasawaytoturnleadintogold.Theyhave5aboutitinfictionfromRiderHaggard’s"She"toFrankHerbert’s"Dune".Andnowwiththegrowthof6knowledgethathasmarkedthepastfewdecadesafewresearchersbelieveitmightbewithin7. Tothinkaboutthequestionitisimportanttounderstandwhyorganisms-people8-ageinthefirstplace.Peoplearelikemachines:they9Thatmuchisobvious.Howeveramachinecanalwaysbe10Agoodmechanicwithastockofsparepartscankeepitgoing11.Eventuallynopartofthe12mayremainbutitstillcarriesonlikeLincoln’sfamousaxethathadthreenewhandlesandtwonewblade. Thequestionofcourseiswhetherthemachineisworth13.Itisherethatpeopleandnature14.Ortoputitslightly15twobitsofnaturedisagreewitheachother.Fromtheindividual’spointofview16isanimperative.Youcannotreproduceunlessyouarealive.Afearofdeathisasensibleevolvedresponseandsince17isasurewayofdyingitisnosurprisethatpeoplewanttostopitinitstracks.Moreovereventheappearanceofageingcanbe18.It19therangeofpotentialsexualpartnerswhofindyouattractive-sinceitisasignthatyouarenotgoingtobe20allthatlongtohelpbringupbaby-andthusagaincurbsyourreproduction. 16
Theconceptionofpovertyandwhatto1aboutithavechangedoverthedecades.UnderSocialDarwinismthelazyandthe2weresupposedtobeatthebottomoftheeconomicladderas3ofthe"lawofsurvivalofthefittest".Societywas4asanetworkofself-sufficientfamilieswhichprovidedfortheirown.5personsoutsideahouseholdorphansthe6elderlyandthecrippledwereprovidedoutdoorreliefgrudginglyandasatemporaryexpedient权宜之计.Althoughitwas7that"thepoorwillalwaysbewithus"theindividualwasexpectedtoimprovehimself8actsofhisownwill.Charitywasthoughttobethe9ofidleness.Bykeepingwageslowlaborerswouldbe10toworkharder. Atabouttheturnofthecenturythebeginningofconcernaboutnatural11broughtuneasinessaboutthepossiblespreadofbeggary.Therewasapotentiallydangerousclassin12ofdiseaseanddisorder.The"poor"were13asdifferentfrom"paupers"Pauperswereindividualswell14tobeingonthelowendofthesocioeconomic15Withoutshameorbitternesstheywouldnotseekindependenceanda"16"life.Forthemountaineersthesubsistencedwellersandsomeslumdwellersthelackofwealth17hasbeenarguedreflectsapreferencenottopaythepsychologicalcostsofthestruggleforfichesorofadoptingthemiddleclassworkethicofstriving.In18theworthypoorstruggledto19theirlotagainstcircumstancesbeyondtheircontrol:lowwagessicknessindustrial20widowhood孀居andsoon. 6
ManywillknowthatthewordmusclecomesfromtheLatinformouseripplingundertheskinsotospeak.ButwhataboutchagrinderivedfromtheTurkishforroughenedleatherorscalysharkskin.OrlenswhichcomesfromtheLatinlentilorwindowmeaningeyeofwindinoldNorseLookedatcloselythelanguagecomesapartinimageslikethosestrangepaintingsbyGiuseppeArcimboldowhereheadsaremadeoffruitandvegetables.NotthatHenryHitchings’sbookisaboutverbalsurrealism.ThatisanextrapleasureinabookwhichisreallyaboutthewaytheEnglishlanguagehasroamedtheworldhelpingitselfliberallytowordsabsorbingthemforgettingwheretheycamefromandmovingonwithanever-growingloadofexoticscrossbreedsandsubtlyshadednear-synonyms.Itisalsoaboutmigrationswithinthelanguage’sownbordersaboutupwardanddownwardmobilityaboutwordslosingtheirrootsturningupinnewsurroundingsorlyinginwaitlikeduvetwhichwasmentionedbySamuelJohnsonfortheirmoment.Allthisisanotherwayofwritinghistory.TheArabetymologiesofsaffroncrimsonandsugarspeakofEngland’smedievaltradewiththeArabworld.Wehavechequeandtarifffromthissourcetooplusarithmeticandalgorithm-justaswehaveetchandsketchfromtheDutchmusicaltermsfromtheItaliansandphilosophicalonesfromtheGermans.Frenchnuanceandfinesseareeverywhere.Ateverystagethebookisaboutpeopleandideasonthemoveaboutinvasionrefugeesimmigrantstraderscolonistsandexplorers.Thisisahugesubjectandonethatisalmostboundtoprovokequestion-marksandexplosionsinthemargins-soonforgotteninthebook’ssheersweepandscale.Abalancebetweenstraighthistoryandwordhistoryissometimesdifficulttostrikethough.Thereisafeelingoccasionallyofbeingbundledtoofastthroughcomplexlinguisticdevelopmentsandusagesorofbeinggiveninterestingslicesofhistoryforthesakeafterallofnotmuchmorethanagongoramoccasin.Butitischurlishtocarp.Theauthor’szestandgrasparewonderful.Hemakesyouwanttocheckouteverything-carpandzestincluded.WhateverishybridfluidandunpolicedaboutEnglishdelightshim.EnglishhasneverhaditsAcadmieFrancaisebutoverthecenturiesithasnotlackedfuriousdefendersagainstforeigncorruption.Therehavebeenrearguardactionstopreserveitsmanlypre-NormanoriginseventoreconstructitalongAnglo-Saxonlines:wheel-saddleforbicyclepainloreforpathology.Buttheomnivorousbeastisrampantstill.Morepeoplespeakitastheirsecondlanguagethanastheirfirst.ForgetthelanguageofShakespeare.It’sGlobishnowthelanguageofaspiration.Nooneownsitacausefordespairtosome.Mr.Hitchingsadmitstowincingoccasionallybutalmostonprincipleheismorecheerfulthannot.AccordingtothetextwhatdoesAcadmieFrancaisereferto
Theconceptionofpovertyandwhatto1aboutithavechangedoverthedecades.UnderSocialDarwinismthelazyandthe2weresupposedtobeatthebottomoftheeconomicladderas3ofthe"lawofsurvivalofthefittest".Societywas4asanetworkofself-sufficientfamilieswhichprovidedfortheirown.5personsoutsideahouseholdorphansthe6elderlyandthecrippledwereprovidedoutdoorreliefgrudginglyandasatemporaryexpedient权宜之计.Althoughitwas7that"thepoorwillalwaysbewithus"theindividualwasexpectedtoimprovehimself8actsofhisownwill.Charitywasthoughttobethe9ofidleness.Bykeepingwageslowlaborerswouldbe10toworkharder. Atabouttheturnofthecenturythebeginningofconcernaboutnatural11broughtuneasinessaboutthepossiblespreadofbeggary.Therewasapotentiallydangerousclassin12ofdiseaseanddisorder.The"poor"were13asdifferentfrom"paupers"Pauperswereindividualswell14tobeingonthelowendofthesocioeconomic15Withoutshameorbitternesstheywouldnotseekindependenceanda"16"life.Forthemountaineersthesubsistencedwellersandsomeslumdwellersthelackofwealth17hasbeenarguedreflectsapreferencenottopaythepsychologicalcostsofthestruggleforfichesorofadoptingthemiddleclassworkethicofstriving.In18theworthypoorstruggledto19theirlotagainstcircumstancesbeyondtheircontrol:lowwagessicknessindustrial20widowhood孀居andsoon. 2
In1959theaverageAmericanfamilypaid$989forayear’ssupplyoffood.In1972thefamilypaid$1311.Thatwasapriceincreaseofnearlyone-third.Everyfamilyhashadthissortofexperience.Everyoneagreesthatthecostoffeedingafamilyhasrisensharply.41.______. Manyblamethefarmerswhoproducethevegetablesfruitmeateggsandcheesethatstoresofferforsale.AccordingtotheU.S.DepartmentofAgriculturethefarmer’sshareofthe$1311spentbythefamilyin1972was$521.Thiswas31percentmorethanthefarmerhadreceivedin1959. Butfarmersclaimthatthisincreasewasverysmallcomparedtotheincreaseintheircostofliving.42.______Theseincludetruckdriversmeatpackersmanufacturersofpackagesandotherfoodcontainersandtheownersofstoreswherefoodissold.Theyareamongthe"middlemen"whostandbetweenthefarmerandthepeoplewhobuyandeatthefood.Aremiddlementheonestoblameforrisingfoodprices Ofthe$1311familyfoodbillin1972middlementreceived$790whichwas33percentmorethantheyhadreceivedin1959.Itappearsthatthemiddlemen’sprofithasincreasedmorethanfarmer’s.43.AccordingtoeconomistsattheFirstNationalCityBanktheprofitformeatpackersandfoodstoresamountedtolessthanonepercent.Duringthesameperiodallothermanufacturersweremakingaprofitofmorethanfivepercent.Bycomparisonwithothermembersoftheeconomicsystembothfarmersandmiddlemenhaveprofitedsurprisinglylittlefromtheriseinfoodprices. 44.______TheeconomistsatFirstNationalCityBankhaveananswertogivehousewivesbutmanypeoplewillnotlikeit.Theseeconomistsblamethehousewifeherselfforthejumpinfoodprices.Theysaythatfoodcostsmorenowbecausewomendon’twanttospendmuchtimeinthekitchen.Womenprefertobuyfoodwhichhasalreadybeenpreparedbeforeitreachesthemarket. Vegetablesandchickencostmorewhentheyhavebeencutintopiecesbysomeoneotherthantheonewhobuysit.Afamilyshouldexpecttopaymorewhenseveral"TVdinners"aretakenhomefromthestore.Thesearefullycookedmealsconsistingofmeatvegetablesandsometimesdessertallarrangedonametaldish.Thedishisputintotheovenandheatedwhilethehousewifeisdoingsomethingelse.Suchaconveniencecostsmoney.45. Economistsremindusthatmanymodemhousewiveshavejobsoutsidethehome.Theyearnmoneythathelpstopaythefamilyfoodbills.Thehousewifenaturallyhaslesstimeandenergyforcookingafteraday’swork.Shewantstobuymanykindsoffoodthatcanbeputonherfamily’stableeasilyandquickly."Ifthehousewifewantsallofthese"theeconomistssay"thatisherprivilegebutshemustbepreparedtopayfortheservicesofthosewhomakeherworkeasier." Itappearsthattheanswertothequestionofrisingpricesisnotasimpleone.Producersconsumersandmiddlemenallsharetheresponsibilityforthesharpriseinfoodcosts. [A]Howeversomeeconomistsbelievethatcontrolscanhavenegativeeffectsoveralongperiodoftime.Incitieswithrentcontrolthecitygovernmentsetsthemaximumrentthatalandlordcanchargeforanapartment. [B]Farmerstendtoblameothersforthesharpriseinfoodprices.Theyparticularlyblamethosewhoprocessthefarmproductsaftertheproductsleavethefarm. [C]Thusaseconomistspointout:"Someofthebasicreasonsforwideningfoodpricespreadsareeasilytraceabletotheincreasinguseofconveniencefoodswhichtransfermuchofthetimeandworkofmealpreparationfromthekitchentothefoodprocessor’splant." [D]Butsomeeconomistsclaimthatthemiddleman’sactualprofitwasverylow. [E]Whothenisactuallyresponsibleforthesizeofthebillahousewifemustpaybeforeshecarriesthefoodhomefromthestore’ [F]Butthereislessagreementwhenreasonsfortherisearebeingdiscussed.Whoisreallyresponsible [G]Economistsdonot.agreeonsomeofthepredictions.Theyalsodonotagreeonthevalueofdifferentdecisions.Someeconomistssupportaparticulardecisionwhileotherscriticizeit. 44
BeforetheeconomyfellapartitwasBritain’ssocietythatwassupposedtobeinterminaldeclineespeciallyintheeyesoftheTories.DavidCamerontheConservativePartyleaderwaswonttobemoanbrokenBritainmiredinmoraldegeneracywithhighratesofteenagepregnancylowratesofmarriageandotherlessquantifiablebreakdownsinthecivilisedschemeofthings.SuchantediluvianworrieswererakedoveragainonJuly13thwhenIainDuncanSmithaformerToryleadercalledforanofficialendorsementofmarriage.MrDuncanSmithcitesseveralreasonstoencouragewedlockincludingfamilystabilitymarriedcouplesaremuchlesslikelytosplitthancohabitingonesandhealthierchildrenwhodobetterinlaterlife.Therewastalkofstate-runcounsellingpro-marriagepropagandainschoolsandmandatorycooling-offperiodsbeforedivorces.MrDuncanSmithfavourstaxbreaksformarriedcouplessomethingthatLabourhaslongrefusedtoendorse.Itistruethatmarriageisadeclininginstitution.Marriageratesareattheirlowestsince1895.Butcuriouslythosewhodomarrynowstaytogetherforlonger.Divorceratesarefallingnotrisingandhavebeenforseveralyears.In200711.9marriedcouplesperthousanduntiedtheknotdownfrom12.2theyearbeforeandthelowestsince1981.Thetimethatdivorcingcouplesendureeachotherbeforeflingingbacktheringshaslengthenedtoo.from10.1yearsin1981to11.7in2007.Indifferencetowardsthesacramentofmarriageappearsstrongestamongtheelderlynotthefecklessyoung.Since2004whentheoveralldivorceratepeakedat14.1perthousandover-60shavebeentheonlypartofthepopulationwhoserateshavecontinuedtorise.Thereareplentyofcompetingexplanationsforthediminishingappealofdivorceandnoeasywaytodiscoverwhicharetrue.Immigrationmayhavehelpedsinceimmigrantfamiliesoftenhavemoreconservativeattitudesthanthedegeneratenatives.Accountantsanddivorcelawyersreckonastringofrecentbigsettlementsmayhaveactedasadeterrentalthoughitcouldequallyhaveencouragedthepoorerpartnersinfinanciallyunequalmarriages.FallingmarriageratesandfallingdivorceratescouldbetwosidesofthesamecoinsaysKathleenKiernanaprofessorofsocialpolicyatYorkUniversity.Theunpopularityofmarriageandtherelativeeaseofdivorcehasleftonlyahardcoreofstablecouplesboundinwedlock.Andtheriseintheaverageageatwhichpeoplegetmarriednow36formenand33forwomenishelpingtoosinceolderbridesandgroomstendtostaytogetherlongerinanycase.Ifsopoliticiansshouldbecautiousabouthandingouttaxbreaks.EveniftheyworkandMsKiernanthinkstheywouldhavetobeenormoustohavemucheffectchivvyingunmarriedcouplesintowedlockislikelytomeanmoredivorcesinthefuture.AccordingtothetextwhichofthefollowingisNOTthereasonwhypeopledonotinclinetodivorce
TheSouthdaleshoppingcentreinMinnesotahasanatriumafoodcourtfountainsandacresofparking.ItsshopsincludeaDairyQueenaVictoria’sSecretandapurveyorofcomicT-shirts.ItmaynotseemlikealandmarkasimportanttoarchitecturalhistoryastheLouvreorNewYork’sWoolworthBuilding.Butitis.ohmygod!chimesagroupofteenagegirlsonlearningthattheyarestandingintheworld’sfirsttrueshoppingmall.Thatisthecoolestthinganybodyhassaidtousallday.InthepasthalfcenturySouthdaleanditsmanyimitatorshavetransformedshoppinghabitsurbaneconomiesandteenagespeech.Americanowhassome1100enclosedshoppingmallsaccordingtotheInternationalCouncilofShoppingCentres.CloneshaveappearedfromChennaitoMartinique.Yetthemall’sstoryisfarfromtriumphal.InventedbyaEuropeansocialistwhohatedcarsandcametoderidehisowncreationithasamurkyfuture.WhilemallscontinuetomultiplyoutsideAmericatheyaregraduallydyinginthecountrythatpioneeredthem.Southdale’screatorarrivedinAmericaasarefugeefromNazi-occupiedVienna.VictorGruenwasaJewishbohemianwhobegantodesignshopsforfellowimmigrantsinNewYorkafterfailingincabarettheatre.Hisworkwasadmiredpartlyforitsunclutteredmodernistlookwhichseemedrevolutionaryin1930sAmerica.ButGruen’ssecretwasthewayheusedarcadesandeye-leveldisplaycasestolurecustomersintostoresalmostagainsttheirwill.Asacriticcomplainedhisshopswerelikemousetraps.Afewyearslaterthesamewouldbesaidofhisshoppingmalls.Bythe1940sdepartmentstoreswerealreadymovingtothesuburbs.Somehadbeguntobuildadjacentstripsofshopswhichtheyfilledwithboutiquesinanattempttore-createurbanshoppingdistricts.In1947ashoppingcentreopenedinLosAngelesfeaturingtwodepartmentstoresaclusterofsmallshopsandalargecarpark.Itwasineffectanoutdoorshoppingmall.FineforbalmysouthernCaliforniaperhapsbutnotforMinnesota’sharshclimate.CommissionedtobuildashoppingcentreatSouthdalein1956Gruenthrewaroofoverthestructureandinstalledanair-conditioningsystemtokeepthetemperatureat75°F24℃—whichacontemporarypressreleasecalledEternalSpring.Themallwasborn.Gruengotanextraordinarynumberofthingsrightfirsttime.Hebuiltaslopingroadaroundtheperimeterofthemallsothathalfoftheshoppersenteredonthegroundfloorandhalfonthefirstfloor-somethingthatbecameastandardfeatureofmalls.Southdale’sbalconieswerelowsothatshopperscouldseetheshopsontheflooraboveorbelowthem.Thecarparkhadanimalsignstohelpshoppersrememberthewaybacktotheirvehicles.ItwasasthoughOrvilleandWilburWrighthadnotjustdiscoveredpoweredflightbuthadbuiltaplanewithtraytablesandaduty-freeservice.WhatdoestheauthormeanbymentioningWrightbrothersintheend
TheSouthdaleshoppingcentreinMinnesotahasanatriumafoodcourtfountainsandacresofparking.ItsshopsincludeaDairyQueenaVictoria’sSecretandapurveyorofcomicT-shirts.ItmaynotseemlikealandmarkasimportanttoarchitecturalhistoryastheLouvreorNewYork’sWoolworthBuilding.Butitis.ohmygod!chimesagroupofteenagegirlsonlearningthattheyarestandingintheworld’sfirsttrueshoppingmall.Thatisthecoolestthinganybodyhassaidtousallday.InthepasthalfcenturySouthdaleanditsmanyimitatorshavetransformedshoppinghabitsurbaneconomiesandteenagespeech.Americanowhassome1100enclosedshoppingmallsaccordingtotheInternationalCouncilofShoppingCentres.CloneshaveappearedfromChennaitoMartinique.Yetthemall’sstoryisfarfromtriumphal.InventedbyaEuropeansocialistwhohatedcarsandcametoderidehisowncreationithasamurkyfuture.WhilemallscontinuetomultiplyoutsideAmericatheyaregraduallydyinginthecountrythatpioneeredthem.Southdale’screatorarrivedinAmericaasarefugeefromNazi-occupiedVienna.VictorGruenwasaJewishbohemianwhobegantodesignshopsforfellowimmigrantsinNewYorkafterfailingincabarettheatre.Hisworkwasadmiredpartlyforitsunclutteredmodernistlookwhichseemedrevolutionaryin1930sAmerica.ButGruen’ssecretwasthewayheusedarcadesandeye-leveldisplaycasestolurecustomersintostoresalmostagainsttheirwill.Asacriticcomplainedhisshopswerelikemousetraps.Afewyearslaterthesamewouldbesaidofhisshoppingmalls.Bythe1940sdepartmentstoreswerealreadymovingtothesuburbs.Somehadbeguntobuildadjacentstripsofshopswhichtheyfilledwithboutiquesinanattempttore-createurbanshoppingdistricts.In1947ashoppingcentreopenedinLosAngelesfeaturingtwodepartmentstoresaclusterofsmallshopsandalargecarpark.Itwasineffectanoutdoorshoppingmall.FineforbalmysouthernCaliforniaperhapsbutnotforMinnesota’sharshclimate.CommissionedtobuildashoppingcentreatSouthdalein1956Gruenthrewaroofoverthestructureandinstalledanair-conditioningsystemtokeepthetemperatureat75°F24℃—whichacontemporarypressreleasecalledEternalSpring.Themallwasborn.Gruengotanextraordinarynumberofthingsrightfirsttime.Hebuiltaslopingroadaroundtheperimeterofthemallsothathalfoftheshoppersenteredonthegroundfloorandhalfonthefirstfloor-somethingthatbecameastandardfeatureofmalls.Southdale’sbalconieswerelowsothatshopperscouldseetheshopsontheflooraboveorbelowthem.Thecarparkhadanimalsignstohelpshoppersrememberthewaybacktotheirvehicles.ItwasasthoughOrvilleandWilburWrighthadnotjustdiscoveredpoweredflightbuthadbuiltaplanewithtraytablesandaduty-freeservice.WhydidcriticscomplainthatGruen’sshopswerelikemousetraps
Mostmarketingoperationspaycloseattentiontowhatyoungpeoplearebuyingandthinking.NotBritain’spoliticalpartieshoweverforthesimplereasonthattheunder-30sareunlikelytogoanywherenearapollingbooth.In196411%ofthoseaged18to24claimednottovoteaccordingtotheBritishElectionStudy.Atthegeneralelectionlastyearthatfigureroseto55%.46.AreportthisweekbyReformathink-tanksuggeststhatthisreticenceiscostingthemdearly.Changesingovernmentpolicyitargueshaveturnedbeingyoungintoaterriblebore. 47.Therearealreadytwopowerfuleconomicforcesworkingagainsttheso-called"IPODgeneration"thatarebeyondthegovernment’scontrol.Firsttheageingofthepopulationisfastincreasingtheratioofpeopleinretirementtothoseofworkingage.Sotheyoungcanlookforwardtohandingoverarisingproportionoftheirpaytosupporttheoldiesintheirdecline.Secondthecostofbuyingahouseinplaceswherepeoplewanttolivehasshotupbeyondthereachoftheyoung.In199524%ofallfirst-timehomebuyerswereunder25;todaylessthan15%areaccordingtotheHalifaxabank. Thismuchisuncontroversial.ButthereportalsoarguesthattheLabourgovernmenthasmadelifeworseforyoungpeopleinthreeways.Firstincreasedspendingonhealthcarehastendedtobenefittheoldwho’usetheNHSmorethantheyoung.Secondtiltingthetaxandbenefitsystemtowardspeoplewithchildrenhastransferredmoneyfromtheyoungtothemiddle-aged.Thirdhighertuitionfeesarelandinguniversitygraduateswithheftydebts.48.Andthefuturedoesn’tlookmuchbetter:thegovernment’sproposedpensionreformsalongwiththedeclineofdefined-benefitcompany-pensionschemesmakegrimreadingfortheunder-30stoo. "Thesechangesoughttohavebroughtaboutare-examinationoftheburdenoftaxationonthisagegroup"saysNickBosanquetofImperialCollegeLondononeoftheauthorsofthereporttiereckonsthatafterpayingvarioustaxmenandlendersgraduatestakehomeonlyaroundhalfoftheirsalaries.Theaverageforallsalariedworkersisaboutthree-fifths. ArethingsreallythatbadWhenexaminedinafreeze-framebeingyoungdoesnotlookmuchfunfinancially.Butwelfarestatesaremeanttotransferresourcesfromthevigoroustothefragile.Somebenefitsaremerelydeferred:today’s25-year-oldswillhavebabiesandhipreplacementsoneday.49.Andalthoughpeopleintheir20sand30stendtobeheavilyindebtedthispasseswhentheysinkintotheir40sand50ssaysRichardDisneyofNottinghamUniversity. Evensothefeelingthatyoungpeoplearebeingsqueezedpresentsapoliticalopportunityfortheoppositionparties.50.DavidWillettstheConservativeshadoweducationsecretarysaidinaspeechlastyearthattheyoung"couldbeforgivenforbelievingthatthewayinwhicheconomicandsocialpolicyisnowconductedislittlelessthanaconspiracybythemiddle-aged"againstthem_.TheLiberalDemocratcommissionontaxpolicyworriedinAugustaboutinter-generationalunfairnesstoo. Therewillbemoreofsuchtalk.FortheToriesitoffersawaytodiscussreducingspendingwithoutsoundingasiftheyaremerelythemouthpieceofthewealthy.ItgivesLibDemleadersawaytoargueactivistsoutofpromisingtoout-spendLabour.Anditmightevenpersuadesomeofthosegloomy25-year-oldstovote. 48
In1959theaverageAmericanfamilypaid$989forayear’ssupplyoffood.In1972thefamilypaid$1311.Thatwasapriceincreaseofnearlyone-third.Everyfamilyhashadthissortofexperience.Everyoneagreesthatthecostoffeedingafamilyhasrisensharply.41.______. Manyblamethefarmerswhoproducethevegetablesfruitmeateggsandcheesethatstoresofferforsale.AccordingtotheU.S.DepartmentofAgriculturethefarmer’sshareofthe$1311spentbythefamilyin1972was$521.Thiswas31percentmorethanthefarmerhadreceivedin1959. Butfarmersclaimthatthisincreasewasverysmallcomparedtotheincreaseintheircostofliving.42.______Theseincludetruckdriversmeatpackersmanufacturersofpackagesandotherfoodcontainersandtheownersofstoreswherefoodissold.Theyareamongthe"middlemen"whostandbetweenthefarmerandthepeoplewhobuyandeatthefood.Aremiddlementheonestoblameforrisingfoodprices Ofthe$1311familyfoodbillin1972middlementreceived$790whichwas33percentmorethantheyhadreceivedin1959.Itappearsthatthemiddlemen’sprofithasincreasedmorethanfarmer’s.43.AccordingtoeconomistsattheFirstNationalCityBanktheprofitformeatpackersandfoodstoresamountedtolessthanonepercent.Duringthesameperiodallothermanufacturersweremakingaprofitofmorethanfivepercent.Bycomparisonwithothermembersoftheeconomicsystembothfarmersandmiddlemenhaveprofitedsurprisinglylittlefromtheriseinfoodprices. 44.______TheeconomistsatFirstNationalCityBankhaveananswertogivehousewivesbutmanypeoplewillnotlikeit.Theseeconomistsblamethehousewifeherselfforthejumpinfoodprices.Theysaythatfoodcostsmorenowbecausewomendon’twanttospendmuchtimeinthekitchen.Womenprefertobuyfoodwhichhasalreadybeenpreparedbeforeitreachesthemarket. Vegetablesandchickencostmorewhentheyhavebeencutintopiecesbysomeoneotherthantheonewhobuysit.Afamilyshouldexpecttopaymorewhenseveral"TVdinners"aretakenhomefromthestore.Thesearefullycookedmealsconsistingofmeatvegetablesandsometimesdessertallarrangedonametaldish.Thedishisputintotheovenandheatedwhilethehousewifeisdoingsomethingelse.Suchaconveniencecostsmoney.45. Economistsremindusthatmanymodemhousewiveshavejobsoutsidethehome.Theyearnmoneythathelpstopaythefamilyfoodbills.Thehousewifenaturallyhaslesstimeandenergyforcookingafteraday’swork.Shewantstobuymanykindsoffoodthatcanbeputonherfamily’stableeasilyandquickly."Ifthehousewifewantsallofthese"theeconomistssay"thatisherprivilegebutshemustbepreparedtopayfortheservicesofthosewhomakeherworkeasier." Itappearsthattheanswertothequestionofrisingpricesisnotasimpleone.Producersconsumersandmiddlemenallsharetheresponsibilityforthesharpriseinfoodcosts. [A]Howeversomeeconomistsbelievethatcontrolscanhavenegativeeffectsoveralongperiodoftime.Incitieswithrentcontrolthecitygovernmentsetsthemaximumrentthatalandlordcanchargeforanapartment. [B]Farmerstendtoblameothersforthesharpriseinfoodprices.Theyparticularlyblamethosewhoprocessthefarmproductsaftertheproductsleavethefarm. [C]Thusaseconomistspointout:"Someofthebasicreasonsforwideningfoodpricespreadsareeasilytraceabletotheincreasinguseofconveniencefoodswhichtransfermuchofthetimeandworkofmealpreparationfromthekitchentothefoodprocessor’splant." [D]Butsomeeconomistsclaimthatthemiddleman’sactualprofitwasverylow. [E]Whothenisactuallyresponsibleforthesizeofthebillahousewifemustpaybeforeshecarriesthefoodhomefromthestore’ [F]Butthereislessagreementwhenreasonsfortherisearebeingdiscussed.Whoisreallyresponsible [G]Economistsdonot.agreeonsomeofthepredictions.Theyalsodonotagreeonthevalueofdifferentdecisions.Someeconomistssupportaparticulardecisionwhileotherscriticizeit. 42
YamatotheancientnameofJapanessentiallymeansbigharmony.ToachievesuchbalanceJapanesesocietyhasrefinedaplethoraofculturaltraits:humilityloyaltyrespectandconsensus.Inthefieldofbusinesshoweverthisoftenresultsinalackofleaderswhoarewillingtostandoutfromthecrowdpromotethemselvesandactdecisively.ThenailthatsticksupgetshammereddownisacommonJapaneserefrain;thehawkwithtalenthideshistalonsisanother.WhereasAmericanandEuropeanbossesliketoappearonthecoversofglobalbusinessmagazinestheirJapanesecounterpartsarecomfortableintheirobscurity.BusinessinJapanisgenerallyrunasagroupendeavor.Suchdemocraticvirtuesservedthecountrywellinthepost-warperiod.ButtodaytheyholdtoomanyJapanesefirmsback.Japanboastssomeofthebestcompaniesintheworld:ToyotaCanonandNintendoaretheenvyoftheirindustries.ButtheyoperateonaglobalscaleandhavetentativelyembracedsomeunconsensualAmericanmethods.InmuchoftheJapaneseeconomy-especiallyitshugedomesticservicessector-managersareinsomethingofafunk.Firmsdonotgivepromisingyoungstersresponsibilityearlyonbutallocatejobsbyage.Unnecessarilylongworkinghoursarethenormsappingproductivity.Andtherearefewwomenandforeignersinseniorroleswhichnarrowsthetalentpool.Sohowpleasingitistobeabletoreportthesuccessofabusinessleaderwhobreaksthemould.Youngdynamicandcleverheisnotafraidtopushasideoldconservativeknow-nothings.Hedisdainscorporatepoliticsandpromotespeoplebasedonmeritratherthanseniority.Hecanmakemistakeshegotinvolvedinaquestionabletakeover-defenceschemebutheiswildlypopularwithsalarymen:hiseverymoveischronicledweekly.InJunehewasgiventhetopjobatoneofJapan’sbiggestfirms.KosakuShimaofHatsushibaGoyoHoldingshasonlyoneseriousshortcoming:heisnotarealpersonbutamangaorcartooncharacter.FormanycriticsofJapanthatsaysitall:Mr.Shimacouldexistonlyinfiction.Infactthereisroomforthecountry’smanagersandevenitspoliticianstolearnfromhim.MostofthelessonsareforJapan’smanagers.Atpresentbossesrarelysaywhattheythinkbecauseitmightdisrupttheharmonyorbeseenasimmodest.Theirsubordinatesarereluctanttochallengeideasbecausethatwouldcausethebosstoloseface.Sodaftstrategiesfesterratherthangettingculledquickly.Thereislittlerisk-takingorinitiative.ThecruxoftheproblemisJapanesecompanies’cultureofconsensus-baseddecision-making.Callednemawashiliterallygoingaroundtherootsorringibottom-updecisionsithelpedtoestablishanegalitarianworkplace.Inthe1980sWesternmanagementconsultantscooedthatitwasthesourceofJapan’scompetitivestrength.Sometimesitcanbeasinperiodsofcrisiswhenanentirefirmneedstoacceptnewmarchingordersquickly.Butmostofthetimeitstranglesacompany.Relyingonconsensusmeansthatdecisionsaremadeslowlyifatall.Withsomanypeopletopleasetheresultisoftenamediocremorassofcompromises.Andwithsomanyhandsinvolvedthereisnoaccountability;noreasonforindividualstoexcel;nosanctionagainstbaddecisionssothattherearefeweroftheminfuture.OfcoursesometimestheconsensusoftheJapaneseworkplaceisjustaveneeranddecisionsarestillmadefromonhigh.Butthenwhypersistwiththepretenceparticularlyifitdrainsacompany’sefficiencyWhichofthefollowingbestillustratesthemeaningofnemawashi
"Inthelongrun"asJohnMaynardKeynesobserved"wearealldead."True.Butcanthe1runbeelongatedinawaythatmakesthelongrun2AndifsohowandatwhatcostPeoplehavedreamtof3sincetimeimmemorial.Theyhavesoughtitsincethefirstalchemistputanelixirof4onthesameshoppinglistasawaytoturnleadintogold.Theyhave5aboutitinfictionfromRiderHaggard’s"She"toFrankHerbert’s"Dune".Andnowwiththegrowthof6knowledgethathasmarkedthepastfewdecadesafewresearchersbelieveitmightbewithin7. Tothinkaboutthequestionitisimportanttounderstandwhyorganisms-people8-ageinthefirstplace.Peoplearelikemachines:they9Thatmuchisobvious.Howeveramachinecanalwaysbe10Agoodmechanicwithastockofsparepartscankeepitgoing11.Eventuallynopartofthe12mayremainbutitstillcarriesonlikeLincoln’sfamousaxethathadthreenewhandlesandtwonewblade. Thequestionofcourseiswhetherthemachineisworth13.Itisherethatpeopleandnature14.Ortoputitslightly15twobitsofnaturedisagreewitheachother.Fromtheindividual’spointofview16isanimperative.Youcannotreproduceunlessyouarealive.Afearofdeathisasensibleevolvedresponseandsince17isasurewayofdyingitisnosurprisethatpeoplewanttostopitinitstracks.Moreovereventheappearanceofageingcanbe18.It19therangeofpotentialsexualpartnerswhofindyouattractive-sinceitisasignthatyouarenotgoingtobe20allthatlongtohelpbringupbaby-andthusagaincurbsyourreproduction. 20
Theconceptionofpovertyandwhatto1aboutithavechangedoverthedecades.UnderSocialDarwinismthelazyandthe2weresupposedtobeatthebottomoftheeconomicladderas3ofthe"lawofsurvivalofthefittest".Societywas4asanetworkofself-sufficientfamilieswhichprovidedfortheirown.5personsoutsideahouseholdorphansthe6elderlyandthecrippledwereprovidedoutdoorreliefgrudginglyandasatemporaryexpedient权宜之计.Althoughitwas7that"thepoorwillalwaysbewithus"theindividualwasexpectedtoimprovehimself8actsofhisownwill.Charitywasthoughttobethe9ofidleness.Bykeepingwageslowlaborerswouldbe10toworkharder. Atabouttheturnofthecenturythebeginningofconcernaboutnatural11broughtuneasinessaboutthepossiblespreadofbeggary.Therewasapotentiallydangerousclassin12ofdiseaseanddisorder.The"poor"were13asdifferentfrom"paupers"Pauperswereindividualswell14tobeingonthelowendofthesocioeconomic15Withoutshameorbitternesstheywouldnotseekindependenceanda"16"life.Forthemountaineersthesubsistencedwellersandsomeslumdwellersthelackofwealth17hasbeenarguedreflectsapreferencenottopaythepsychologicalcostsofthestruggleforfichesorofadoptingthemiddleclassworkethicofstriving.In18theworthypoorstruggledto19theirlotagainstcircumstancesbeyondtheircontrol:lowwagessicknessindustrial20widowhood孀居andsoon. 8
Theconceptionofpovertyandwhatto1aboutithavechangedoverthedecades.UnderSocialDarwinismthelazyandthe2weresupposedtobeatthebottomoftheeconomicladderas3ofthe"lawofsurvivalofthefittest".Societywas4asanetworkofself-sufficientfamilieswhichprovidedfortheirown.5personsoutsideahouseholdorphansthe6elderlyandthecrippledwereprovidedoutdoorreliefgrudginglyandasatemporaryexpedient权宜之计.Althoughitwas7that"thepoorwillalwaysbewithus"theindividualwasexpectedtoimprovehimself8actsofhisownwill.Charitywasthoughttobethe9ofidleness.Bykeepingwageslowlaborerswouldbe10toworkharder. Atabouttheturnofthecenturythebeginningofconcernaboutnatural11broughtuneasinessaboutthepossiblespreadofbeggary.Therewasapotentiallydangerousclassin12ofdiseaseanddisorder.The"poor"were13asdifferentfrom"paupers"Pauperswereindividualswell14tobeingonthelowendofthesocioeconomic15Withoutshameorbitternesstheywouldnotseekindependenceanda"16"life.Forthemountaineersthesubsistencedwellersandsomeslumdwellersthelackofwealth17hasbeenarguedreflectsapreferencenottopaythepsychologicalcostsofthestruggleforfichesorofadoptingthemiddleclassworkethicofstriving.In18theworthypoorstruggledto19theirlotagainstcircumstancesbeyondtheircontrol:lowwagessicknessindustrial20widowhood孀居andsoon. 12
Theconceptionofpovertyandwhatto1aboutithavechangedoverthedecades.UnderSocialDarwinismthelazyandthe2weresupposedtobeatthebottomoftheeconomicladderas3ofthe"lawofsurvivalofthefittest".Societywas4asanetworkofself-sufficientfamilieswhichprovidedfortheirown.5personsoutsideahouseholdorphansthe6elderlyandthecrippledwereprovidedoutdoorreliefgrudginglyandasatemporaryexpedient权宜之计.Althoughitwas7that"thepoorwillalwaysbewithus"theindividualwasexpectedtoimprovehimself8actsofhisownwill.Charitywasthoughttobethe9ofidleness.Bykeepingwageslowlaborerswouldbe10toworkharder. Atabouttheturnofthecenturythebeginningofconcernaboutnatural11broughtuneasinessaboutthepossiblespreadofbeggary.Therewasapotentiallydangerousclassin12ofdiseaseanddisorder.The"poor"were13asdifferentfrom"paupers"Pauperswereindividualswell14tobeingonthelowendofthesocioeconomic15Withoutshameorbitternesstheywouldnotseekindependenceanda"16"life.Forthemountaineersthesubsistencedwellersandsomeslumdwellersthelackofwealth17hasbeenarguedreflectsapreferencenottopaythepsychologicalcostsofthestruggleforfichesorofadoptingthemiddleclassworkethicofstriving.In18theworthypoorstruggledto19theirlotagainstcircumstancesbeyondtheircontrol:lowwagessicknessindustrial20widowhood孀居andsoon. 14
Mostmarketingoperationspaycloseattentiontowhatyoungpeoplearebuyingandthinking.NotBritain’spoliticalpartieshoweverforthesimplereasonthattheunder-30sareunlikelytogoanywherenearapollingbooth.In196411%ofthoseaged18to24claimednottovoteaccordingtotheBritishElectionStudy.Atthegeneralelectionlastyearthatfigureroseto55%.46.AreportthisweekbyReformathink-tanksuggeststhatthisreticenceiscostingthemdearly.Changesingovernmentpolicyitargueshaveturnedbeingyoungintoaterriblebore. 47.Therearealreadytwopowerfuleconomicforcesworkingagainsttheso-called"IPODgeneration"thatarebeyondthegovernment’scontrol.Firsttheageingofthepopulationisfastincreasingtheratioofpeopleinretirementtothoseofworkingage.Sotheyoungcanlookforwardtohandingoverarisingproportionoftheirpaytosupporttheoldiesintheirdecline.Secondthecostofbuyingahouseinplaceswherepeoplewanttolivehasshotupbeyondthereachoftheyoung.In199524%ofallfirst-timehomebuyerswereunder25;todaylessthan15%areaccordingtotheHalifaxabank. Thismuchisuncontroversial.ButthereportalsoarguesthattheLabourgovernmenthasmadelifeworseforyoungpeopleinthreeways.Firstincreasedspendingonhealthcarehastendedtobenefittheoldwho’usetheNHSmorethantheyoung.Secondtiltingthetaxandbenefitsystemtowardspeoplewithchildrenhastransferredmoneyfromtheyoungtothemiddle-aged.Thirdhighertuitionfeesarelandinguniversitygraduateswithheftydebts.48.Andthefuturedoesn’tlookmuchbetter:thegovernment’sproposedpensionreformsalongwiththedeclineofdefined-benefitcompany-pensionschemesmakegrimreadingfortheunder-30stoo. "Thesechangesoughttohavebroughtaboutare-examinationoftheburdenoftaxationonthisagegroup"saysNickBosanquetofImperialCollegeLondononeoftheauthorsofthereporttiereckonsthatafterpayingvarioustaxmenandlendersgraduatestakehomeonlyaroundhalfoftheirsalaries.Theaverageforallsalariedworkersisaboutthree-fifths. ArethingsreallythatbadWhenexaminedinafreeze-framebeingyoungdoesnotlookmuchfunfinancially.Butwelfarestatesaremeanttotransferresourcesfromthevigoroustothefragile.Somebenefitsaremerelydeferred:today’s25-year-oldswillhavebabiesandhipreplacementsoneday.49.Andalthoughpeopleintheir20sand30stendtobeheavilyindebtedthispasseswhentheysinkintotheir40sand50ssaysRichardDisneyofNottinghamUniversity. Evensothefeelingthatyoungpeoplearebeingsqueezedpresentsapoliticalopportunityfortheoppositionparties.50.DavidWillettstheConservativeshadoweducationsecretarysaidinaspeechlastyearthattheyoung"couldbeforgivenforbelievingthatthewayinwhicheconomicandsocialpolicyisnowconductedislittlelessthanaconspiracybythemiddle-aged"againstthem_.TheLiberalDemocratcommissionontaxpolicyworriedinAugustaboutinter-generationalunfairnesstoo. Therewillbemoreofsuchtalk.FortheToriesitoffersawaytodiscussreducingspendingwithoutsoundingasiftheyaremerelythemouthpieceofthewealthy.ItgivesLibDemleadersawaytoargueactivistsoutofpromisingtoout-spendLabour.Anditmightevenpersuadesomeofthosegloomy25-year-oldstovote. 46
ManywillknowthatthewordmusclecomesfromtheLatinformouseripplingundertheskinsotospeak.ButwhataboutchagrinderivedfromtheTurkishforroughenedleatherorscalysharkskin.OrlenswhichcomesfromtheLatinlentilorwindowmeaningeyeofwindinoldNorseLookedatcloselythelanguagecomesapartinimageslikethosestrangepaintingsbyGiuseppeArcimboldowhereheadsaremadeoffruitandvegetables.NotthatHenryHitchings’sbookisaboutverbalsurrealism.ThatisanextrapleasureinabookwhichisreallyaboutthewaytheEnglishlanguagehasroamedtheworldhelpingitselfliberallytowordsabsorbingthemforgettingwheretheycamefromandmovingonwithanever-growingloadofexoticscrossbreedsandsubtlyshadednear-synonyms.Itisalsoaboutmigrationswithinthelanguage’sownbordersaboutupwardanddownwardmobilityaboutwordslosingtheirrootsturningupinnewsurroundingsorlyinginwaitlikeduvetwhichwasmentionedbySamuelJohnsonfortheirmoment.Allthisisanotherwayofwritinghistory.TheArabetymologiesofsaffroncrimsonandsugarspeakofEngland’smedievaltradewiththeArabworld.Wehavechequeandtarifffromthissourcetooplusarithmeticandalgorithm-justaswehaveetchandsketchfromtheDutchmusicaltermsfromtheItaliansandphilosophicalonesfromtheGermans.Frenchnuanceandfinesseareeverywhere.Ateverystagethebookisaboutpeopleandideasonthemoveaboutinvasionrefugeesimmigrantstraderscolonistsandexplorers.Thisisahugesubjectandonethatisalmostboundtoprovokequestion-marksandexplosionsinthemargins-soonforgotteninthebook’ssheersweepandscale.Abalancebetweenstraighthistoryandwordhistoryissometimesdifficulttostrikethough.Thereisafeelingoccasionallyofbeingbundledtoofastthroughcomplexlinguisticdevelopmentsandusagesorofbeinggiveninterestingslicesofhistoryforthesakeafterallofnotmuchmorethanagongoramoccasin.Butitischurlishtocarp.Theauthor’szestandgrasparewonderful.Hemakesyouwanttocheckouteverything-carpandzestincluded.WhateverishybridfluidandunpolicedaboutEnglishdelightshim.EnglishhasneverhaditsAcadmieFrancaisebutoverthecenturiesithasnotlackedfuriousdefendersagainstforeigncorruption.Therehavebeenrearguardactionstopreserveitsmanlypre-NormanoriginseventoreconstructitalongAnglo-Saxonlines:wheel-saddleforbicyclepainloreforpathology.Buttheomnivorousbeastisrampantstill.Morepeoplespeakitastheirsecondlanguagethanastheirfirst.ForgetthelanguageofShakespeare.It’sGlobishnowthelanguageofaspiration.Nooneownsitacausefordespairtosome.Mr.Hitchingsadmitstowincingoccasionallybutalmostonprincipleheismorecheerfulthannot.WhydoestheauthorquotethepaintingsbyGiuseppeArcimboldo
ManywillknowthatthewordmusclecomesfromtheLatinformouseripplingundertheskinsotospeak.ButwhataboutchagrinderivedfromtheTurkishforroughenedleatherorscalysharkskin.OrlenswhichcomesfromtheLatinlentilorwindowmeaningeyeofwindinoldNorseLookedatcloselythelanguagecomesapartinimageslikethosestrangepaintingsbyGiuseppeArcimboldowhereheadsaremadeoffruitandvegetables.NotthatHenryHitchings’sbookisaboutverbalsurrealism.ThatisanextrapleasureinabookwhichisreallyaboutthewaytheEnglishlanguagehasroamedtheworldhelpingitselfliberallytowordsabsorbingthemforgettingwheretheycamefromandmovingonwithanever-growingloadofexoticscrossbreedsandsubtlyshadednear-synonyms.Itisalsoaboutmigrationswithinthelanguage’sownbordersaboutupwardanddownwardmobilityaboutwordslosingtheirrootsturningupinnewsurroundingsorlyinginwaitlikeduvetwhichwasmentionedbySamuelJohnsonfortheirmoment.Allthisisanotherwayofwritinghistory.TheArabetymologiesofsaffroncrimsonandsugarspeakofEngland’smedievaltradewiththeArabworld.Wehavechequeandtarifffromthissourcetooplusarithmeticandalgorithm-justaswehaveetchandsketchfromtheDutchmusicaltermsfromtheItaliansandphilosophicalonesfromtheGermans.Frenchnuanceandfinesseareeverywhere.Ateverystagethebookisaboutpeopleandideasonthemoveaboutinvasionrefugeesimmigrantstraderscolonistsandexplorers.Thisisahugesubjectandonethatisalmostboundtoprovokequestion-marksandexplosionsinthemargins-soonforgotteninthebook’ssheersweepandscale.Abalancebetweenstraighthistoryandwordhistoryissometimesdifficulttostrikethough.Thereisafeelingoccasionallyofbeingbundledtoofastthroughcomplexlinguisticdevelopmentsandusagesorofbeinggiveninterestingslicesofhistoryforthesakeafterallofnotmuchmorethanagongoramoccasin.Butitischurlishtocarp.Theauthor’szestandgrasparewonderful.Hemakesyouwanttocheckouteverything-carpandzestincluded.WhateverishybridfluidandunpolicedaboutEnglishdelightshim.EnglishhasneverhaditsAcadmieFrancaisebutoverthecenturiesithasnotlackedfuriousdefendersagainstforeigncorruption.Therehavebeenrearguardactionstopreserveitsmanlypre-NormanoriginseventoreconstructitalongAnglo-Saxonlines:wheel-saddleforbicyclepainloreforpathology.Buttheomnivorousbeastisrampantstill.Morepeoplespeakitastheirsecondlanguagethanastheirfirst.ForgetthelanguageofShakespeare.It’sGlobishnowthelanguageofaspiration.Nooneownsitacausefordespairtosome.Mr.Hitchingsadmitstowincingoccasionallybutalmostonprincipleheismorecheerfulthannot.AccordingtothetextwhichofthefollowingisTRUE
Theconceptionofpovertyandwhatto1aboutithavechangedoverthedecades.UnderSocialDarwinismthelazyandthe2weresupposedtobeatthebottomoftheeconomicladderas3ofthe"lawofsurvivalofthefittest".Societywas4asanetworkofself-sufficientfamilieswhichprovidedfortheirown.5personsoutsideahouseholdorphansthe6elderlyandthecrippledwereprovidedoutdoorreliefgrudginglyandasatemporaryexpedient权宜之计.Althoughitwas7that"thepoorwillalwaysbewithus"theindividualwasexpectedtoimprovehimself8actsofhisownwill.Charitywasthoughttobethe9ofidleness.Bykeepingwageslowlaborerswouldbe10toworkharder. Atabouttheturnofthecenturythebeginningofconcernaboutnatural11broughtuneasinessaboutthepossiblespreadofbeggary.Therewasapotentiallydangerousclassin12ofdiseaseanddisorder.The"poor"were13asdifferentfrom"paupers"Pauperswereindividualswell14tobeingonthelowendofthesocioeconomic15Withoutshameorbitternesstheywouldnotseekindependenceanda"16"life.Forthemountaineersthesubsistencedwellersandsomeslumdwellersthelackofwealth17hasbeenarguedreflectsapreferencenottopaythepsychologicalcostsofthestruggleforfichesorofadoptingthemiddleclassworkethicofstriving.In18theworthypoorstruggledto19theirlotagainstcircumstancesbeyondtheircontrol:lowwagessicknessindustrial20widowhood孀居andsoon. 16
Mostmarketingoperationspaycloseattentiontowhatyoungpeoplearebuyingandthinking.NotBritain’spoliticalpartieshoweverforthesimplereasonthattheunder-30sareunlikelytogoanywherenearapollingbooth.In196411%ofthoseaged18to24claimednottovoteaccordingtotheBritishElectionStudy.Atthegeneralelectionlastyearthatfigureroseto55%.46.AreportthisweekbyReformathink-tanksuggeststhatthisreticenceiscostingthemdearly.Changesingovernmentpolicyitargueshaveturnedbeingyoungintoaterriblebore. 47.Therearealreadytwopowerfuleconomicforcesworkingagainsttheso-called"IPODgeneration"thatarebeyondthegovernment’scontrol.Firsttheageingofthepopulationisfastincreasingtheratioofpeopleinretirementtothoseofworkingage.Sotheyoungcanlookforwardtohandingoverarisingproportionoftheirpaytosupporttheoldiesintheirdecline.Secondthecostofbuyingahouseinplaceswherepeoplewanttolivehasshotupbeyondthereachoftheyoung.In199524%ofallfirst-timehomebuyerswereunder25;todaylessthan15%areaccordingtotheHalifaxabank. Thismuchisuncontroversial.ButthereportalsoarguesthattheLabourgovernmenthasmadelifeworseforyoungpeopleinthreeways.Firstincreasedspendingonhealthcarehastendedtobenefittheoldwho’usetheNHSmorethantheyoung.Secondtiltingthetaxandbenefitsystemtowardspeoplewithchildrenhastransferredmoneyfromtheyoungtothemiddle-aged.Thirdhighertuitionfeesarelandinguniversitygraduateswithheftydebts.48.Andthefuturedoesn’tlookmuchbetter:thegovernment’sproposedpensionreformsalongwiththedeclineofdefined-benefitcompany-pensionschemesmakegrimreadingfortheunder-30stoo. "Thesechangesoughttohavebroughtaboutare-examinationoftheburdenoftaxationonthisagegroup"saysNickBosanquetofImperialCollegeLondononeoftheauthorsofthereporttiereckonsthatafterpayingvarioustaxmenandlendersgraduatestakehomeonlyaroundhalfoftheirsalaries.Theaverageforallsalariedworkersisaboutthree-fifths. ArethingsreallythatbadWhenexaminedinafreeze-framebeingyoungdoesnotlookmuchfunfinancially.Butwelfarestatesaremeanttotransferresourcesfromthevigoroustothefragile.Somebenefitsaremerelydeferred:today’s25-year-oldswillhavebabiesandhipreplacementsoneday.49.Andalthoughpeopleintheir20sand30stendtobeheavilyindebtedthispasseswhentheysinkintotheir40sand50ssaysRichardDisneyofNottinghamUniversity. Evensothefeelingthatyoungpeoplearebeingsqueezedpresentsapoliticalopportunityfortheoppositionparties.50.DavidWillettstheConservativeshadoweducationsecretarysaidinaspeechlastyearthattheyoung"couldbeforgivenforbelievingthatthewayinwhicheconomicandsocialpolicyisnowconductedislittlelessthanaconspiracybythemiddle-aged"againstthem_.TheLiberalDemocratcommissionontaxpolicyworriedinAugustaboutinter-generationalunfairnesstoo. Therewillbemoreofsuchtalk.FortheToriesitoffersawaytodiscussreducingspendingwithoutsoundingasiftheyaremerelythemouthpieceofthewealthy.ItgivesLibDemleadersawaytoargueactivistsoutofpromisingtoout-spendLabour.Anditmightevenpersuadesomeofthosegloomy25-year-oldstovote. 50
"Inthelongrun"asJohnMaynardKeynesobserved"wearealldead."True.Butcanthe1runbeelongatedinawaythatmakesthelongrun2AndifsohowandatwhatcostPeoplehavedreamtof3sincetimeimmemorial.Theyhavesoughtitsincethefirstalchemistputanelixirof4onthesameshoppinglistasawaytoturnleadintogold.Theyhave5aboutitinfictionfromRiderHaggard’s"She"toFrankHerbert’s"Dune".Andnowwiththegrowthof6knowledgethathasmarkedthepastfewdecadesafewresearchersbelieveitmightbewithin7. Tothinkaboutthequestionitisimportanttounderstandwhyorganisms-people8-ageinthefirstplace.Peoplearelikemachines:they9Thatmuchisobvious.Howeveramachinecanalwaysbe10Agoodmechanicwithastockofsparepartscankeepitgoing11.Eventuallynopartofthe12mayremainbutitstillcarriesonlikeLincoln’sfamousaxethathadthreenewhandlesandtwonewblade. Thequestionofcourseiswhetherthemachineisworth13.Itisherethatpeopleandnature14.Ortoputitslightly15twobitsofnaturedisagreewitheachother.Fromtheindividual’spointofview16isanimperative.Youcannotreproduceunlessyouarealive.Afearofdeathisasensibleevolvedresponseandsince17isasurewayofdyingitisnosurprisethatpeoplewanttostopitinitstracks.Moreovereventheappearanceofageingcanbe18.It19therangeofpotentialsexualpartnerswhofindyouattractive-sinceitisasignthatyouarenotgoingtobe20allthatlongtohelpbringupbaby-andthusagaincurbsyourreproduction. 14
Theconceptionofpovertyandwhatto1aboutithavechangedoverthedecades.UnderSocialDarwinismthelazyandthe2weresupposedtobeatthebottomoftheeconomicladderas3ofthe"lawofsurvivalofthefittest".Societywas4asanetworkofself-sufficientfamilieswhichprovidedfortheirown.5personsoutsideahouseholdorphansthe6elderlyandthecrippledwereprovidedoutdoorreliefgrudginglyandasatemporaryexpedient权宜之计.Althoughitwas7that"thepoorwillalwaysbewithus"theindividualwasexpectedtoimprovehimself8actsofhisownwill.Charitywasthoughttobethe9ofidleness.Bykeepingwageslowlaborerswouldbe10toworkharder. Atabouttheturnofthecenturythebeginningofconcernaboutnatural11broughtuneasinessaboutthepossiblespreadofbeggary.Therewasapotentiallydangerousclassin12ofdiseaseanddisorder.The"poor"were13asdifferentfrom"paupers"Pauperswereindividualswell14tobeingonthelowendofthesocioeconomic15Withoutshameorbitternesstheywouldnotseekindependenceanda"16"life.Forthemountaineersthesubsistencedwellersandsomeslumdwellersthelackofwealth17hasbeenarguedreflectsapreferencenottopaythepsychologicalcostsofthestruggleforfichesorofadoptingthemiddleclassworkethicofstriving.In18theworthypoorstruggledto19theirlotagainstcircumstancesbeyondtheircontrol:lowwagessicknessindustrial20widowhood孀居andsoon. 10
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