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Placing a human being behind the wheel of an automobile often has the same curious effect as cutt...
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AccordingtothedescriptionoftheauthorAsimo
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is in the form of an animal instead of a human being.
seems more like a human being than a robot in appearance.
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[A]Inventoriesofthisstoredmerchandiseoftenneedtobefinanced.Modernmarketingisthereforeacoordinatedsystemofmanybusinessactivities.Butbasicallyitinvolvesfourthings:sellingthecorrectproductattheproperplacesellingitatapricedeterminedbydemandsatisfyingacustomer’sneedandwantsandproducingaprofitforthecompany. [B]Rawmaterialsrequiringlittleornospecialtreatmentcanbetransportedbyrailshiporbargeatlowcost.Largequantitiesofrawmaterialstravelasbulkfreight.Butfinishedproductsthatoftenrequirespecialtreatmentsuchasrefrigerationofcarefulhandlingareusuallytransportedbytruck.Thismerchandisefreightisusuallysmallerinvolumeandrequiresquickerdelivery.Merchandisefreightisatermforthetransportationofmanufacturedgoods. [C]Thetermsmarketandmarketingcanhaveseveralmeaningsdependinguponhowtheyareused.Thetermstockmarketreferstothebuyingandsellingofsharesincorporations.Aswellasotheractivitiesrelatedtostocktradingandpricing.TheimportantworldstockmarketsareinLondonGenevaNewYorkTokyoandSingaporeanothertpeofmarketisagrocerymarketwhichisaplacewherepeoplepurchasefood.Wheneconomistsusethewordmarket.Theymeanasetofforcesorconditionsthatdeterminethepriceofaproductsuchasthesupplyavailableforsaleandthedemandforitbyconsumers.Thetermmarketinginbusinessincludesallthesemeaningsandmore. [D]Inthepasttheconceptofmarketingemphasizedsales.Theproducerormanufacturermadeaproducthewantedtosell.Marketingwasthetaskoffiguringouthowtoselltheproduct.Basicallysellingtheproductwouldbeaccomplishedbysalespromotionwhichincludedadvertisingandpersonalselling.Inadditiontosalespromotionmarketingalsoinvolvedthephysicaldistributionoftheproducttotheplaceswhereitwasactuallysold.Distributionconsistedoftransportationstorageandrelatedservices.Suchasfinancingstandardizationandgradingandtherelatedrisks. [E]Marketingnowinvolvesfirstdecidingwhatthecustomerwantsanddesigningandproducingaproductthatsatisfiesthesewantsataprofittothecompany.Insteadofconcentratingsolelyonproductthecompanymustconsiderthedesiresoftheconsumer.Andthisismuchmoredifficultsinceitinvolveshumanbehavior.Productionontheotherhandismostlyanengineeringproblemthusdemandandmarketforcesarestillanimportantaspectofmodernmarketing.Buttheyareconsideredpriortotheproductionprocess. [F]Themodernmarketingconceptencompassesalloftheactivitiesmentionedbutitisbasedonadifferentsetofprinciples.Itsubscribestothenotionthatproductioncanbeeconomicallyjustifiedonlybyconsumption.Inotherwordsgoodsshouldbeproducedonlyiftheycanbesold.Thereforetheproducershouldconsiderwhoisgoingtobuytheproduct.Orwhatthemarketfortheproductisbeforeproductionbegins.Thisisverydifferentfrommakingaproductandthenthinkingabouthowtosellit. [G]Becauseproductsareoftenmarketedinternationallydistributionhasincreasedinimportance.Goodsmustbeattheplacewherethecustomerneedsthemorbroughtthere.Thisisknownasplaceutilityitaddsvaluetoaproduct.Howevermanymarketsareseparatedfromtheplaceofproduction.Whichmeansthatoftenbothrawmaterialsandfinishedproductsmustbetransportedtothepointswheretheyareneeded. [H]Alongallpointsofthedistributionchannelvariousamountsofstoragearerequired.Thetimeandmannerofsuchstoragedependsuponthetypeofproduct. 41
46Globalizationmightbewelcomedonmanygrounds—theeconomicpoliticalcommunicationalandevenlinguisticonescomereadilytomindbutitalsohassomeunfortunatesideeffectsthatmightprovedeadlytotheveryfutureofmankind.Thisisnomeresurmiseofcongenitalmisanthropesbuttheexpressedfearofsomewhoareotherwisewelldisposedtoit.ThusThomasFriedmaninanotherwiseoptimisticallymindedbookneverthelesswritesasfollows:47ThemoreIobservedthesystemofglobalizationatworkthemoreobviousitwasthatithadunleashedforest-crushingforcesofdevelopmentwhichifleftuncheckedhadthepotentialtodestroytheenvironmentanduprootculture...48Andbecauseglobalizationasaculturallyhomogenizingandenvironment-devouringforceiscomingonsofastthereisrealdangerthatinjustafewdecadesitwillwipeouttheecologicalandculturaldiversitythattookmillionsofyearsofhumanandbiologicalforcestoproduce.Somethingisasominousasallthatisarealthreatindeed.49AndyetdespitesuchapprehensionsFriedmanandotherswhothinklikehimbelievethateffectsofthismagnitudecansomehowbesidesteppedwithoutinterferingwiththetechnicizingsweepofglobalization.IsthatmerelywishfulthinkingoraninabilitytotakeinthefullimportofhisownwordsAsFriedmanpointsouttheglobalizationthreatisatoncetonatureandtoculture:totheenvironmentandthewholeecologicalvarietyofplantsandanimalsaswellastothequalityofhumanlifeandtheculturaldiversityonwhichitdepends.Damagetonatureeventuallytranslatesitselfasdamagetocultureandviceversa.Thefateofmanyancientcivilizationsthatcollapsedbecausetheyoutgrewtheirnaturalresourcesishistoricalproofofthatfact.Ourmoderncivilizationissubjecttothesameself-limitingconditions.50ThusifallagricultureisreducedtoanagribusinessindustrythenthediversifiedcountrysidelandscapethathumanshavecreatedsincetheNeolithicrevolutionwillbecomeamonoculturalecologicaldesertforwithitwilldisappearahostofanimalandplantspeciesaswellasawholeruralwayoflifewithitsmyriadvarietiesoffolkculturesthathavebeencarriedonformillennia.Thelossofnaturalspeciesthroughthedestructionoftheirnaturalhabitatisparalleledstepbystepbythelossofculturalspeciesthroughtheeliminationoftheirsocialhabitatwhichisrootedinanaturalenvironment.Theclearingofjunglesdoesnotmerelyexterminatetheanimalslivingtherebutalsothenativepeoplewhosehomeshavebeenthereforcountlessgenerations.
Formescientificknowledgeisdividedintomathematicalsciencesnaturalsciencesorsciencesdealingwiththenaturalworldphysicalandbiologicalsciencesandsciencesdealingwithmankindpsychologysociologyallthesciencesofculturalachievements.everykindofhistoricalknowledge. Apartfromthesesciencesisphilosophyaboutwhichwewilltalklater.Inthefirstplaceallthisispureortheoreticalknowledgesoughtonlyforthepurposeofunderstandinginordertofulfilltheneedtounderstandthatisintrinsicandcon-substantialtoman.Whatdistinguishesmanfromanimalsisthatheknowsandneedstoknow.Ifmandidnotknowthattheworldexistedandthattheworldwasofacertainkindthathewasintheworldandthathehimselfwasofacertainkindhewouldn’tbeman.Thetechnicalaspectsorapplicationsofknowledgeareequallynecessaryformanandareofthegreatestimportancebecausetheyalsocontributetodefininghimasmanandpermithimtopursuealifeincreasinglymoretrulyhuman. Butevenwhileenjoyingtheresultsoftechnicalprogressmanmustdefendtheprimacyandautonomyofpureknowledge.KnowledgesoughtdirectlyforitspracticalapplicationswillhaveimmediateandforeseeablesuccessbutnotthekindofimportantresultwhoserevolutionaryscopeisforthemostpartunforeseenexceptbytheimaginationoftheUtopians.Letmerecallawell-knownexample.IftheGreekmathematicianshadnotappliedthemselvestotheinvestigationofconicsectionzealouslyandwithouttheleastsuspicionthatitmightsomedaybeusefulitwouldnothavebeenpossiblecenturieslatertonavigatefarfromshore.Thefirstmentostudythenatureofelectricitycouldnotimaginethattheirexperimentscarriedonbecauseofmereintellectualcuriositywouldeventuallyleadtomodernelectricaltechnologywithoutwhichwecanscarcelyconceiveofcontemporarylife. Pureknowledgeisvaluableforitsownsakebecausethehumanspiritcannotresignitselftoignorance.Buttinadditionitisthefoundationforpracticalresultsthatwouldnothavebeenreachedifthisknowledgehadnotbeensoughtdisinterestedly. Notes:intrinsic固有的con-substantial同体的autonomy自主性zealouslyandwithouttheleastsuspicion热情地并丝毫也没有想到forthemostpart大部分主要地Utopian乌托邦理想主义disinterestedly不偏不倚地resignoneselfto听任顺从 Accordingtothetextthemostimportantadvancesmadebymankindmostprobablystemfrom
Tounderstandhowastrologyworksweshouldfirsttakeaquicklookatthesky.Althoughthestarsareatenormousdistancestheydoindeedgivetheimpressionofbeingaffixedtotheinnersurfaceofagreathollowspheresurroundingtheearth.Ancientpeopleinfactliterallybelievedintheexistenceofsuchacelestialsphere.Astheearthspinsonitsaxisthecelestialsphereappearstoturnaboutuseachdaypivotingatpointsonalinewiththeearth’saxisofrotation.ThisdailyturningofthespherecarriesthestarsaroundtheskycausingmostofthemtoriseandsetbuttheyandconstellationstheydefinemaintainsfixedpatternsonthespherejustasthecontinentofAustralianmaintainsitsshapeonaspinningglobeoftheearth.Thusthestarswerecalledfixedstars. Themotionofthesunalongtheeclipticisofcoursemerelyareflectionoftherevolutionoftheeartharoundthesunbuttheancientsbelievedtheearthwasfixedandthesunhadanindependentmotionofitsowneastwardamongthestars.Theglareofsunlighthidesthestarsindaytimebuttheancientswereawarethatthestarswereupthereevenatnightandthesloweastwardmotionofthesunaroundtheskyattherateofaboutthirtydegreeseachmonthcauseddifferentstarstobevisibleatnightatdifferenttimesoftheyear. Themoonrevolvingaroundtheeartheachmonthalsohasanindependentmotioninthesky.Themoonhoweverchangesitspositionrelativelyrapidly.Althoughitappearstoriseandseteachdayasdoesnearlyeverythingelseintheskywecanseethemoonchangingpositionduringasshortanintervalasanhourorso.Themoon’spatharoundtheearthliesnearlyinthesameplaneastheearth’spatharoundthesunsothemoonisneverseenveryfarfromtheeclipticinthesky.Therearefiveotherobjectsvisibletothenakedeyethatalsoappeartomoveinrespecttothefixedbackgroundofstarsonthecelestialsphere.ThesearetheplanetsMercuryVenusMarsJupiterandtheSaturn.Allofthemrevolvearoundthesuninnearlythesameplaneastheearthdoessotheylikethemoonalwaysappearneartheecliptic.Becauseweseetheplanetsfromthemovingearthhowevertheybehaveinacomplicatedwaywiththeirapparentmotions’onthecelestialspherereflectingboththeirownindependentmotionsaroundthesunandourmotionaswell. Whichofthefollowingistrueaboutthemotionofthemoon
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质whichisbelievedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriate纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17hmgitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"they’concluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 15
Directions. SupposeyouweretakengoodcareofbyAuntWangwhenyouvisitedShanghaiwhereshelived.Writealettertohertoextendyourappreciation. Beginyourletterasfollows: DearAuntWang Youshouldwriteabout100wordsonANSWERSHEET2.Donotsignyourownnameusing"LiMing"instead.Donotwritetheaddress.
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质whichisbelievedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriate纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17hmgitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"they’concluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 13
[A]Inventoriesofthisstoredmerchandiseoftenneedtobefinanced.Modernmarketingisthereforeacoordinatedsystemofmanybusinessactivities.Butbasicallyitinvolvesfourthings:sellingthecorrectproductattheproperplacesellingitatapricedeterminedbydemandsatisfyingacustomer’sneedandwantsandproducingaprofitforthecompany. [B]Rawmaterialsrequiringlittleornospecialtreatmentcanbetransportedbyrailshiporbargeatlowcost.Largequantitiesofrawmaterialstravelasbulkfreight.Butfinishedproductsthatoftenrequirespecialtreatmentsuchasrefrigerationofcarefulhandlingareusuallytransportedbytruck.Thismerchandisefreightisusuallysmallerinvolumeandrequiresquickerdelivery.Merchandisefreightisatermforthetransportationofmanufacturedgoods. [C]Thetermsmarketandmarketingcanhaveseveralmeaningsdependinguponhowtheyareused.Thetermstockmarketreferstothebuyingandsellingofsharesincorporations.Aswellasotheractivitiesrelatedtostocktradingandpricing.TheimportantworldstockmarketsareinLondonGenevaNewYorkTokyoandSingaporeanothertpeofmarketisagrocerymarketwhichisaplacewherepeoplepurchasefood.Wheneconomistsusethewordmarket.Theymeanasetofforcesorconditionsthatdeterminethepriceofaproductsuchasthesupplyavailableforsaleandthedemandforitbyconsumers.Thetermmarketinginbusinessincludesallthesemeaningsandmore. [D]Inthepasttheconceptofmarketingemphasizedsales.Theproducerormanufacturermadeaproducthewantedtosell.Marketingwasthetaskoffiguringouthowtoselltheproduct.Basicallysellingtheproductwouldbeaccomplishedbysalespromotionwhichincludedadvertisingandpersonalselling.Inadditiontosalespromotionmarketingalsoinvolvedthephysicaldistributionoftheproducttotheplaceswhereitwasactuallysold.Distributionconsistedoftransportationstorageandrelatedservices.Suchasfinancingstandardizationandgradingandtherelatedrisks. [E]Marketingnowinvolvesfirstdecidingwhatthecustomerwantsanddesigningandproducingaproductthatsatisfiesthesewantsataprofittothecompany.Insteadofconcentratingsolelyonproductthecompanymustconsiderthedesiresoftheconsumer.Andthisismuchmoredifficultsinceitinvolveshumanbehavior.Productionontheotherhandismostlyanengineeringproblemthusdemandandmarketforcesarestillanimportantaspectofmodernmarketing.Buttheyareconsideredpriortotheproductionprocess. [F]Themodernmarketingconceptencompassesalloftheactivitiesmentionedbutitisbasedonadifferentsetofprinciples.Itsubscribestothenotionthatproductioncanbeeconomicallyjustifiedonlybyconsumption.Inotherwordsgoodsshouldbeproducedonlyiftheycanbesold.Thereforetheproducershouldconsiderwhoisgoingtobuytheproduct.Orwhatthemarketfortheproductisbeforeproductionbegins.Thisisverydifferentfrommakingaproductandthenthinkingabouthowtosellit. [G]Becauseproductsareoftenmarketedinternationallydistributionhasincreasedinimportance.Goodsmustbeattheplacewherethecustomerneedsthemorbroughtthere.Thisisknownasplaceutilityitaddsvaluetoaproduct.Howevermanymarketsareseparatedfromtheplaceofproduction.Whichmeansthatoftenbothrawmaterialsandfinishedproductsmustbetransportedtothepointswheretheyareneeded. [H]Alongallpointsofthedistributionchannelvariousamountsofstoragearerequired.Thetimeandmannerofsuchstoragedependsuponthetypeofproduct. 45
46Globalizationmightbewelcomedonmanygrounds—theeconomicpoliticalcommunicationalandevenlinguisticonescomereadilytomindbutitalsohassomeunfortunatesideeffectsthatmightprovedeadlytotheveryfutureofmankind.Thisisnomeresurmiseofcongenitalmisanthropesbuttheexpressedfearofsomewhoareotherwisewelldisposedtoit.ThusThomasFriedmaninanotherwiseoptimisticallymindedbookneverthelesswritesasfollows:47ThemoreIobservedthesystemofglobalizationatworkthemoreobviousitwasthatithadunleashedforest-crushingforcesofdevelopmentwhichifleftuncheckedhadthepotentialtodestroytheenvironmentanduprootculture...48Andbecauseglobalizationasaculturallyhomogenizingandenvironment-devouringforceiscomingonsofastthereisrealdangerthatinjustafewdecadesitwillwipeouttheecologicalandculturaldiversitythattookmillionsofyearsofhumanandbiologicalforcestoproduce.Somethingisasominousasallthatisarealthreatindeed.49AndyetdespitesuchapprehensionsFriedmanandotherswhothinklikehimbelievethateffectsofthismagnitudecansomehowbesidesteppedwithoutinterferingwiththetechnicizingsweepofglobalization.IsthatmerelywishfulthinkingoraninabilitytotakeinthefullimportofhisownwordsAsFriedmanpointsouttheglobalizationthreatisatoncetonatureandtoculture:totheenvironmentandthewholeecologicalvarietyofplantsandanimalsaswellastothequalityofhumanlifeandtheculturaldiversityonwhichitdepends.Damagetonatureeventuallytranslatesitselfasdamagetocultureandviceversa.Thefateofmanyancientcivilizationsthatcollapsedbecausetheyoutgrewtheirnaturalresourcesishistoricalproofofthatfact.Ourmoderncivilizationissubjecttothesameself-limitingconditions.50ThusifallagricultureisreducedtoanagribusinessindustrythenthediversifiedcountrysidelandscapethathumanshavecreatedsincetheNeolithicrevolutionwillbecomeamonoculturalecologicaldesertforwithitwilldisappearahostofanimalandplantspeciesaswellasawholeruralwayoflifewithitsmyriadvarietiesoffolkculturesthathavebeencarriedonformillennia.Thelossofnaturalspeciesthroughthedestructionoftheirnaturalhabitatisparalleledstepbystepbythelossofculturalspeciesthroughtheeliminationoftheirsocialhabitatwhichisrootedinanaturalenvironment.Theclearingofjunglesdoesnotmerelyexterminatetheanimalslivingtherebutalsothenativepeoplewhosehomeshavebeenthereforcountlessgenerations.
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质whichisbelievedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriate纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17hmgitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"they’concluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 11
AccordingtocomScoreFacebookistheleadingsocialnetworkingsitebasedonmonthlyuniquevisitorshavingovertakenmaincompetitorMySpaceinApril2008.AccordingtoAlexathewebsite’srankingamongallwebsitesincreasedfrom60thto7thintermsofworldwidetrafficfromSeptember2006toSeptember2007andiscurrently5th.Quantcastranksthewebsite15thinU.S.intermsoftrafficandCompete.comranksit14thinU.S. TheInternetphenomenonwhichboasts80millionusersworldwideexplodedinpopularityoverthepastyearasaconvenientwayforWebuserstocommunicateandsharepersonaldetailswithselectedgroupsoffriendsoracquaintances.ButgrammaticalerrorsintheautomatedmessagesFacebookusestopersonalizepronounswhenmembersshareinformationwiththeirfriendshaveproliferatedsincethesiteexpandedfromEnglish-onlyinto15newlanguagesinrecentmonths. AndnowFacebookwillpressmemberstodeclarewhethertheyaremaleorfemaleseekingtoendthegrammaticaldevicethatleadsthesitetorefertoindividualusersas"they"or"themself.""We’vegottenfeedbackfromtranslatorsandusersinothercountriesthattranslationswindupbeingtooconfusingwhenpeoplehavenotspecifiedasexontheirprofiles"FacebookproductmanagerNaomiGleitsaidinacompanystatement. InEnglishwhenusersfailtospecifywhatgendertheyareFacebookdefaultstosomeformofthegenderneutralpluralpronoun"they."Thatoptionisunavailablewhenthepluralisalwaysmasculineorfeminineinotherlanguages."Peoplewhohaven’tselectedwhatsextheyarefrequentlygetdefaultedtothewrongsex"Gleitwrote. UnlessthegenderoftheuserisclearFacebookdoesnotknowwhichpronountousetonotifyothermembersaddinformationtothesite.ThiscommonEnglishproblemismultipliedinlanguageswheremasculineandfemininedistinctionsaregrammaticallyingrained. Thesitewillnowaskuserstospecifywhethertheyaremaleorfemaleontheirbasicmember-shipprofile.Itwillpromptexistinguserstodefinethemselves.Facebookhasanopt-outoptionformemberswhochoosenottospecifytheirgenderordonotconsidergendertobeclearcut.Memberscanremovementionofgenderfrommessagesabouttheiractivities."We’vereceivedpushbackinthepastfromgroupsthatfindthemale/femaledistinctiontoolimiting"Gleitsaid. WhatdoesthewordtrafficLine3Paragraph1mostprobablymean
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质whichisbelievedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriate纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17hmgitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"they’concluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 3
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质whichisbelievedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriate纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17hmgitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"they’concluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 7
Inmostpartsoftheworldclimatechangeisaworryingsubject.NotsoinCalifornia.Atarecentgatheringofgreenluminaries--inafilmstar’shousenaturallyforthatishowseriousnessisoftenestablishedinLosAngeles--thedominantnotewasself-satisfactionatwhatthestatehasalreadyachieved.AndperhapsnobodyismorecomplacentthanArnoldSchwarzenegger.UnlikeA1GoreapresidentialcandidateturnedprophetofenvironmentaldoomCalifornia’sgovernorsoundscheerfulwhentalkingaboutclimatechange.Aswellhemight:ithasmadehispoliticalcareer. AlthoughCaliforniahaslongbeenanenvironmentally-consciousstateuntilrecentlygreenswereconcernedaboveallwithsmogandredwoodtrees."CoastofDreams"KevinStarr’sauthoritativehistoryofcontemporaryCaliforniapublishedin2004doesnotmentionclimatechange.Inthatyearthoughthenewly-electedMr.Schwarzeneggermadehisfirsttentativecallforwesternstatestoseekalternativestofossilfuels.Graduallyhenoticedthathiseffortstotackleclimatechangemetwithlessresistanceandmoreacclaimthanjustaboutallhisotherpolicies.Thesedaysitcanseemasthoughheworksonnothingelse. Mr.Schwarzenegger’stransformationfromscreenwarriortoeco-warriorwascompletedlastyearwhenhesignedabillimposinglegally-enforceablelimitsongreenhouse--gasemissions--afirstforAmerica.ThanksmostlytoitslackofcoalandheavyindustryCaliforniaisarelativelycleanstate.Ifitwereacountryitwouldbetheworld’seighth-biggesteconomybutonlyits16th-biggestpolluter.Itsbigproblemistransport--meaningmostlycarsandtruckswhichaccountformorethan40%ofitsgreenhouse-gasemissionscomparedwith32%inAmericaasawhole.Thestatewantstoratchetdownemissionslimitsonnewvehiclesbeginningin2009.Mr.Schwarzeneggerhasalsoorderedthatby2020vehiclefuelmustproduce10%lesscarbon:intheproductionaswellastheburningsoasimpleswitchtocorn-basedethanolisprobablyout. ThanksinparttoCalifornia’sexamplemostofthewesternstateshaveadoptedclimateactionplans.WhenitcomestosettingemissiontargetsthescenecanresembleaposedownataMr.Olympiacontest.Arizona’sclimate-changescholarsdecidedtosetatargetofcuttingthestate’semissionsto2000levelsby2020.ButJanetNapolitanothegovernorwasdeterminednottobeout-muscledbyCalifornia.ShehasdeclaredthatArizonawilltrytoreturnto2000emissionlevelsby2012. Californiahasnotjustinspiredotherstates;ithascreatedavanguardthatoughttobeabletoprodthefederalgovernmentintostrongernationalstandardsthanitwouldotherwiseconsider.ButCaliforniaisfindingiteasiertoexportitspoliciesthantoputthemintopracticeathome.InonewayCalifornia’sself-confidenceisfullyjustified.Ithasdonemorethananyotherstate--letalonethefederalgovernment--tofixAmerica’sattentiononclimatechange.Ithasalsomadeitseemasthoughtheproblemcanbesolved.Whichiswhyfailurewouldbesuchbadnews.AtthemomentCaliforniaisabeacontootherstates.Ifitfailsitwillbecomeanexcuseforinaction. Corn-basedethanolmightnotbechosenasanalternativebecause
LikeallthehugemetropolisesoftheworldtherearelotsofdiversionsbothoutdoorsandindoorsinChicago.TheArtInstituteofChicagohasoneoftheworld’s1artcollectionsincludingmoreFrenchImpressionistpaintingsthanevenintheParisLouvreitself.TheFieldMuseumofNaturalHistoryandtheMuseumofScienceandIndustryarealsogreathistoricalandculturaltreasurehousesto2aswellasentertainchildrenandadults3IntheFieldMuseumonecomes4asurprisinglybigcollectionofChineseexhibitsfromtheancient5totheearlycentury.TheSearsTowerandtheBuckinghamFountainaretheprideoftheChicagoans;6having110storeysissaidtobethehighesttowerintheworldandthe7isthelargestfountainintheUnitedStates.LakeMichiganisforyachtinginsummertime8thehighlightsofChicagolifealltheyearroundareconcertsoperasandplays9bythecity’sorchestraoperahousesandtheatres.InsummerespeciallyaroundtheIndependenceDayJuly4thmanyfestivalsandfairsaregivenoutdoorswhich10crowdsandcrowdsofpeoplewiththeirparadesfireworks11concertswater-skiingandgoodfoods. ButwithallitsattractionsandbeautifulspotsChicagoisalsoacity12forcrimes.Allthedwellinghousesare13withthreedoorsandvisitorshavetospeakthroughmicrophone14inthewalltotheresidentsbeforetheycangetadmitted.Inthestreetstherearewhite-colortelephones.Whenonefindsoneself15heneedsonlytoknockthereceiver16thehookandthenextinstantthepolicewill17.Ifonedoesnotdriveacaritmaywellbedangerousforhimorhertogooutaloneintheevening.AtfirstIdidnottakethiswarningseriously.18mytwoencounterswiththeBlackpeople19duskintheneighborhoodweresounpleasantandfrighteningthatIhave20shutmyselfeveningsinmyroominalmostallstudyingimposingacurfewonmyself. 19
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质whichisbelievedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriate纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17hmgitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"they’concluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 17
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质whichisbelievedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriate纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17hmgitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"they’concluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 1
LikeallthehugemetropolisesoftheworldtherearelotsofdiversionsbothoutdoorsandindoorsinChicago.TheArtInstituteofChicagohasoneoftheworld’s1artcollectionsincludingmoreFrenchImpressionistpaintingsthanevenintheParisLouvreitself.TheFieldMuseumofNaturalHistoryandtheMuseumofScienceandIndustryarealsogreathistoricalandculturaltreasurehousesto2aswellasentertainchildrenandadults3IntheFieldMuseumonecomes4asurprisinglybigcollectionofChineseexhibitsfromtheancient5totheearlycentury.TheSearsTowerandtheBuckinghamFountainaretheprideoftheChicagoans;6having110storeysissaidtobethehighesttowerintheworldandthe7isthelargestfountainintheUnitedStates.LakeMichiganisforyachtinginsummertime8thehighlightsofChicagolifealltheyearroundareconcertsoperasandplays9bythecity’sorchestraoperahousesandtheatres.InsummerespeciallyaroundtheIndependenceDayJuly4thmanyfestivalsandfairsaregivenoutdoorswhich10crowdsandcrowdsofpeoplewiththeirparadesfireworks11concertswater-skiingandgoodfoods. ButwithallitsattractionsandbeautifulspotsChicagoisalsoacity12forcrimes.Allthedwellinghousesare13withthreedoorsandvisitorshavetospeakthroughmicrophone14inthewalltotheresidentsbeforetheycangetadmitted.Inthestreetstherearewhite-colortelephones.Whenonefindsoneself15heneedsonlytoknockthereceiver16thehookandthenextinstantthepolicewill17.Ifonedoesnotdriveacaritmaywellbedangerousforhimorhertogooutaloneintheevening.AtfirstIdidnottakethiswarningseriously.18mytwoencounterswiththeBlackpeople19duskintheneighborhoodweresounpleasantandfrighteningthatIhave20shutmyselfeveningsinmyroominalmostallstudyingimposingacurfewonmyself. 17
Formescientificknowledgeisdividedintomathematicalsciencesnaturalsciencesorsciencesdealingwiththenaturalworldphysicalandbiologicalsciencesandsciencesdealingwithmankindpsychologysociologyallthesciencesofculturalachievements.everykindofhistoricalknowledge. Apartfromthesesciencesisphilosophyaboutwhichwewilltalklater.Inthefirstplaceallthisispureortheoreticalknowledgesoughtonlyforthepurposeofunderstandinginordertofulfilltheneedtounderstandthatisintrinsicandcon-substantialtoman.Whatdistinguishesmanfromanimalsisthatheknowsandneedstoknow.Ifmandidnotknowthattheworldexistedandthattheworldwasofacertainkindthathewasintheworldandthathehimselfwasofacertainkindhewouldn’tbeman.Thetechnicalaspectsorapplicationsofknowledgeareequallynecessaryformanandareofthegreatestimportancebecausetheyalsocontributetodefininghimasmanandpermithimtopursuealifeincreasinglymoretrulyhuman. Butevenwhileenjoyingtheresultsoftechnicalprogressmanmustdefendtheprimacyandautonomyofpureknowledge.KnowledgesoughtdirectlyforitspracticalapplicationswillhaveimmediateandforeseeablesuccessbutnotthekindofimportantresultwhoserevolutionaryscopeisforthemostpartunforeseenexceptbytheimaginationoftheUtopians.Letmerecallawell-knownexample.IftheGreekmathematicianshadnotappliedthemselvestotheinvestigationofconicsectionzealouslyandwithouttheleastsuspicionthatitmightsomedaybeusefulitwouldnothavebeenpossiblecenturieslatertonavigatefarfromshore.Thefirstmentostudythenatureofelectricitycouldnotimaginethattheirexperimentscarriedonbecauseofmereintellectualcuriositywouldeventuallyleadtomodernelectricaltechnologywithoutwhichwecanscarcelyconceiveofcontemporarylife. Pureknowledgeisvaluableforitsownsakebecausethehumanspiritcannotresignitselftoignorance.Buttinadditionitisthefoundationforpracticalresultsthatwouldnothavebeenreachedifthisknowledgehadnotbeensoughtdisinterestedly. Notes:intrinsic固有的con-substantial同体的autonomy自主性zealouslyandwithouttheleastsuspicion热情地并丝毫也没有想到forthemostpart大部分主要地Utopian乌托邦理想主义disinterestedly不偏不倚地resignoneselfto听任顺从 Theauthordoesnotincludeamongthesciencesthestudyof
ThemostthoroughlystudiedintellectualsinthehistoryoftheNewWorldaretheministersandpoliticalleadersofseventeenth-centuryNewEngland.AccordingtothestandardhistoryofAmericanphilosophynowhereelseincolonialAmericawas“somuchimportanceattachedtointellectualpursuits.”AccordingtomanybooksandarticlesNewEngland’sleadersestablishedthebasicthemesandpreoccupationsofanunfoldingdominantPuritantraditioninAmericanintellectuallife. TotakethisapproachtotheNewEnglandersnormallymeanstostartwiththePuritans’theologicalinnovationsandtheirdistinctiveideasaboutthechurch—importantsubjectsthatwemaynotneglect.ButinkeepingwithourexaminationofsouthernintellectuallifewemayconsidertheoriginalPuritansascarriersofEuropeancultureadjustingtoNewWorldcircumstances.TheNewEnglandcolonieswerethescenesofimportantepisodesinthepursuitofwidelyunderstoodidealsofcivilityandvirtuosity. TheearlysettlersofMassachusettsBayincludedmenofimpressiveeducationandinfluenceinEngland.BesidestheninetyorsolearnedministerswhocametoMassachusettschurchesinthedecadeafter1629therewerepoliticalleaderslikeJohnWinthropaneducatedgentlemanlawyerandofficialoftheCrownbeforehejourneyedtoBoston.ThesemenwroteandpublishedextensivelyreachingbothNewWorldandOldWorldaudiencesandgivingNewEnglandanatmosphereofintellectualearnestness. WeshouldnotforgethoweverthatmostNewEnglanderswerelesswelleducated.Whilefewcraftsmenorfarmersletalonedependentsandservantsleftliterarycompositionstobeanalyzeditisobviousthattheirviewswerelessfullyintellectualized.Theirthinkingoftenhadatraditionalsuperstitiousquality.AtailornamedJohnDanewhoemigratedinthelate1630sleftanaccountofhisreasonsforleavingEnglandthatisfilledwithsigns.Sexualconfusioneconomicfrustrationsandreligioushope—allcametogetherinadecisivemomentwhenheopenedtheBibletoldbasfatherthatthefirstlinehesawwouldsettlehisfateandreadthemagicalwords:"ComeoutfromamongthemtouchnouncleanthingandIwillbeyourGodandyoushallbemypeople."OnewonderswhatDanethoughtofthecarefulsermonsexplainingtheBiblethatheheardinPuritanchurches. MeanwhilemanysettlershadslighterreligiouscommitmentsthanDane’sasoneclergymanlearnedinconfrontingfolkalongthecoastwhomockedthattheyhadnotcometotheNewWorldfurreligion."Ourmainendwastocatchfish. Itissuggestedinparagraph2thatNewEnglanders
Tounderstandhowastrologyworksweshouldfirsttakeaquicklookatthesky.Althoughthestarsareatenormousdistancestheydoindeedgivetheimpressionofbeingaffixedtotheinnersurfaceofagreathollowspheresurroundingtheearth.Ancientpeopleinfactliterallybelievedintheexistenceofsuchacelestialsphere.Astheearthspinsonitsaxisthecelestialsphereappearstoturnaboutuseachdaypivotingatpointsonalinewiththeearth’saxisofrotation.ThisdailyturningofthespherecarriesthestarsaroundtheskycausingmostofthemtoriseandsetbuttheyandconstellationstheydefinemaintainsfixedpatternsonthespherejustasthecontinentofAustralianmaintainsitsshapeonaspinningglobeoftheearth.Thusthestarswerecalledfixedstars. Themotionofthesunalongtheeclipticisofcoursemerelyareflectionoftherevolutionoftheeartharoundthesunbuttheancientsbelievedtheearthwasfixedandthesunhadanindependentmotionofitsowneastwardamongthestars.Theglareofsunlighthidesthestarsindaytimebuttheancientswereawarethatthestarswereupthereevenatnightandthesloweastwardmotionofthesunaroundtheskyattherateofaboutthirtydegreeseachmonthcauseddifferentstarstobevisibleatnightatdifferenttimesoftheyear. Themoonrevolvingaroundtheeartheachmonthalsohasanindependentmotioninthesky.Themoonhoweverchangesitspositionrelativelyrapidly.Althoughitappearstoriseandseteachdayasdoesnearlyeverythingelseintheskywecanseethemoonchangingpositionduringasshortanintervalasanhourorso.Themoon’spatharoundtheearthliesnearlyinthesameplaneastheearth’spatharoundthesunsothemoonisneverseenveryfarfromtheeclipticinthesky.Therearefiveotherobjectsvisibletothenakedeyethatalsoappeartomoveinrespecttothefixedbackgroundofstarsonthecelestialsphere.ThesearetheplanetsMercuryVenusMarsJupiterandtheSaturn.Allofthemrevolvearoundthesuninnearlythesameplaneastheearthdoessotheylikethemoonalwaysappearneartheecliptic.Becauseweseetheplanetsfromthemovingearthhowevertheybehaveinacomplicatedwaywiththeirapparentmotions’onthecelestialspherereflectingboththeirownindependentmotionsaroundthesunandourmotionaswell. Alltheotherfiveplanets
[A]Inventoriesofthisstoredmerchandiseoftenneedtobefinanced.Modernmarketingisthereforeacoordinatedsystemofmanybusinessactivities.Butbasicallyitinvolvesfourthings:sellingthecorrectproductattheproperplacesellingitatapricedeterminedbydemandsatisfyingacustomer’sneedandwantsandproducingaprofitforthecompany. [B]Rawmaterialsrequiringlittleornospecialtreatmentcanbetransportedbyrailshiporbargeatlowcost.Largequantitiesofrawmaterialstravelasbulkfreight.Butfinishedproductsthatoftenrequirespecialtreatmentsuchasrefrigerationofcarefulhandlingareusuallytransportedbytruck.Thismerchandisefreightisusuallysmallerinvolumeandrequiresquickerdelivery.Merchandisefreightisatermforthetransportationofmanufacturedgoods. [C]Thetermsmarketandmarketingcanhaveseveralmeaningsdependinguponhowtheyareused.Thetermstockmarketreferstothebuyingandsellingofsharesincorporations.Aswellasotheractivitiesrelatedtostocktradingandpricing.TheimportantworldstockmarketsareinLondonGenevaNewYorkTokyoandSingaporeanothertpeofmarketisagrocerymarketwhichisaplacewherepeoplepurchasefood.Wheneconomistsusethewordmarket.Theymeanasetofforcesorconditionsthatdeterminethepriceofaproductsuchasthesupplyavailableforsaleandthedemandforitbyconsumers.Thetermmarketinginbusinessincludesallthesemeaningsandmore. [D]Inthepasttheconceptofmarketingemphasizedsales.Theproducerormanufacturermadeaproducthewantedtosell.Marketingwasthetaskoffiguringouthowtoselltheproduct.Basicallysellingtheproductwouldbeaccomplishedbysalespromotionwhichincludedadvertisingandpersonalselling.Inadditiontosalespromotionmarketingalsoinvolvedthephysicaldistributionoftheproducttotheplaceswhereitwasactuallysold.Distributionconsistedoftransportationstorageandrelatedservices.Suchasfinancingstandardizationandgradingandtherelatedrisks. [E]Marketingnowinvolvesfirstdecidingwhatthecustomerwantsanddesigningandproducingaproductthatsatisfiesthesewantsataprofittothecompany.Insteadofconcentratingsolelyonproductthecompanymustconsiderthedesiresoftheconsumer.Andthisismuchmoredifficultsinceitinvolveshumanbehavior.Productionontheotherhandismostlyanengineeringproblemthusdemandandmarketforcesarestillanimportantaspectofmodernmarketing.Buttheyareconsideredpriortotheproductionprocess. [F]Themodernmarketingconceptencompassesalloftheactivitiesmentionedbutitisbasedonadifferentsetofprinciples.Itsubscribestothenotionthatproductioncanbeeconomicallyjustifiedonlybyconsumption.Inotherwordsgoodsshouldbeproducedonlyiftheycanbesold.Thereforetheproducershouldconsiderwhoisgoingtobuytheproduct.Orwhatthemarketfortheproductisbeforeproductionbegins.Thisisverydifferentfrommakingaproductandthenthinkingabouthowtosellit. [G]Becauseproductsareoftenmarketedinternationallydistributionhasincreasedinimportance.Goodsmustbeattheplacewherethecustomerneedsthemorbroughtthere.Thisisknownasplaceutilityitaddsvaluetoaproduct.Howevermanymarketsareseparatedfromtheplaceofproduction.Whichmeansthatoftenbothrawmaterialsandfinishedproductsmustbetransportedtothepointswheretheyareneeded. [H]Alongallpointsofthedistributionchannelvariousamountsofstoragearerequired.Thetimeandmannerofsuchstoragedependsuponthetypeofproduct. 43
AccordingtocomScoreFacebookistheleadingsocialnetworkingsitebasedonmonthlyuniquevisitorshavingovertakenmaincompetitorMySpaceinApril2008.AccordingtoAlexathewebsite’srankingamongallwebsitesincreasedfrom60thto7thintermsofworldwidetrafficfromSeptember2006toSeptember2007andiscurrently5th.Quantcastranksthewebsite15thinU.S.intermsoftrafficandCompete.comranksit14thinU.S. TheInternetphenomenonwhichboasts80millionusersworldwideexplodedinpopularityoverthepastyearasaconvenientwayforWebuserstocommunicateandsharepersonaldetailswithselectedgroupsoffriendsoracquaintances.ButgrammaticalerrorsintheautomatedmessagesFacebookusestopersonalizepronounswhenmembersshareinformationwiththeirfriendshaveproliferatedsincethesiteexpandedfromEnglish-onlyinto15newlanguagesinrecentmonths. AndnowFacebookwillpressmemberstodeclarewhethertheyaremaleorfemaleseekingtoendthegrammaticaldevicethatleadsthesitetorefertoindividualusersas"they"or"themself.""We’vegottenfeedbackfromtranslatorsandusersinothercountriesthattranslationswindupbeingtooconfusingwhenpeoplehavenotspecifiedasexontheirprofiles"FacebookproductmanagerNaomiGleitsaidinacompanystatement. InEnglishwhenusersfailtospecifywhatgendertheyareFacebookdefaultstosomeformofthegenderneutralpluralpronoun"they."Thatoptionisunavailablewhenthepluralisalwaysmasculineorfeminineinotherlanguages."Peoplewhohaven’tselectedwhatsextheyarefrequentlygetdefaultedtothewrongsex"Gleitwrote. UnlessthegenderoftheuserisclearFacebookdoesnotknowwhichpronountousetonotifyothermembersaddinformationtothesite.ThiscommonEnglishproblemismultipliedinlanguageswheremasculineandfemininedistinctionsaregrammaticallyingrained. Thesitewillnowaskuserstospecifywhethertheyaremaleorfemaleontheirbasicmember-shipprofile.Itwillpromptexistinguserstodefinethemselves.Facebookhasanopt-outoptionformemberswhochoosenottospecifytheirgenderordonotconsidergendertobeclearcut.Memberscanremovementionofgenderfrommessagesabouttheiractivities."We’vereceivedpushbackinthepastfromgroupsthatfindthemale/femaledistinctiontoolimiting"Gleitsaid. FromthepassageweknowthatFacebookisnowfacedwiththeproblemthat
Formescientificknowledgeisdividedintomathematicalsciencesnaturalsciencesorsciencesdealingwiththenaturalworldphysicalandbiologicalsciencesandsciencesdealingwithmankindpsychologysociologyallthesciencesofculturalachievements.everykindofhistoricalknowledge. Apartfromthesesciencesisphilosophyaboutwhichwewilltalklater.Inthefirstplaceallthisispureortheoreticalknowledgesoughtonlyforthepurposeofunderstandinginordertofulfilltheneedtounderstandthatisintrinsicandcon-substantialtoman.Whatdistinguishesmanfromanimalsisthatheknowsandneedstoknow.Ifmandidnotknowthattheworldexistedandthattheworldwasofacertainkindthathewasintheworldandthathehimselfwasofacertainkindhewouldn’tbeman.Thetechnicalaspectsorapplicationsofknowledgeareequallynecessaryformanandareofthegreatestimportancebecausetheyalsocontributetodefininghimasmanandpermithimtopursuealifeincreasinglymoretrulyhuman. Butevenwhileenjoyingtheresultsoftechnicalprogressmanmustdefendtheprimacyandautonomyofpureknowledge.KnowledgesoughtdirectlyforitspracticalapplicationswillhaveimmediateandforeseeablesuccessbutnotthekindofimportantresultwhoserevolutionaryscopeisforthemostpartunforeseenexceptbytheimaginationoftheUtopians.Letmerecallawell-knownexample.IftheGreekmathematicianshadnotappliedthemselvestotheinvestigationofconicsectionzealouslyandwithouttheleastsuspicionthatitmightsomedaybeusefulitwouldnothavebeenpossiblecenturieslatertonavigatefarfromshore.Thefirstmentostudythenatureofelectricitycouldnotimaginethattheirexperimentscarriedonbecauseofmereintellectualcuriositywouldeventuallyleadtomodernelectricaltechnologywithoutwhichwecanscarcelyconceiveofcontemporarylife. Pureknowledgeisvaluableforitsownsakebecausethehumanspiritcannotresignitselftoignorance.Buttinadditionitisthefoundationforpracticalresultsthatwouldnothavebeenreachedifthisknowledgehadnotbeensoughtdisinterestedly. Notes:intrinsic固有的con-substantial同体的autonomy自主性zealouslyandwithouttheleastsuspicion热情地并丝毫也没有想到forthemostpart大部分主要地Utopian乌托邦理想主义disinterestedly不偏不倚地resignoneselfto听任顺从 Thetitlewhichbestexpressestheideaofthistextis
ThemostthoroughlystudiedintellectualsinthehistoryoftheNewWorldaretheministersandpoliticalleadersofseventeenth-centuryNewEngland.AccordingtothestandardhistoryofAmericanphilosophynowhereelseincolonialAmericawas“somuchimportanceattachedtointellectualpursuits.”AccordingtomanybooksandarticlesNewEngland’sleadersestablishedthebasicthemesandpreoccupationsofanunfoldingdominantPuritantraditioninAmericanintellectuallife. TotakethisapproachtotheNewEnglandersnormallymeanstostartwiththePuritans’theologicalinnovationsandtheirdistinctiveideasaboutthechurch—importantsubjectsthatwemaynotneglect.ButinkeepingwithourexaminationofsouthernintellectuallifewemayconsidertheoriginalPuritansascarriersofEuropeancultureadjustingtoNewWorldcircumstances.TheNewEnglandcolonieswerethescenesofimportantepisodesinthepursuitofwidelyunderstoodidealsofcivilityandvirtuosity. TheearlysettlersofMassachusettsBayincludedmenofimpressiveeducationandinfluenceinEngland.BesidestheninetyorsolearnedministerswhocametoMassachusettschurchesinthedecadeafter1629therewerepoliticalleaderslikeJohnWinthropaneducatedgentlemanlawyerandofficialoftheCrownbeforehejourneyedtoBoston.ThesemenwroteandpublishedextensivelyreachingbothNewWorldandOldWorldaudiencesandgivingNewEnglandanatmosphereofintellectualearnestness. WeshouldnotforgethoweverthatmostNewEnglanderswerelesswelleducated.Whilefewcraftsmenorfarmersletalonedependentsandservantsleftliterarycompositionstobeanalyzeditisobviousthattheirviewswerelessfullyintellectualized.Theirthinkingoftenhadatraditionalsuperstitiousquality.AtailornamedJohnDanewhoemigratedinthelate1630sleftanaccountofhisreasonsforleavingEnglandthatisfilledwithsigns.Sexualconfusioneconomicfrustrationsandreligioushope—allcametogetherinadecisivemomentwhenheopenedtheBibletoldbasfatherthatthefirstlinehesawwouldsettlehisfateandreadthemagicalwords:"ComeoutfromamongthemtouchnouncleanthingandIwillbeyourGodandyoushallbemypeople."OnewonderswhatDanethoughtofthecarefulsermonsexplainingtheBiblethatheheardinPuritanchurches. MeanwhilemanysettlershadslighterreligiouscommitmentsthanDane’sasoneclergymanlearnedinconfrontingfolkalongthecoastwhomockedthattheyhadnotcometotheNewWorldfurreligion."Ourmainendwastocatchfish. ThestoryofJohnDaneshowsthatlesswell-educatedNewEnglanderswereoften
Inmostpartsoftheworldclimatechangeisaworryingsubject.NotsoinCalifornia.Atarecentgatheringofgreenluminaries--inafilmstar’shousenaturallyforthatishowseriousnessisoftenestablishedinLosAngeles--thedominantnotewasself-satisfactionatwhatthestatehasalreadyachieved.AndperhapsnobodyismorecomplacentthanArnoldSchwarzenegger.UnlikeA1GoreapresidentialcandidateturnedprophetofenvironmentaldoomCalifornia’sgovernorsoundscheerfulwhentalkingaboutclimatechange.Aswellhemight:ithasmadehispoliticalcareer. AlthoughCaliforniahaslongbeenanenvironmentally-consciousstateuntilrecentlygreenswereconcernedaboveallwithsmogandredwoodtrees."CoastofDreams"KevinStarr’sauthoritativehistoryofcontemporaryCaliforniapublishedin2004doesnotmentionclimatechange.Inthatyearthoughthenewly-electedMr.Schwarzeneggermadehisfirsttentativecallforwesternstatestoseekalternativestofossilfuels.Graduallyhenoticedthathiseffortstotackleclimatechangemetwithlessresistanceandmoreacclaimthanjustaboutallhisotherpolicies.Thesedaysitcanseemasthoughheworksonnothingelse. Mr.Schwarzenegger’stransformationfromscreenwarriortoeco-warriorwascompletedlastyearwhenhesignedabillimposinglegally-enforceablelimitsongreenhouse--gasemissions--afirstforAmerica.ThanksmostlytoitslackofcoalandheavyindustryCaliforniaisarelativelycleanstate.Ifitwereacountryitwouldbetheworld’seighth-biggesteconomybutonlyits16th-biggestpolluter.Itsbigproblemistransport--meaningmostlycarsandtruckswhichaccountformorethan40%ofitsgreenhouse-gasemissionscomparedwith32%inAmericaasawhole.Thestatewantstoratchetdownemissionslimitsonnewvehiclesbeginningin2009.Mr.Schwarzeneggerhasalsoorderedthatby2020vehiclefuelmustproduce10%lesscarbon:intheproductionaswellastheburningsoasimpleswitchtocorn-basedethanolisprobablyout. ThanksinparttoCalifornia’sexamplemostofthewesternstateshaveadoptedclimateactionplans.WhenitcomestosettingemissiontargetsthescenecanresembleaposedownataMr.Olympiacontest.Arizona’sclimate-changescholarsdecidedtosetatargetofcuttingthestate’semissionsto2000levelsby2020.ButJanetNapolitanothegovernorwasdeterminednottobeout-muscledbyCalifornia.ShehasdeclaredthatArizonawilltrytoreturnto2000emissionlevelsby2012. Californiahasnotjustinspiredotherstates;ithascreatedavanguardthatoughttobeabletoprodthefederalgovernmentintostrongernationalstandardsthanitwouldotherwiseconsider.ButCaliforniaisfindingiteasiertoexportitspoliciesthantoputthemintopracticeathome.InonewayCalifornia’sself-confidenceisfullyjustified.Ithasdonemorethananyotherstate--letalonethefederalgovernment--tofixAmerica’sattentiononclimatechange.Ithasalsomadeitseemasthoughtheproblemcanbesolved.Whichiswhyfailurewouldbesuchbadnews.AtthemomentCaliforniaisabeacontootherstates.Ifitfailsitwillbecomeanexcuseforinaction. Itcanbeinferredfromthetextthat
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质whichisbelievedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriate纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17hmgitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"they’concluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 5
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质whichisbelievedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriate纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17hmgitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"they’concluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 9
Younggirlsathighriskfordepressionappeartohaveamalfunctioningrewardsystemintheirbrainsanewstudysuggests.Thefindingcomesfromresearchthat1ahigh-riskgroupof13girlsaged10to14whowerenotdepressedbuthadmotherswho2recurrentdepressionandalow-riskgroupof13girlswithno3orfamilyhistoryofdepression.BothgroupsweregivenMRIbrain4whilecompletingataskthatcould5eitherrewardorpunishment. 6withgirlsinthelow-riskgroupthoseinthehigh-riskgrouphad7neuralresponsesduringbothanticipationandreceiptofthereward.8thehigh-riskgirlsshowedno9inanareaofthebraincalledthedorsalanteriorcingulatedcortex背侧前扣带皮质whichisbelievedtoplayarolein10pastexperiencestoassistlearning. Thehigh-riskgirlsdidhavegreateractivationofthisbrainarea11receivingpunishmentcomparedwiththeothergirls.Theresearcherssaidthatthissuggeststhathigh-riskgirlshaveeasiertime12informationaboutlossandpunishmentthaninformationaboutrewardandpleasure. "Consideredtogetherwithreducedactivationinthestriate纹状体的areascommonlyobserved13rewarditseemsthatthereward-processingsystemiscritically14indaughterswhoareatelevatedriskfordepression15theyhavenotyetexperiencedadepressive16"wroteIanH.GotlibofStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagues."17hmgitudinalstudiesareneededtodeterminewhethertheanomalousactivations18inthisstudyduringtheprocessingof19andlossesareassociatedwiththe20onsetofdepression"they’concluded.ThestudywaspublishedintheApriloftheArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry. 19
Inmostpartsoftheworldclimatechangeisaworryingsubject.NotsoinCalifornia.Atarecentgatheringofgreenluminaries--inafilmstar’shousenaturallyforthatishowseriousnessisoftenestablishedinLosAngeles--thedominantnotewasself-satisfactionatwhatthestatehasalreadyachieved.AndperhapsnobodyismorecomplacentthanArnoldSchwarzenegger.UnlikeA1GoreapresidentialcandidateturnedprophetofenvironmentaldoomCalifornia’sgovernorsoundscheerfulwhentalkingaboutclimatechange.Aswellhemight:ithasmadehispoliticalcareer. AlthoughCaliforniahaslongbeenanenvironmentally-consciousstateuntilrecentlygreenswereconcernedaboveallwithsmogandredwoodtrees."CoastofDreams"KevinStarr’sauthoritativehistoryofcontemporaryCaliforniapublishedin2004doesnotmentionclimatechange.Inthatyearthoughthenewly-electedMr.Schwarzeneggermadehisfirsttentativecallforwesternstatestoseekalternativestofossilfuels.Graduallyhenoticedthathiseffortstotackleclimatechangemetwithlessresistanceandmoreacclaimthanjustaboutallhisotherpolicies.Thesedaysitcanseemasthoughheworksonnothingelse. Mr.Schwarzenegger’stransformationfromscreenwarriortoeco-warriorwascompletedlastyearwhenhesignedabillimposinglegally-enforceablelimitsongreenhouse--gasemissions--afirstforAmerica.ThanksmostlytoitslackofcoalandheavyindustryCaliforniaisarelativelycleanstate.Ifitwereacountryitwouldbetheworld’seighth-biggesteconomybutonlyits16th-biggestpolluter.Itsbigproblemistransport--meaningmostlycarsandtruckswhichaccountformorethan40%ofitsgreenhouse-gasemissionscomparedwith32%inAmericaasawhole.Thestatewantstoratchetdownemissionslimitsonnewvehiclesbeginningin2009.Mr.Schwarzeneggerhasalsoorderedthatby2020vehiclefuelmustproduce10%lesscarbon:intheproductionaswellastheburningsoasimpleswitchtocorn-basedethanolisprobablyout. ThanksinparttoCalifornia’sexamplemostofthewesternstateshaveadoptedclimateactionplans.WhenitcomestosettingemissiontargetsthescenecanresembleaposedownataMr.Olympiacontest.Arizona’sclimate-changescholarsdecidedtosetatargetofcuttingthestate’semissionsto2000levelsby2020.ButJanetNapolitanothegovernorwasdeterminednottobeout-muscledbyCalifornia.ShehasdeclaredthatArizonawilltrytoreturnto2000emissionlevelsby2012. Californiahasnotjustinspiredotherstates;ithascreatedavanguardthatoughttobeabletoprodthefederalgovernmentintostrongernationalstandardsthanitwouldotherwiseconsider.ButCaliforniaisfindingiteasiertoexportitspoliciesthantoputthemintopracticeathome.InonewayCalifornia’sself-confidenceisfullyjustified.Ithasdonemorethananyotherstate--letalonethefederalgovernment--tofixAmerica’sattentiononclimatechange.Ithasalsomadeitseemasthoughtheproblemcanbesolved.Whichiswhyfailurewouldbesuchbadnews.AtthemomentCaliforniaisabeacontootherstates.Ifitfailsitwillbecomeanexcuseforinaction. AccordingtotheauthorMr.ArnoldSchwarzeneggerischeerfulchieflybecause
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