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In1924AmericanNationalResearchCouncilsenttwoengineertosuperviseaseriesofexperimentsatatelephone-partsfactorycalledtheHawthornePlantnearChicago.Ithopedtheywouldlearnhowstop-floorlighting1workersproductivity.Insteadthestudiesended2givingtheirnametothe"Hawthorneeffect"theextremelyinfluentialideathatthevery3ofbeingexperimenteduponchangedsubjects’behavior.? Theideaarosebecauseofthe4behaviorofthewomenintheplant.Accordingto5oftheexperimentstheirhourlyoutputrosewhenlightingwasincreasedbutalsowhenitwasdimmed.Itdidnot6whatwasdoneintheexperiment;7somethingwaschangedproductivityrose.An8thattheywerebeingexperimenteduponseemedtobe9toalterworkers’behavior10itself.? Afterseveraldecadesthesamedatawere11toeconometrictheanalysis.Hawthorneexperimentshasanothersurprisestore12thedescriptionsonrecordnosystematic{13wasfoundthatlevelsofproductivitywererelatedtochangesinlighting. Itturnsoutthatpeculiarwayofconductingtheexperimentsmayhaveledto14interpretationofwhathappened.15lightingwasalwayschangedonaSunday.WhenworkstartedagainonMondayoutput16rosecomparedwiththepreviousSaturdayand17toriseforthenextcoupleofdays.18acomparisonwithdataforweekswhentherewasnoexperimentationshowedthatoutputalwayswentuponMondayworkers19tobediligentforthefirstfewdaysoftheweekinanycasebefore20aplateauandthenslackeningoff.Thissuggeststhatthealleged"Hawthorneeffect"ishardtopindown. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.8
In1924AmericanNationalResearchCouncilsenttwoengineertosuperviseaseriesofexperimentsatatelephone-partsfactorycalledtheHawthornePlantnearChicago.Ithopedtheywouldlearnhowstop-floorlighting1workersproductivity.Insteadthestudiesended2givingtheirnametothe"Hawthorneeffect"theextremelyinfluentialideathatthevery3ofbeingexperimenteduponchangedsubjects’behavior.? Theideaarosebecauseofthe4behaviorofthewomenintheplant.Accordingto5oftheexperimentstheirhourlyoutputrosewhenlightingwasincreasedbutalsowhenitwasdimmed.Itdidnot6whatwasdoneintheexperiment;7somethingwaschangedproductivityrose.An8thattheywerebeingexperimenteduponseemedtobe9toalterworkers’behavior10itself.? Afterseveraldecadesthesamedatawere11toeconometrictheanalysis.Hawthorneexperimentshasanothersurprisestore12thedescriptionsonrecordnosystematic{13wasfoundthatlevelsofproductivitywererelatedtochangesinlighting. Itturnsoutthatpeculiarwayofconductingtheexperimentsmayhaveledto14interpretationofwhathappened.15lightingwasalwayschangedonaSunday.WhenworkstartedagainonMondayoutput16rosecomparedwiththepreviousSaturdayand17toriseforthenextcoupleofdays.18acomparisonwithdataforweekswhentherewasnoexperimentationshowedthatoutputalwayswentuponMondayworkers19tobediligentforthefirstfewdaysoftheweekinanycasebefore20aplateauandthenslackeningoff.Thissuggeststhatthealleged"Hawthorneeffect"ishardtopindown. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.4
Bankershavebeenblamingthemselvesfortheirtroublesinpublic.Behindthescenestheyhavebeentakingaimatsomeoneelse:theaccountingstandard-setters.Theirrulesmoanedthebankshaveforcedthemtoreportenormouslossesandit’sjustnotfair.Theserulessaytheymustvaluesomeassetsatthepriceathirdpartywouldpaynotthepricemanagersandregulatorswouldlikethemtofetch. Unfortunatelybanks’lobbyingnowseemstobeworking.Thedetailsmaybeunknowablebuttheindependenceofstandard-settersessentialtotheproperfunctioningofcapitalmarketsisbeingcompromised.Andunlessbankscarrytoxicassetsatpricesthatattractbuyersrevivingthebankingsystemwillbedifficult. ??AfterabruisingencounterwithCongressAmerica’sFinancialAccountingStandardsBoardFASBrushedthroughrulechanges.Thesegavebanksmorefreedomtousemodelstovalueilliquidassetsandmoreflexibilityinrecognizinglossesonlong-termassetsintheirincomestatement.BobHerztheFASB’schairmancriedoutagainstthosewho"questionourmotives".Yetbanksharesroseandthechangesenhancewhatonelobbyinggrouppolitelycalls"theuseofjudgmentbymanagement". EuropeanministersinstantlydemandedthattheInternationalAccountingStandardsBoardIASBdolikewise.TheIASBsaysitdoesnotwanttoactwithoutoverallplanningbutthepressuretofoldwhenitcompletesitsreconstructionofruleslaterthisyearisstrong.CharlieMcCreevyaEuropeancommissionerwarnedtheIASBthatitdid"notliveinapoliticalvacuum"but"intherealword"andthatEuropecouldyetdevelopdifferentrules. Itwasbanksthatwereonthewrongplanetwithaccountsthatvastlyovervaluedassets.Todaytheyarguethatmarketpricesoverstatelossesbecausetheylargelyreflectthetemporaryilliquidityofmarketsnotthelikelyextentofbaddebts.Thetruthwillnotbeknownforyears.Butbank’ssharestradebelowtheirbookvaluesuggestingthatinvestorsareskeptical.Anddeadmarketspartlyreflecttheparalysisofbankswhichwillnotsellassetsforfearofbookinglossesyetarereluctanttobuyallthosesupposedbargains. Togetthesystemworkingagainlossesmustberecognizedanddealtwith.America’snewplantobuyuptoxicassetswillnotworkunlessbanksmarkassetstolevelswhichbuyersfindattractive.Successfulmarketsrequireindependentandevencombativestandard-setters.TheFASBandIASBhavebeenexactlythatcleaninguprulesonstockoptionsandpensionsforexampleagainsthostilityfromspecialinterests.Butbygivingintocriticsnowtheyareinvitingpressuretomakemoreconcessions. Bankerscomplainedthattheywereforcedto
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In1924AmericanNationalResearchCouncilsenttwoengineertosuperviseaseriesofexperimentsatatelephone-partsfactorycalledtheHawthornePlantnearChicago.Ithopedtheywouldlearnhowstop-floorlighting1workersproductivity.Insteadthestudiesended2givingtheirnametothe"Hawthorneeffect"theextremelyinfluentialideathatthevery3ofbeingexperimenteduponchangedsubjects’behavior.? Theideaarosebecauseofthe4behaviorofthewomenintheplant.Accordingto5oftheexperimentstheirhourlyoutputrosewhenlightingwasincreasedbutalsowhenitwasdimmed.Itdidnot6whatwasdoneintheexperiment;7somethingwaschangedproductivityrose.An8thattheywerebeingexperimenteduponseemedtobe9toalterworkers’behavior10itself.? Afterseveraldecadesthesamedatawere11toeconometrictheanalysis.Hawthorneexperimentshasanothersurprisestore12thedescriptionsonrecordnosystematic{13wasfoundthatlevelsofproductivitywererelatedtochangesinlighting. Itturnsoutthatpeculiarwayofconductingtheexperimentsmayhaveledto14interpretationofwhathappened.15lightingwasalwayschangedonaSunday.WhenworkstartedagainonMondayoutput16rosecomparedwiththepreviousSaturdayand17toriseforthenextcoupleofdays.18acomparisonwithdataforweekswhentherewasnoexperimentationshowedthatoutputalwayswentuponMondayworkers19tobediligentforthefirstfewdaysoftheweekinanycasebefore20aplateauandthenslackeningoff.Thissuggeststhatthealleged"Hawthorneeffect"ishardtopindown. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.6
Overthepastdecadethousandsofpatentshaveseengrantedforwhatarecalledbusinessmethods.Amazon.cornreceivedoneforits"one-click"onlinepaymentsystem.MerrillLynchgotlegalprotectionforanassetallocationstrategy.Oneinventorpatentedatechniqueforliftingabox. Nowthenation’stoppatentcourtappearscompletelyreadytoscalebackonbusiness-methodpatentswhichhavebeencontroversialeversincetheywerefirstauthorized10yearsago.Inamovethathasintellectual-propertylawyersabuzztheU.S.CourtofAppealsfortheFederalCircuitsaiditwoulduseparticularcasetoconductabroadreviewofbusiness-methodpatents.InreBilskiasthecaseisknownis"averybigdeal"saysDernnisD.CrouchoftheUniversityofMissouriSchoolofLaw.It"hasthepotentialtoeliminateanentireclassofpatents".? Curbsonbusiness-methodclaimswouldbeadramaticabout-facebecauseitwastheFederalCircuititselfthatintroducedsuchpatentswithits1998decisionintheso-calledStateStreetBankcaseapprovingapatentonawayofpoolingmutual-fundassets.Thatrulingproducedanexplosioninbusiness-methodpatentfilingsinitiallybyemergingInternetcompaniestryingtostakeoutexclusivepintstospecifictypesofonlinetransactions.Latermoreestablishedcompaniesracedtoaddsuchpatentstotheirfilesifonlyasadefensivemoveagainstrivalsthatmightbeatthemtothepunch.In2005IBMnotedinacourtfilingthatithadbeenissuedmorethan300business-methodpatentsdespitethefactthatitquestionedthelegalbasisforgrantingthem.SimilarlysomeWallStreetinvestmentfirmsarmedthemselveswithpatentsforfinancialproductsevenastheytookpositionsincourtcasesopposingthepractice. TheBilskicaseinvolvesaclaimedpatentonamethodforhedgingriskintheenergymarket.TheFederalCircuitissuedanunusualorderstatingthatthecasewouldbeheardbyall12ofthecourt’sjudgesratherthanatypicalpanelofthreeandthatoneissueitwantstoevaluateiswhetheritshould"reconsider"itsStateStreetBankruling. TheFederalCircuit’sactioncomesinthewakeofaseriesofrecentdecisionsbytheSupremeCountthathasnarrowedthescopeofprotectionsforpatentholders.LastAprilforexamplethejusticessignaledthattoomanypatentswerebeingupheldfor"inventions"thatareobvious.ThejudgesontheFederalCircuitare"reactiontotheanti-patenttrendatthesupremecourt"saysHaroldC.WegnerapatentattorneyandprofessoratGeorgeWashingtonUniversityLawSchool. Thewordabout-faceLine1Para.3mostprobablymeans
In1924AmericanNationalResearchCouncilsenttwoengineertosuperviseaseriesofexperimentsatatelephone-partsfactorycalledtheHawthornePlantnearChicago.Ithopedtheywouldlearnhowstop-floorlighting1workersproductivity.Insteadthestudiesended2givingtheirnametothe"Hawthorneeffect"theextremelyinfluentialideathatthevery3ofbeingexperimenteduponchangedsubjects’behavior.? Theideaarosebecauseofthe4behaviorofthewomenintheplant.Accordingto5oftheexperimentstheirhourlyoutputrosewhenlightingwasincreasedbutalsowhenitwasdimmed.Itdidnot6whatwasdoneintheexperiment;7somethingwaschangedproductivityrose.An8thattheywerebeingexperimenteduponseemedtobe9toalterworkers’behavior10itself.? Afterseveraldecadesthesamedatawere11toeconometrictheanalysis.Hawthorneexperimentshasanothersurprisestore12thedescriptionsonrecordnosystematic{13wasfoundthatlevelsofproductivitywererelatedtochangesinlighting. Itturnsoutthatpeculiarwayofconductingtheexperimentsmayhaveledto14interpretationofwhathappened.15lightingwasalwayschangedonaSunday.WhenworkstartedagainonMondayoutput16rosecomparedwiththepreviousSaturdayand17toriseforthenextcoupleofdays.18acomparisonwithdataforweekswhentherewasnoexperimentationshowedthatoutputalwayswentuponMondayworkers19tobediligentforthefirstfewdaysoftheweekinanycasebefore20aplateauandthenslackeningoff.Thissuggeststhatthealleged"Hawthorneeffect"ishardtopindown. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.20
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In1924AmericanNationalResearchCouncilsenttwoengineertosuperviseaseriesofexperimentsatatelephone-partsfactorycalledtheHawthornePlantnearChicago.Ithopedtheywouldlearnhowstop-floorlighting1workersproductivity.Insteadthestudiesended2givingtheirnametothe"Hawthorneeffect"theextremelyinfluentialideathatthevery3ofbeingexperimenteduponchangedsubjects’behavior.? Theideaarosebecauseofthe4behaviorofthewomenintheplant.Accordingto5oftheexperimentstheirhourlyoutputrosewhenlightingwasincreasedbutalsowhenitwasdimmed.Itdidnot6whatwasdoneintheexperiment;7somethingwaschangedproductivityrose.An8thattheywerebeingexperimenteduponseemedtobe9toalterworkers’behavior10itself.? Afterseveraldecadesthesamedatawere11toeconometrictheanalysis.Hawthorneexperimentshasanothersurprisestore12thedescriptionsonrecordnosystematic{13wasfoundthatlevelsofproductivitywererelatedtochangesinlighting. Itturnsoutthatpeculiarwayofconductingtheexperimentsmayhaveledto14interpretationofwhathappened.15lightingwasalwayschangedonaSunday.WhenworkstartedagainonMondayoutput16rosecomparedwiththepreviousSaturdayand17toriseforthenextcoupleofdays.18acomparisonwithdataforweekswhentherewasnoexperimentationshowedthatoutputalwayswentuponMondayworkers19tobediligentforthefirstfewdaysoftheweekinanycasebefore20aplateauandthenslackeningoff.Thissuggeststhatthealleged"Hawthorneeffect"ishardtopindown. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.10
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Overthepastdecadethousandsofpatentshaveseengrantedforwhatarecalledbusinessmethods.Amazon.cornreceivedoneforits"one-click"onlinepaymentsystem.MerrillLynchgotlegalprotectionforanassetallocationstrategy.Oneinventorpatentedatechniqueforliftingabox. Nowthenation’stoppatentcourtappearscompletelyreadytoscalebackonbusiness-methodpatentswhichhavebeencontroversialeversincetheywerefirstauthorized10yearsago.Inamovethathasintellectual-propertylawyersabuzztheU.S.CourtofAppealsfortheFederalCircuitsaiditwoulduseparticularcasetoconductabroadreviewofbusiness-methodpatents.InreBilskiasthecaseisknownis"averybigdeal"saysDernnisD.CrouchoftheUniversityofMissouriSchoolofLaw.It"hasthepotentialtoeliminateanentireclassofpatents".? Curbsonbusiness-methodclaimswouldbeadramaticabout-facebecauseitwastheFederalCircuititselfthatintroducedsuchpatentswithits1998decisionintheso-calledStateStreetBankcaseapprovingapatentonawayofpoolingmutual-fundassets.Thatrulingproducedanexplosioninbusiness-methodpatentfilingsinitiallybyemergingInternetcompaniestryingtostakeoutexclusivepintstospecifictypesofonlinetransactions.Latermoreestablishedcompaniesracedtoaddsuchpatentstotheirfilesifonlyasadefensivemoveagainstrivalsthatmightbeatthemtothepunch.In2005IBMnotedinacourtfilingthatithadbeenissuedmorethan300business-methodpatentsdespitethefactthatitquestionedthelegalbasisforgrantingthem.SimilarlysomeWallStreetinvestmentfirmsarmedthemselveswithpatentsforfinancialproductsevenastheytookpositionsincourtcasesopposingthepractice. TheBilskicaseinvolvesaclaimedpatentonamethodforhedgingriskintheenergymarket.TheFederalCircuitissuedanunusualorderstatingthatthecasewouldbeheardbyall12ofthecourt’sjudgesratherthanatypicalpanelofthreeandthatoneissueitwantstoevaluateiswhetheritshould"reconsider"itsStateStreetBankruling. TheFederalCircuit’sactioncomesinthewakeofaseriesofrecentdecisionsbytheSupremeCountthathasnarrowedthescopeofprotectionsforpatentholders.LastAprilforexamplethejusticessignaledthattoomanypatentswerebeingupheldfor"inventions"thatareobvious.ThejudgesontheFederalCircuitare"reactiontotheanti-patenttrendatthesupremecourt"saysHaroldC.WegnerapatentattorneyandprofessoratGeorgeWashingtonUniversityLawSchool. Whichofthefollowingwouldbethesubjectofthetext?
InhisbookTheTippingPointMalcolmGladwellarguesthat"socialepidemics"aredriveninlargepartbytheactionsofatinyminorityofspecialindividualsoftencalledinfluentialswhoareunusuallyinformedpersuasiveorwellconnected.Theideaisintuitivelycompelling--wethinkweseeithappeningallthetime--butitdoesn’texplainhowideasactuallyspread. Thesupposedimportanceofinfluentialsderivesfromaplausible-soundingbutlargelyuntestedtheorycalledthe"two-stepflowofcommunication":Informationflowsfromthemediatotheinfluentialsandfromthemtoeveryoneelse.Marketershaveembracedthetwo-stepflowbecauseitsuggeststhatiftheycanjustfindandinfluencetheinfluentialsthoseselectpeoplewilldomostoftheworkforthem.Thetheoryalsoseemstoexplainthesuddenandunexpectedpopularityofcertainlooksbrandsorneighborhoods.Inmanysuchcasesacursorysearchforcausesfindsthatsomesmallgroupofpeoplewaswearingpromotingordevelopingwhateveritisbeforeanyoneelsepaidattention.Anecdotalevidenceofthiskindfitsnicelywiththeideathatonlycertainspecialpeoplecandrivetrends. Intheirrecentworkhoweversomeresearchershavecomeupwiththefindingthatinfluentialshavefarlessimpactonsocialepidemicsthanisgenerallysupposed.Infacttheydon’tseemtoberequiredatall. Theresearchers’argumentstemsfromasimpleobservationaboutsocialinfluencewiththeexceptionofafewcelebritieslikeOprahWinfrey--whoseoutsidepresenceisprimarilyafunctionofmedianotinterpersonalinfluence--eventhemostinfluentialmembersofapopulationsimplydon’tinteractwiththatmanyothers.Yetitispreciselythesenon-celebrityinfluentialswhoaccordingtothetwo-step-flowtheoryaresupposedtodrivesocialepidemicsbyinfluencingtheirfriendsandcolleaguesdirectly.Forasocialepidemictooccurhowevereachpersonsoaffectedmusttheninfluencehisorherownacquaintanceswhomustinturninfluencetheirsandsoon;andjusthowmanyotherspayattentiontoeachofthesepeoplehaslittletodowiththeinitialinfluential.Ifpeopleinthenetworkjusttwodegreesremovedfromtheinitialinfluentialproveresistantforexamplethecascadeofchangewon’tpropagateveryfaroraffectmanypeople. Buildingonthebasictruthaboutinterpersonalinfluencetheresearchersstudiedthedynamicsofpopulationsmanipulatinganumberofvariablesrelatingtopeople’sabilitytoinfluenceothersandtheirtendencytobeinfluenced. Theauthorsuggeststhatthetwo-step-flowtheory
OfallthechangesthathavetakenplaceinEnglish-languagenewspapersduringthepastquarter-centuryperhapsthemostfar-reachinghasbeentheinexorabledeclineinthescopeandseriousnessoftheirartscoverage.? Itisdifficulttothepointofimpossibilityfortheaveragereaderundertheageoffortytoimagineatimewhenhigh-qualityartscriticismcouldbefoundinmostbig-citynewspapers.Yetaconsiderablenumberofthemostsignificantcollectionsofcriticismpublishedinthe20thcenturyconsistedinlargepartofnewspaperreviews.Toreadsuchbookstodayistomarvelatthefactthattheirlearnedcontentswereoncedeemedsuitableforpublicationingeneral-circulationdailies. WeareevenfartherremovedfromtheunfocusednewspaperreviewspublishedinEnglandbetweentheturnofthe20thcenturyandtheeveofWorldWar2atatimewhennewsprintwasdirt-cheapandstylishartscriticismwasconsideredanornamenttothePublicationsinwhichitappeared.Inthosefar-offdaysitwastakenforgrantedthatthecriticsofmajorpaperswouldwriteindetailandatlengthabouttheeventstheycovered.TheirswasaseriousbusinessandeventhosereviewswhoworetheirlearninglightlylikeGeorgeBernardShawandErnestNewmancouldbetrustedtoknowwhattheywereabout.Thesemenbelievedinjournalismasacallingandwereproudtobepublishedinthedailypress."Sofewauthorshavebrainsenoughorliterarygiftenoughtokeeptheirownendupinjournalism"Newmanwrote"thatIamtemptedtodefine’journalism’as’atermofcontemptappliedbywriterswhoarenotreadtowriterswhoare’." Unfortunatelythesecriticsarevirtuallyforgotten.NevilleCarduswhowrotefortheManchesterGuardianfrom1917untilshortlybeforehisdeathin1975isnowknownsolelyasawriterofessaysonthegameofcricket.DuringhislifetimethoughhewasalsooneofEngland’sforemostclassical-musiccriticsandastylistsowidelyadmiredthathisAutobiography1947becameabest-seller.Hewasknightedin1967thefirstmusiccritictobesohonored.Yetonlyoneofhisbooksisnowinprintandhisvastbodyofwritingsonmusicisunknownsavetospecialists.? IsthereanychancethatCardus’scriticismwillenjoyarevival?Theprospectseemsremote.JournalistictasteshadchangedlongbeforehisdeathandpostmodernreadershavelittleusefortherichlyupholsteredVicwardianproseinwhichhespecialized.Moreovertheamateurtraditioninmusiccriticismhasbeeninheadlongretreat.? WhatcanbelearnedaboutCardusaccordingtothelasttwoparagraphs?
Overthepastdecadethousandsofpatentshaveseengrantedforwhatarecalledbusinessmethods.Amazon.cornreceivedoneforits"one-click"onlinepaymentsystem.MerrillLynchgotlegalprotectionforanassetallocationstrategy.Oneinventorpatentedatechniqueforliftingabox. Nowthenation’stoppatentcourtappearscompletelyreadytoscalebackonbusiness-methodpatentswhichhavebeencontroversialeversincetheywerefirstauthorized10yearsago.Inamovethathasintellectual-propertylawyersabuzztheU.S.CourtofAppealsfortheFederalCircuitsaiditwoulduseparticularcasetoconductabroadreviewofbusiness-methodpatents.InreBilskiasthecaseisknownis"averybigdeal"saysDernnisD.CrouchoftheUniversityofMissouriSchoolofLaw.It"hasthepotentialtoeliminateanentireclassofpatents".? Curbsonbusiness-methodclaimswouldbeadramaticabout-facebecauseitwastheFederalCircuititselfthatintroducedsuchpatentswithits1998decisionintheso-calledStateStreetBankcaseapprovingapatentonawayofpoolingmutual-fundassets.Thatrulingproducedanexplosioninbusiness-methodpatentfilingsinitiallybyemergingInternetcompaniestryingtostakeoutexclusivepintstospecifictypesofonlinetransactions.Latermoreestablishedcompaniesracedtoaddsuchpatentstotheirfilesifonlyasadefensivemoveagainstrivalsthatmightbeatthemtothepunch.In2005IBMnotedinacourtfilingthatithadbeenissuedmorethan300business-methodpatentsdespitethefactthatitquestionedthelegalbasisforgrantingthem.SimilarlysomeWallStreetinvestmentfirmsarmedthemselveswithpatentsforfinancialproductsevenastheytookpositionsincourtcasesopposingthepractice. TheBilskicaseinvolvesaclaimedpatentonamethodforhedgingriskintheenergymarket.TheFederalCircuitissuedanunusualorderstatingthatthecasewouldbeheardbyall12ofthecourt’sjudgesratherthanatypicalpanelofthreeandthatoneissueitwantstoevaluateiswhetheritshould"reconsider"itsStateStreetBankruling. TheFederalCircuit’sactioncomesinthewakeofaseriesofrecentdecisionsbytheSupremeCountthathasnarrowedthescopeofprotectionsforpatentholders.LastAprilforexamplethejusticessignaledthattoomanypatentswerebeingupheldfor"inventions"thatareobvious.ThejudgesontheFederalCircuitare"reactiontotheanti-patenttrendatthesupremecourt"saysHaroldC.WegnerapatentattorneyandprofessoratGeorgeWashingtonUniversityLawSchool. Business-methodpatentshaverecentlyarousedconcernbecauseof
InhisbookTheTippingPointMalcolmGladwellarguesthat"socialepidemics"aredriveninlargepartbytheactionsofatinyminorityofspecialindividualsoftencalledinfluentialswhoareunusuallyinformedpersuasiveorwellconnected.Theideaisintuitivelycompelling--wethinkweseeithappeningallthetime--butitdoesn’texplainhowideasactuallyspread. Thesupposedimportanceofinfluentialsderivesfromaplausible-soundingbutlargelyuntestedtheorycalledthe"two-stepflowofcommunication":Informationflowsfromthemediatotheinfluentialsandfromthemtoeveryoneelse.Marketershaveembracedthetwo-stepflowbecauseitsuggeststhatiftheycanjustfindandinfluencetheinfluentialsthoseselectpeoplewilldomostoftheworkforthem.Thetheoryalsoseemstoexplainthesuddenandunexpectedpopularityofcertainlooksbrandsorneighborhoods.Inmanysuchcasesacursorysearchforcausesfindsthatsomesmallgroupofpeoplewaswearingpromotingordevelopingwhateveritisbeforeanyoneelsepaidattention.Anecdotalevidenceofthiskindfitsnicelywiththeideathatonlycertainspecialpeoplecandrivetrends. Intheirrecentworkhoweversomeresearchershavecomeupwiththefindingthatinfluentialshavefarlessimpactonsocialepidemicsthanisgenerallysupposed.Infacttheydon’tseemtoberequiredatall. Theresearchers’argumentstemsfromasimpleobservationaboutsocialinfluencewiththeexceptionofafewcelebritieslikeOprahWinfrey--whoseoutsidepresenceisprimarilyafunctionofmedianotinterpersonalinfluence--eventhemostinfluentialmembersofapopulationsimplydon’tinteractwiththatmanyothers.Yetitispreciselythesenon-celebrityinfluentialswhoaccordingtothetwo-step-flowtheoryaresupposedtodrivesocialepidemicsbyinfluencingtheirfriendsandcolleaguesdirectly.Forasocialepidemictooccurhowevereachpersonsoaffectedmusttheninfluencehisorherownacquaintanceswhomustinturninfluencetheirsandsoon;andjusthowmanyotherspayattentiontoeachofthesepeoplehaslittletodowiththeinitialinfluential.Ifpeopleinthenetworkjusttwodegreesremovedfromtheinitialinfluentialproveresistantforexamplethecascadeofchangewon’tpropagateveryfaroraffectmanypeople. Buildingonthebasictruthaboutinterpersonalinfluencetheresearchersstudiedthedynamicsofpopulationsmanipulatinganumberofvariablesrelatingtopeople’sabilitytoinfluenceothersandtheirtendencytobeinfluenced. Theunderlinedphrasethesepeopleinparagraph4referstotheoneswho
OfallthechangesthathavetakenplaceinEnglish-languagenewspapersduringthepastquarter-centuryperhapsthemostfar-reachinghasbeentheinexorabledeclineinthescopeandseriousnessoftheirartscoverage.? Itisdifficulttothepointofimpossibilityfortheaveragereaderundertheageoffortytoimagineatimewhenhigh-qualityartscriticismcouldbefoundinmostbig-citynewspapers.Yetaconsiderablenumberofthemostsignificantcollectionsofcriticismpublishedinthe20thcenturyconsistedinlargepartofnewspaperreviews.Toreadsuchbookstodayistomarvelatthefactthattheirlearnedcontentswereoncedeemedsuitableforpublicationingeneral-circulationdailies. WeareevenfartherremovedfromtheunfocusednewspaperreviewspublishedinEnglandbetweentheturnofthe20thcenturyandtheeveofWorldWar2atatimewhennewsprintwasdirt-cheapandstylishartscriticismwasconsideredanornamenttothePublicationsinwhichitappeared.Inthosefar-offdaysitwastakenforgrantedthatthecriticsofmajorpaperswouldwriteindetailandatlengthabouttheeventstheycovered.TheirswasaseriousbusinessandeventhosereviewswhoworetheirlearninglightlylikeGeorgeBernardShawandErnestNewmancouldbetrustedtoknowwhattheywereabout.Thesemenbelievedinjournalismasacallingandwereproudtobepublishedinthedailypress."Sofewauthorshavebrainsenoughorliterarygiftenoughtokeeptheirownendupinjournalism"Newmanwrote"thatIamtemptedtodefine’journalism’as’atermofcontemptappliedbywriterswhoarenotreadtowriterswhoare’." Unfortunatelythesecriticsarevirtuallyforgotten.NevilleCarduswhowrotefortheManchesterGuardianfrom1917untilshortlybeforehisdeathin1975isnowknownsolelyasawriterofessaysonthegameofcricket.DuringhislifetimethoughhewasalsooneofEngland’sforemostclassical-musiccriticsandastylistsowidelyadmiredthathisAutobiography1947becameabest-seller.Hewasknightedin1967thefirstmusiccritictobesohonored.Yetonlyoneofhisbooksisnowinprintandhisvastbodyofwritingsonmusicisunknownsavetospecialists.? IsthereanychancethatCardus’scriticismwillenjoyarevival?Theprospectseemsremote.JournalistictasteshadchangedlongbeforehisdeathandpostmodernreadershavelittleusefortherichlyupholsteredVicwardianproseinwhichhespecialized.Moreovertheamateurtraditioninmusiccriticismhasbeeninheadlongretreat.? NewspaperreviewsinEnglandbeforeWorldWar2werecharacterizedby
In1924AmericanNationalResearchCouncilsenttwoengineertosuperviseaseriesofexperimentsatatelephone-partsfactorycalledtheHawthornePlantnearChicago.Ithopedtheywouldlearnhowstop-floorlighting1workersproductivity.Insteadthestudiesended2givingtheirnametothe"Hawthorneeffect"theextremelyinfluentialideathatthevery3ofbeingexperimenteduponchangedsubjects’behavior.? Theideaarosebecauseofthe4behaviorofthewomenintheplant.Accordingto5oftheexperimentstheirhourlyoutputrosewhenlightingwasincreasedbutalsowhenitwasdimmed.Itdidnot6whatwasdoneintheexperiment;7somethingwaschangedproductivityrose.An8thattheywerebeingexperimenteduponseemedtobe9toalterworkers’behavior10itself.? Afterseveraldecadesthesamedatawere11toeconometrictheanalysis.Hawthorneexperimentshasanothersurprisestore12thedescriptionsonrecordnosystematic{13wasfoundthatlevelsofproductivitywererelatedtochangesinlighting. Itturnsoutthatpeculiarwayofconductingtheexperimentsmayhaveledto14interpretationofwhathappened.15lightingwasalwayschangedonaSunday.WhenworkstartedagainonMondayoutput16rosecomparedwiththepreviousSaturdayand17toriseforthenextcoupleofdays.18acomparisonwithdataforweekswhentherewasnoexperimentationshowedthatoutputalwayswentuponMondayworkers19tobediligentforthefirstfewdaysoftheweekinanycasebefore20aplateauandthenslackeningoff.Thissuggeststhatthealleged"Hawthorneeffect"ishardtopindown. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.16
特征整合论
正强化与负强化
Bankershavebeenblamingthemselvesfortheirtroublesinpublic.Behindthescenestheyhavebeentakingaimatsomeoneelse:theaccountingstandard-setters.Theirrulesmoanedthebankshaveforcedthemtoreportenormouslossesandit’sjustnotfair.Theserulessaytheymustvaluesomeassetsatthepriceathirdpartywouldpaynotthepricemanagersandregulatorswouldlikethemtofetch. Unfortunatelybanks’lobbyingnowseemstobeworking.Thedetailsmaybeunknowablebuttheindependenceofstandard-settersessentialtotheproperfunctioningofcapitalmarketsisbeingcompromised.Andunlessbankscarrytoxicassetsatpricesthatattractbuyersrevivingthebankingsystemwillbedifficult. ??AfterabruisingencounterwithCongressAmerica’sFinancialAccountingStandardsBoardFASBrushedthroughrulechanges.Thesegavebanksmorefreedomtousemodelstovalueilliquidassetsandmoreflexibilityinrecognizinglossesonlong-termassetsintheirincomestatement.BobHerztheFASB’schairmancriedoutagainstthosewho"questionourmotives".Yetbanksharesroseandthechangesenhancewhatonelobbyinggrouppolitelycalls"theuseofjudgmentbymanagement". EuropeanministersinstantlydemandedthattheInternationalAccountingStandardsBoardIASBdolikewise.TheIASBsaysitdoesnotwanttoactwithoutoverallplanningbutthepressuretofoldwhenitcompletesitsreconstructionofruleslaterthisyearisstrong.CharlieMcCreevyaEuropeancommissionerwarnedtheIASBthatitdid"notliveinapoliticalvacuum"but"intherealword"andthatEuropecouldyetdevelopdifferentrules. Itwasbanksthatwereonthewrongplanetwithaccountsthatvastlyovervaluedassets.Todaytheyarguethatmarketpricesoverstatelossesbecausetheylargelyreflectthetemporaryilliquidityofmarketsnotthelikelyextentofbaddebts.Thetruthwillnotbeknownforyears.Butbank’ssharestradebelowtheirbookvaluesuggestingthatinvestorsareskeptical.Anddeadmarketspartlyreflecttheparalysisofbankswhichwillnotsellassetsforfearofbookinglossesyetarereluctanttobuyallthosesupposedbargains. Togetthesystemworkingagainlossesmustberecognizedanddealtwith.America’snewplantobuyuptoxicassetswillnotworkunlessbanksmarkassetstolevelswhichbuyersfindattractive.Successfulmarketsrequireindependentandevencombativestandard-setters.TheFASBandIASBhavebeenexactlythatcleaninguprulesonstockoptionsandpensionsforexampleagainsthostilityfromspecialinterests.Butbygivingintocriticsnowtheyareinvitingpressuretomakemoreconcessions. AccordingtoParagraph4McCreevyobjectstotheIASB’sattemptto
In1924AmericanNationalResearchCouncilsenttwoengineertosuperviseaseriesofexperimentsatatelephone-partsfactorycalledtheHawthornePlantnearChicago.Ithopedtheywouldlearnhowstop-floorlighting1workersproductivity.Insteadthestudiesended2givingtheirnametothe"Hawthorneeffect"theextremelyinfluentialideathatthevery3ofbeingexperimenteduponchangedsubjects’behavior.? Theideaarosebecauseofthe4behaviorofthewomenintheplant.Accordingto5oftheexperimentstheirhourlyoutputrosewhenlightingwasincreasedbutalsowhenitwasdimmed.Itdidnot6whatwasdoneintheexperiment;7somethingwaschangedproductivityrose.An8thattheywerebeingexperimenteduponseemedtobe9toalterworkers’behavior10itself.? Afterseveraldecadesthesamedatawere11toeconometrictheanalysis.Hawthorneexperimentshasanothersurprisestore12thedescriptionsonrecordnosystematic{13wasfoundthatlevelsofproductivitywererelatedtochangesinlighting. Itturnsoutthatpeculiarwayofconductingtheexperimentsmayhaveledto14interpretationofwhathappened.15lightingwasalwayschangedonaSunday.WhenworkstartedagainonMondayoutput16rosecomparedwiththepreviousSaturdayand17toriseforthenextcoupleofdays.18acomparisonwithdataforweekswhentherewasnoexperimentationshowedthatoutputalwayswentuponMondayworkers19tobediligentforthefirstfewdaysoftheweekinanycasebefore20aplateauandthenslackeningoff.Thissuggeststhatthealleged"Hawthorneeffect"ishardtopindown. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.12
In1924AmericanNationalResearchCouncilsenttwoengineertosuperviseaseriesofexperimentsatatelephone-partsfactorycalledtheHawthornePlantnearChicago.Ithopedtheywouldlearnhowstop-floorlighting1workersproductivity.Insteadthestudiesended2givingtheirnametothe"Hawthorneeffect"theextremelyinfluentialideathatthevery3ofbeingexperimenteduponchangedsubjects’behavior.? Theideaarosebecauseofthe4behaviorofthewomenintheplant.Accordingto5oftheexperimentstheirhourlyoutputrosewhenlightingwasincreasedbutalsowhenitwasdimmed.Itdidnot6whatwasdoneintheexperiment;7somethingwaschangedproductivityrose.An8thattheywerebeingexperimenteduponseemedtobe9toalterworkers’behavior10itself.? Afterseveraldecadesthesamedatawere11toeconometrictheanalysis.Hawthorneexperimentshasanothersurprisestore12thedescriptionsonrecordnosystematic{13wasfoundthatlevelsofproductivitywererelatedtochangesinlighting. Itturnsoutthatpeculiarwayofconductingtheexperimentsmayhaveledto14interpretationofwhathappened.15lightingwasalwayschangedonaSunday.WhenworkstartedagainonMondayoutput16rosecomparedwiththepreviousSaturdayand17toriseforthenextcoupleofdays.18acomparisonwithdataforweekswhentherewasnoexperimentationshowedthatoutputalwayswentuponMondayworkers19tobediligentforthefirstfewdaysoftheweekinanycasebefore20aplateauandthenslackeningoff.Thissuggeststhatthealleged"Hawthorneeffect"ishardtopindown. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.18
In1924AmericanNationalResearchCouncilsenttwoengineertosuperviseaseriesofexperimentsatatelephone-partsfactorycalledtheHawthornePlantnearChicago.Ithopedtheywouldlearnhowstop-floorlighting1workersproductivity.Insteadthestudiesended2givingtheirnametothe"Hawthorneeffect"theextremelyinfluentialideathatthevery3ofbeingexperimenteduponchangedsubjects’behavior.? Theideaarosebecauseofthe4behaviorofthewomenintheplant.Accordingto5oftheexperimentstheirhourlyoutputrosewhenlightingwasincreasedbutalsowhenitwasdimmed.Itdidnot6whatwasdoneintheexperiment;7somethingwaschangedproductivityrose.An8thattheywerebeingexperimenteduponseemedtobe9toalterworkers’behavior10itself.? Afterseveraldecadesthesamedatawere11toeconometrictheanalysis.Hawthorneexperimentshasanothersurprisestore12thedescriptionsonrecordnosystematic{13wasfoundthatlevelsofproductivitywererelatedtochangesinlighting. Itturnsoutthatpeculiarwayofconductingtheexperimentsmayhaveledto14interpretationofwhathappened.15lightingwasalwayschangedonaSunday.WhenworkstartedagainonMondayoutput16rosecomparedwiththepreviousSaturdayand17toriseforthenextcoupleofdays.18acomparisonwithdataforweekswhentherewasnoexperimentationshowedthatoutputalwayswentuponMondayworkers19tobediligentforthefirstfewdaysoftheweekinanycasebefore20aplateauandthenslackeningoff.Thissuggeststhatthealleged"Hawthorneeffect"ishardtopindown. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.14
In1924AmericanNationalResearchCouncilsenttwoengineertosuperviseaseriesofexperimentsatatelephone-partsfactorycalledtheHawthornePlantnearChicago.Ithopedtheywouldlearnhowstop-floorlighting1workersproductivity.Insteadthestudiesended2givingtheirnametothe"Hawthorneeffect"theextremelyinfluentialideathatthevery3ofbeingexperimenteduponchangedsubjects’behavior.? Theideaarosebecauseofthe4behaviorofthewomenintheplant.Accordingto5oftheexperimentstheirhourlyoutputrosewhenlightingwasincreasedbutalsowhenitwasdimmed.Itdidnot6whatwasdoneintheexperiment;7somethingwaschangedproductivityrose.An8thattheywerebeingexperimenteduponseemedtobe9toalterworkers’behavior10itself.? Afterseveraldecadesthesamedatawere11toeconometrictheanalysis.Hawthorneexperimentshasanothersurprisestore12thedescriptionsonrecordnosystematic{13wasfoundthatlevelsofproductivitywererelatedtochangesinlighting. Itturnsoutthatpeculiarwayofconductingtheexperimentsmayhaveledto14interpretationofwhathappened.15lightingwasalwayschangedonaSunday.WhenworkstartedagainonMondayoutput16rosecomparedwiththepreviousSaturdayand17toriseforthenextcoupleofdays.18acomparisonwithdataforweekswhentherewasnoexperimentationshowedthatoutputalwayswentuponMondayworkers19tobediligentforthefirstfewdaysoftheweekinanycasebefore20aplateauandthenslackeningoff.Thissuggeststhatthealleged"Hawthorneeffect"ishardtopindown. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.2
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