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WHO was the first modern artist.9 How about Giorgione (46)A far-fetched notion, perhaps, but this...
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Eventheirparentsstruggletodrawthetiniesthintofemotionorsocialconnectionfromautistic患孤独症的childrensoimaginewhathappenswhenastrangersitswiththechildforhourstogetthroughthestandardIQtest.For10ofthetest’s12sectionsthechildmustlistenandrespondtospokenquestions.Sinceformanyautisticsitistorturetotrytoengagewithsomeoneevenonthisimpersonallevelit’snowondersomanywindupwithIQscoresjustaboveacarrot’s.Morepreciselyfullythreequartersofautisticsareclassifiedashavingbelow-normalintelligencewithmanydeemedmentallyretarded.ResearchershavetriedadifferentIQtestonethatrequiresnosocialinteraction.AstheyreportinthejournalPsychologicalScienceautisticchildren’sscorescameoutstarklydifferentthanontheoralinteractiveIQtest—suggestingaburningintelligenceinsidethesekidsthateducatorsarefailingtouncover.ForthestudychildrentooktwoIQtests.InthemorewidelyusedWechslertheytriedtoarrangeandcompletepicturesdosimplearithmeticdemonstratevocabularycomprehensionandanswerquestions—almostallinresponsetoastranger’squestions.IntheRaven’sProgressiveMatricestesttheygotbriefinstructionsthenwentoffontheirowntoanalyzethree-by-threearraysofgeometricdesignswithonemissingandchoosethedesignthatbelongedintheemptyplace.Thedisparityinscoreswasstriking.Overalltheautisticsscoredaroundthe30thpercentileontheWechslerwhichcorrespondstolowaverageIQ.Buttheyaveragedinthe56thpercentileontheRaven’s.notasingleautisticchildscoredinthehighintelligencerangeontheWechsler;ontheRaven’sonethirddid.Healthychildrenshowednosuchdisparity.Thatpresentsapuzzle.IfmanyautisticsarcmoreintelligentthananIQtestshowswhyhaven’ttheirparentsnoticedPartlybecausemanyparentswelcomealowscorewhichbringstheirchildmorespecialservicesfromschoolsandpublicagencies.Butanotherforceisatwork.Weoftenthinkofintelligenceaswhatyoucanshowsuchasbyspeakingfluentlysaysapsychologist.Parentsaswellasprofessionalsmightbebiasedtolookatthatratherthandigforthehiddenintellectualspark.Thechallengeistocoaxthatsparkintothekindofintelligencethatmanifestsitselfinpractice.Thatissomethingautismresearchersarefarfromdoing.Manyexpertsdismissautistics’exceptionalreadingartisticorotherabilitiesassideeffectsofabnormalbrainfunction.Theyadviseparentstosteertheirchildawayfromwhatheexcelsatandobsessesoverandtowardwhathestruggleswith.Itmakesyouwonderhowmanyotherchildrenwhoseintellectualpotentialwe’retooblindtoseewe’vealsogivenupon.Whichofthefollowingisnotthereasonwhyparentsareunabletofindthehiddenintelligenceintheirautisticchildren
StartingwithhisreviewofSkinner’sVerbalBehaviorNoamChomskyhadledthepsycholinguistswhoarguethatmanhasdevelopedaninnate天生的capacityfordealingwiththelinguisticuniversalscommontoalllanguages.Experienceandlearningthenprovideonlyinformationaboutthe1instancesofthoseuniversalaspectsoflanguagewhichareneededtocommunicatewithotherpeoplewithinaparticularlanguage2. Thislinguisticapproach3theviewthatlanguageisbuiltuponlearnedassociationsbetweenwords.Whatislearnedisnotstringsofwordsperse本身but4rulesthatenableaspeakerto5aninfinitevarietyofnovelsentences.6singlewordsarelearnedasconcepts:theydonotstandinaone-to-one7withtheparticularthingsignifiedbut8allmembersofageneralclass. Thisviewoftheinnateaspectoflanguagelearningisatfirstnotreadily9intoexistingpsychologicalframeworksand10achallengethathasstimulatedmuchthoughtandnewresearchdirections.Chomskyarguesthatapreconditionforlanguagedevelopmentistheexistenceofcertainprinciples"intrinsic原有的tothemind"thatprovideinvariantstructures11perceivinglearningandthinking.Language12alloftheseprocesses;thusitsstudy13ourtheoriesofknowledgeingeneral. Basictothismodeloflanguageisthenotionthatachild’slearningoflanguageisakindoftheory14.It’sthoughttobeaccomplished15explicitinstruction16ofintelligencelevelatanearlyagewhenheisnotcapableofothercomplex17ormotorachievementsandwithrelativelylittlereliabledatatogoon.18thechildconstructsatheoryofanideallanguagewhichhasbroad19power.Chomskyarguesthatallchildrencouldnotdevelopthesamebasictheory20itnotfortheinnateexistenceofpropertiesofmentalorganizationwhichlimitthepossiblepropertiesoflanguages. Readtilefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCandDonANSWERSHEET1.10points13
TheFederalCommunicationsCommissionisnotaloneinworryingabouttelevisionstationsthataircorporateadvertisementsmasqueradingasnewsstories.InfacttheFCCrequiresthatbroadcaststationsdisclosethecorporatebackersofvideonewsreleasesorfaceamaximumfineof$32500foreachviolation.Enoughviolationsandastationcouldloseitslicense.TheFCCsetsoutaclearpolicy:Alloutsidenewsreportingmustbeidentifieddisclosingthesourceofanyvideonewsreleaseairedonanewsprogram.Thereareoccasionaldeclines.AnonprofitconsumerwatchdoggroupreportedtotheFCCthat77stationsbroadcastvideofeaturesaboutproductsfrom49companieswithoutpointingoutthattheywereproducedbypublicrelationsfirmsrepresentingthesecorporations.Publicrelationsfirmshaveonegoal:tomaketheirvideonewsreleaseslookasiftheyarelegitimatenewsreportsnotpropaganda.HoweverPR-producedvideonewsreleasesmerelyarethetipoftheiceberg.Eversincenewspapersbeganspecial-interestgroupshavetriedtoinfluencethequalityandquantityofthenewsprinted.Ofteninexchangeforadvertisingrevenuenewspaperswouldprintglowingstoriesoftheirsponsorsandsuppressanynewsthatmighthurttheirheavyadvertisers.Thosewithouttheabilitytoinformthepresseitherthroughnewsreleasesorcontactsusuallyareignoredunlesstheycommitacrimeoractinattention-gettingways.Formostofthe20thcenturywomenandpeopleofcolorfounditalmostimpossibletobreakthespecial-interestnewsbarriers.Theirstorieswereignoredunlesstherewasasensationaloruniqueelement.Usuallythoughitemsconcerningtheseminoritiesrequiredanenormouswrongdoingsuchasthemurderofsomeoneinthewhitecommunityorsomeattackonthestatusquothatthreatenedthepeaceandquietaswellastheproductivityofaneighborhood.Therehavebeensplendidexceptionsbutnotmany.OnereasontheHispanicnewsmediahasbeensosuccessfulisthatitcaterstoitsaudienceinthesamemannerallmediadoes.Whileitsbiasmayseemdifferentitactuallyisthesamebiasallmediahas:anoverwhelmingconcerntokeepitssupportershappy.SowhilethehueandcryoverPR-createdvideonewsreleasesarewellandgoodtheyreallydonotattacktheproblemofbiasednewsandappealstoaspecificgroupthatsharesthesameprejudicesandconcernsaboutthepresentandfuture.AllofthisisonekeyreasonAmericanssooftenaresurprisedwhenthenewsoutletsareforcedtoreportstoriesthatdonotpleaseadvertisersorconsumers.Bettertocontinuewhenpossibleasteadysupplyofnewsaboutthelatestcelebritybabyoryetanotherpieceaboutsexoffendersorrestauranthealthviolations.Itismostpossibleforasupporterofanewspapertobereportedfor______
Wemightmarvelattheprocessmadeineveryfieldofstudybutthemethodoftestingaperson’sknowledgeandabilityremainasprimitiveasevertheywere.Itreallyisextraordinarythatafteralltheseyearseducationistshavestillfailedtodeviseanythingmoreefficientandreliablethanexaminations. 41.______ Theymaybeagoodmeansoftestingmemoryortheknackofworkingrapidlyunderextremepressurebuttheycantellyounothingaboutaperson’strueabilityandaptitude. 42.______ Yourwholefuturemaybedecidedinonefatefulday.Itdoesn’tmatterthatyouweren’tfeelingverywellorthatyourmotherdied.Littlethingslikethatdon’tcount:theexamgoeson.noonecangiveofhisbestwhenheisinmortalterrororafterasleeplessnightyetthisispreciselywhattheexaminationsystemexpectshimtodo.Themomentachildbeginsschoolheentersaworldofviciouscompetitionwheresuccessandfailureareclearlydefinedandmeasured.Canwewonderattheincreasingnumberof"dropouts":youngpeoplewhoarewrittenoffasutterfailuresbeforetheyhaveevenembarkedonacareerCanwebesurprisedatthesuiciderateamongstudents 43.______ Examinationsdonotmotivateastudenttoreadwidelybuttorestricthisreading;theydonotenablehimtoseekmoreandmoreknowledgebutinducecramming.Theylowerthestandardsofteachingfortheydeprivetheteacherofallfreedom.Teachersthemselvesareoftenjudgedbyexaminationresultsandinsteadofteachingtheirsubjectstheyarereducedtotrainingtheirstudentsinexamtechniqueswhichtheydespise.Themostsuccessfulcandidatesarenotalwaysthebesteducated;theyarebesttrainedinthetechniqueofworkingunderduress. 44.______ Examinersareonlyhuman.Theygettriedandhungry;theymakemistakes.Yettheyhavetomarkstacksofhastilyscrawledscriptsinalimitedamountoftime.Theyworkunderthesamesortofpressureasthecandidates.Andtheirwordcarriesweight.Afterajudge’sdecisionyouhavetherightofappealbutnotafteranexaminer’s. 45.______ IsitcynicaltosuggestthatexaminationsaremerelyaprofitablebusinessfortheinstitutionsthatrunthemThisiswhatitboilsdowntointhelastanalysis.Thebestcommentonthesystemisthisilliteratemessagerecentlyscrawledonawall:"Iwereateenagedrop-outandnowIamateenagemillionaire." [A]Agoodeducationshouldamongotherthingstrainyoutothinkforyourself.Theexaminationsystemdoesanythingbutthat.Whathastobelearntisrigidlylaiddownbyasyllabussothestudentsareencouragedtomemorize. [B]Theresultsonwhichsomuchdependsareoftennothingmorethanasubjectiveassessmentbysomeanonymousexaminer. [C]Examinationscanbetakenasatestofastudent’sknowledgeaboutaparticularsubjectwhichwouldtellthestudentwherehestandsamongothersandhowmuchheknowsandhowmuchheoughttoknow. [D]Asanxiety-makersexaminationsaresecondtonone.Thatisbecausesomuchdependsonthem.Theyarethemarkofsuccessorfailureinoursociety. [E]Thestudentappearingfortheexamtakesitunderextremetensionandpressurebecauseheknowsthathehasonlyonechancetoprovehisworthandifhefailshewillbeleftbehindfortherestofhislife. [F]Forallthepiousclaimthatexaminationstestwhatyouknowitiscommonknowledgethattheymoreoftendotheexactopposite. [G]Theremustsurelybemanysimplerandmoreeffectivewaysofassessingaperson’strueabilities. 43
Ananalysisofworkplacetrendsshowsthatemployeeperksareliableindicatorofjobmarketstrengtharebeginningtomakeacomeback.WhilenotasExtravagantasthoseofferedinthelate1990scompaniesclearlyareshiftingtheirfocusfromworkforcereductiontoworkforceretention.Firmsrealizethattheyrequireafoundationofexperiencedtrainedandmotivatedworkers.Theseemployersareimprovingand/oraddingperkstopreventanexodusofworkersthatcouldoccurastheeconomycontinuesimproving.Theyalsomaybelookingfurtherdowntheroadwhenseverelaborshortagesareexpectedtoreturn.Ananalysisofperksofferedintoday’sworkplaceshowsthatmanyofthe1990s-stylebenefitssuchasgameroomsandluxurycarleaseshavebeenabandoned.Theperksthatremainpopularwithemployersandemployeesarethosethathelpworkersstayhealthycareerfocusedandfinanciallystable.Perhapsthemostappreciatedarethosethathelpindividualsmaintainwork-lifebalance.Work-lifebalanceisjustonepartofthegrowingconcerncompanieshaveabouttheoverallemotionalandphysicalhealthoftheirworkers.Employeeswhoarestressedoutordepressedbecausetheydonotfeelasiftheyaregivingenoughattentiontothenonworkaspectsoftheirlivesultimatelyareunproductive.Moreandmorecompaniesalsoarelearningthatworkersdesiretheopportunitytogrowprofessionallyintheworkplace.HewlettPackardforinstancehasboosteditsemployeeeducationanddevelopmentbudgetby20%.NationwideInsurancebasedinColumbusOhioestablishedacareer-planningwebsitein2003.Thesiteprovidesinformationoncompanyjobopportunitiescareerdevelopmentandanin-housementoringprogram.Nationwidealsoishelpingtoeducateitsemployeesinfinancialmattersacknowledgingthatworkersdistractedbysuchissuesonthejobarenotgivingtheirfullattentiontothecompany’spriorities.Itisaddingclassesandseminarsonpersonalfinanceissuesand401kinvestments.Sometimesperkssimplyareaboutkeepingemployeemoraleelevated.KnowingthatanimprovingeconomymightpromptvaluedemployeestoseeknewopportunitiestheownerofTicketcity.comhaslavishedhisbestperformerswithticketstotheMastersgolftournament锦标赛accesstocountryclubsandinvitationstoamanagementretreatinSedonaAriz.Moreoverevencompaniesthatcannotaffordtoinstitutecostlyperkscanfindwaystomakesurecurrentemployeesarehappy.DougDormanvicepresidentofhumanresourcesfortheGreenvilleS.C.HospitalSystemexplainsthatthereisadefinitesenseofurgencywhenitcomestoemployeeretentionknowingthatlaborshortagesarereturning.Dormannoteshoweverthattheyhavenotfocusedonperksbutratheroncreatingacultureofrecognitionandappreciation.Employeesstaywhentheyhavegoodtwo-waycommunicationwithmanagementandaretrulyappreciatedandrecognizedfortheircontributions./Accordingtothetextthereturnofperksismostlybecause______
Fatigueisoneofthemostcommoncomplaintsbroughttodoctorsfriendsandrelatives.You’dthinkinthiseraoflabor-savingandconvenienttransportationthatfewpeoplewouldhavereasontobesotired.Thecausesofmodern-dayfatiguearediverseandonlyrarelyrelatedtoexcessivephysicalexertion.Todayphysiciansreporttirednessismorelikelyaconsequenceofunderexercisethanofwearingyourselfdownwithoveractivity. Physicalfatigueisthewell-knownresultofoverworkingyourmuscles.46Physicalfatigueisusuallyapleasanttirednesssuchasthatwhichyoumightexperienceafterplayingahardsetoftennischoppingwoodorclimbingamountain.Thecureissimpleandfast:Yourestgivingyourbodyachancetogetridofaccumulatedwasteandrestoremusclefuel. 47Illnessinducedfatigueisawarningsignorconsequenceofsomeunderlyingphysicaldisorderperhapsthecommoncoldorfluorsomethingmoreseriouslikecancerwhileothersymptomsarepresentthatoftensuggestthetruecause.Evenafteranillnesspassedyou’relikelytofeeldraggedoutforaweekormore.48Takeyourfatigueasasignaltogoslowwhileyourbodyhasachancetorecoverfullyevenifallyouhadwasacold.Pushingyourselftoresumefullactivitytoosoonwillcertainlyprolongyourperiodoffatigue. Emotionalproblemsandconflictsespeciallydepressionandanxietyarebyfarthemostcommoncausesofprolongedfatigue.Whensuchfeelingsarenotexpressedopenlytheyoftencomeoutasphysicalsymptomswithfatigueasoneofthemostcommonmanifestations.49Understandingtheunderlyingemotionalproblemisthecrucialfirststeptowardcuringpsychologicalfatigueandbyitselfoftenresultsinconsiderablelesseningofthetiredness.Professionalpsychologicalhelporcareerormarriagecounselingmaybeneeded. Thereisagreatdealyoucandoonyourowntodealwithbothsevereprolongedfatigueandthoseperiodicwashed-outfeelings.Youmighttrytodomoderateexercise.50Contrarytowhatyoumaythinkexerciseenhancesratherthandrainsengeryandhelpsyoutoresistfatiguebyincreasingyourbody’sabilitytohandlemoreofaworkload.Attheendofadayexercisecanrelieveaccumulatedtensionsgiveyoumoreenergyintheeveningandhelpyousleepmorerestfully. Understandingtheunderlyingemotionalproblemisthecrucialfirststeptowardcuringpsychologicalfatigueandbyitselfoftenresultsinconsiderablelesseningofthetiredness
[A]Generallyhowevermodernexaminationsarewritten.Twotypesoftestsarecommonlyusedinmodernschools.Thefirsttypeissometimescalledan"objective"test.Itisintendedtodealwithfactsnotpersonalopinions.Tomakeupanobjectivetesttheteacherwritesaseriesofquestioneachofwhichhasonlyonecorrectanswer.AlongwitheachquestiontheteacherwritesthecorrectanswerandalsothreestatementsthatlooklikeanswerstostudentswhohavenotlearnedthematerialproperlyThestudenthasjustonetask:hemustrecognizethecorrectanswerandcopyitsletterornumberonhisexaminationpaper. [B]Foraclearerpictureofwhatthestudentknowsmostteachersuseanotherkindofexaminationinadditiontoobjectivetests.Theyuse"essay"testswhichrequirestudentstowritelonganswerstobroadgeneralquestionssuchasthefollowing:MentionseveralwaysinwhichMahatmaGandhihasinfluencedthethinkingofpeopleinhisowncountryandinotherpartsoftheworld. [C]Whetheranobjectivetestoranessaytestisusedproblemsarise.Whensomeobjectivequestionsareusedalongwithsomeessayquestionshoweverafairlyclearpictureofthestudent’sknowledgecanusuallybeobtained. [D]Fortestingastudent’smemoryoffactsanddetailstheobjectivetesthasadvantages.Itcanbescoredveryquicklybytheteacherorevenbyamachine.Inashorttimetheteachercanfindoutagreatdealaboutthestudent’srangeofknowledge.Fortestingsomekindsoflearninghoweversuchatestisnotverysatisfactory.Aluckystudentmayguessthecorrectanswerwithoutreallyknowingthematerial. [E]Inancienttimesthemostimportantexaminationswerespokennotwritten.IntheschoolsofancientGreeceandRometestingusuallyconsistedofsayingpoetryaloudorgivingspeeches.IntheEuropeanuniversitiesoftheMiddleAgesstudentswhowereworkingforadvanceddegreeshadtodiscussquestionsintheirfieldofstudywithpeoplewhohadmadeaspecialstudyofthesubject.Thiscustomexiststodayaspartoftheprocessoftestingcandidatesfordoctor’sdegree. [F]Oneadvantageoftheessaytestisthatitreducestheelementofluck.Thestudentcannotgetahighscorejustbymakingaluckyguess.Anotheradvantageisthatitshowstheexaminermoreaboutthestudent’sabilitytoputfactstogetherintoameaningfulwhole.Itshouldshowhowdeeplyhehasthoughtaboutthesubject.Sometimesthoughessaytestshavedisadvantagestoo.Somestudentsareabletowritegoodanswerswithoutreallyknowingmuchaboutthesubjectwhileotherstudentswhoactuallyknowthematerialhavetroubleexpressingtheirideasinessayform. [G]Besidesonanessaytestthestudent’sscoremaydependupontheexaminer’sfeelingsatthetimeofreadingtheanswer.Ifheisfeelingtiredorboredthestudentmayreceivealowerscorethanheshould.Anotherexaminerreadingthesameanswermightgiveitamuchhighermark.Fromthisstandpointtheobjectivetestgiveseachstudentafairerchanceandofcourseitiseasierandquickertoscore. 45
StartingwithhisreviewofSkinner’sVerbalBehaviorNoamChomskyhadledthepsycholinguistswhoarguethatmanhasdevelopedaninnate天生的capacityfordealingwiththelinguisticuniversalscommontoalllanguages.Experienceandlearningthenprovideonlyinformationaboutthe1instancesofthoseuniversalaspectsoflanguagewhichareneededtocommunicatewithotherpeoplewithinaparticularlanguage2. Thislinguisticapproach3theviewthatlanguageisbuiltuponlearnedassociationsbetweenwords.Whatislearnedisnotstringsofwordsperse本身but4rulesthatenableaspeakerto5aninfinitevarietyofnovelsentences.6singlewordsarelearnedasconcepts:theydonotstandinaone-to-one7withtheparticularthingsignifiedbut8allmembersofageneralclass. Thisviewoftheinnateaspectoflanguagelearningisatfirstnotreadily9intoexistingpsychologicalframeworksand10achallengethathasstimulatedmuchthoughtandnewresearchdirections.Chomskyarguesthatapreconditionforlanguagedevelopmentistheexistenceofcertainprinciples"intrinsic原有的tothemind"thatprovideinvariantstructures11perceivinglearningandthinking.Language12alloftheseprocesses;thusitsstudy13ourtheoriesofknowledgeingeneral. Basictothismodeloflanguageisthenotionthatachild’slearningoflanguageisakindoftheory14.It’sthoughttobeaccomplished15explicitinstruction16ofintelligencelevelatanearlyagewhenheisnotcapableofothercomplex17ormotorachievementsandwithrelativelylittlereliabledatatogoon.18thechildconstructsatheoryofanideallanguagewhichhasbroad19power.Chomskyarguesthatallchildrencouldnotdevelopthesamebasictheory20itnotfortheinnateexistenceofpropertiesofmentalorganizationwhichlimitthepossiblepropertiesoflanguages. Readtilefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCandDonANSWERSHEET1.10points7
Ananalysisofworkplacetrendsshowsthatemployeeperksareliableindicatorofjobmarketstrengtharebeginningtomakeacomeback.WhilenotasExtravagantasthoseofferedinthelate1990scompaniesclearlyareshiftingtheirfocusfromworkforcereductiontoworkforceretention.Firmsrealizethattheyrequireafoundationofexperiencedtrainedandmotivatedworkers.Theseemployersareimprovingand/oraddingperkstopreventanexodusofworkersthatcouldoccurastheeconomycontinuesimproving.Theyalsomaybelookingfurtherdowntheroadwhenseverelaborshortagesareexpectedtoreturn.Ananalysisofperksofferedintoday’sworkplaceshowsthatmanyofthe1990s-stylebenefitssuchasgameroomsandluxurycarleaseshavebeenabandoned.Theperksthatremainpopularwithemployersandemployeesarethosethathelpworkersstayhealthycareerfocusedandfinanciallystable.Perhapsthemostappreciatedarethosethathelpindividualsmaintainwork-lifebalance.Work-lifebalanceisjustonepartofthegrowingconcerncompanieshaveabouttheoverallemotionalandphysicalhealthoftheirworkers.Employeeswhoarestressedoutordepressedbecausetheydonotfeelasiftheyaregivingenoughattentiontothenonworkaspectsoftheirlivesultimatelyareunproductive.Moreandmorecompaniesalsoarelearningthatworkersdesiretheopportunitytogrowprofessionallyintheworkplace.HewlettPackardforinstancehasboosteditsemployeeeducationanddevelopmentbudgetby20%.NationwideInsurancebasedinColumbusOhioestablishedacareer-planningwebsitein2003.Thesiteprovidesinformationoncompanyjobopportunitiescareerdevelopmentandanin-housementoringprogram.Nationwidealsoishelpingtoeducateitsemployeesinfinancialmattersacknowledgingthatworkersdistractedbysuchissuesonthejobarenotgivingtheirfullattentiontothecompany’spriorities.Itisaddingclassesandseminarsonpersonalfinanceissuesand401kinvestments.Sometimesperkssimplyareaboutkeepingemployeemoraleelevated.KnowingthatanimprovingeconomymightpromptvaluedemployeestoseeknewopportunitiestheownerofTicketcity.comhaslavishedhisbestperformerswithticketstotheMastersgolftournament锦标赛accesstocountryclubsandinvitationstoamanagementretreatinSedonaAriz.Moreoverevencompaniesthatcannotaffordtoinstitutecostlyperkscanfindwaystomakesurecurrentemployeesarehappy.DougDormanvicepresidentofhumanresourcesfortheGreenvilleS.C.HospitalSystemexplainsthatthereisadefinitesenseofurgencywhenitcomestoemployeeretentionknowingthatlaborshortagesarereturning.Dormannoteshoweverthattheyhavenotfocusedonperksbutratheroncreatingacultureofrecognitionandappreciation.Employeesstaywhentheyhavegoodtwo-waycommunicationwithmanagementandaretrulyappreciatedandrecognizedfortheircontributions./Whichofthefollowingisnotthereasonwhycompanieshavebeguntoshifttheirattentionontheretentionofworkforce
Directions:Themunicipalgovernmentisgoingtoholdatwo-dayinternationalfinancialsummitatthiscomingweekend.Duringtheweekendtrafficaroundthemeetingsitewillbedirectedandcontrolled.WriteanoticeonbehalfoftheTrafficControlBureauunderthePublicTransportationDepartmentoftileMunicipalGovernmenttopublicizethisinformation.Youareexpectedtoimaginesomespecificmeasuresoftrafficcontrol.Writethenoticeinnolessthan100words.WriteitneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.10points
TheFederalCommunicationsCommissionisnotaloneinworryingabouttelevisionstationsthataircorporateadvertisementsmasqueradingasnewsstories.InfacttheFCCrequiresthatbroadcaststationsdisclosethecorporatebackersofvideonewsreleasesorfaceamaximumfineof$32500foreachviolation.Enoughviolationsandastationcouldloseitslicense.TheFCCsetsoutaclearpolicy:Alloutsidenewsreportingmustbeidentifieddisclosingthesourceofanyvideonewsreleaseairedonanewsprogram.Thereareoccasionaldeclines.AnonprofitconsumerwatchdoggroupreportedtotheFCCthat77stationsbroadcastvideofeaturesaboutproductsfrom49companieswithoutpointingoutthattheywereproducedbypublicrelationsfirmsrepresentingthesecorporations.Publicrelationsfirmshaveonegoal:tomaketheirvideonewsreleaseslookasiftheyarelegitimatenewsreportsnotpropaganda.HoweverPR-producedvideonewsreleasesmerelyarethetipoftheiceberg.Eversincenewspapersbeganspecial-interestgroupshavetriedtoinfluencethequalityandquantityofthenewsprinted.Ofteninexchangeforadvertisingrevenuenewspaperswouldprintglowingstoriesoftheirsponsorsandsuppressanynewsthatmighthurttheirheavyadvertisers.Thosewithouttheabilitytoinformthepresseitherthroughnewsreleasesorcontactsusuallyareignoredunlesstheycommitacrimeoractinattention-gettingways.Formostofthe20thcenturywomenandpeopleofcolorfounditalmostimpossibletobreakthespecial-interestnewsbarriers.Theirstorieswereignoredunlesstherewasasensationaloruniqueelement.Usuallythoughitemsconcerningtheseminoritiesrequiredanenormouswrongdoingsuchasthemurderofsomeoneinthewhitecommunityorsomeattackonthestatusquothatthreatenedthepeaceandquietaswellastheproductivityofaneighborhood.Therehavebeensplendidexceptionsbutnotmany.OnereasontheHispanicnewsmediahasbeensosuccessfulisthatitcaterstoitsaudienceinthesamemannerallmediadoes.Whileitsbiasmayseemdifferentitactuallyisthesamebiasallmediahas:anoverwhelmingconcerntokeepitssupportershappy.SowhilethehueandcryoverPR-createdvideonewsreleasesarewellandgoodtheyreallydonotattacktheproblemofbiasednewsandappealstoaspecificgroupthatsharesthesameprejudicesandconcernsaboutthepresentandfuture.AllofthisisonekeyreasonAmericanssooftenaresurprisedwhenthenewsoutletsareforcedtoreportstoriesthatdonotpleaseadvertisersorconsumers.Bettertocontinuewhenpossibleasteadysupplyofnewsaboutthelatestcelebritybabyoryetanotherpieceaboutsexoffendersorrestauranthealthviolations.TelevisionstationsintheU.S.areNOTallowedtobroadcastprogramsof______
Manypeopleareconcernedabouttheeconomicconditionofdevelopingcountries—countrieswhoseaveragepercapitaGNPisafractionofthatinmoreindustrializedcountries.Howeverforthedevelopingcountriesthereexistmanyobstaclestotheireconomicdevelopment. Onemajorobstacletoeconomicdevelopmentispopulationgrowth.46Thepopulationsofmostdevelopingcountriesgrowataratemuchfasterthanthoseofindustrializedcountriesandthepopulationofsomeofthemissolargethatthereisbarelyenoughfertilelandandotherresourcestosupportit.Manylessdevelopedcountriesdependextensivelyonagricultureaddingtotheproblem.Inthesecountriesanincentivetohavemanychildrenexists.47Mostfarmsareworkedbyfamiliesandchildrencanworkinthefieldsatanearlyagebecausemostfarmersbelievethatmorechildrenmeansmoreworkers.Inadditionhavingmanychildrenensurestheparentsthatsomeonewilllookafterthemintheiroldage. Anotherproblemfordevelopingcountriesisincreasingaveragelifeexpectancy—theaverageremaininglifetimeforpersonswhoreachacertainage.Bettereducationinternationalaidandemphasisonhealth-carefacilitieshelppeoplelivelonger.AhighlifeexpectancycoupledwithahighcrudebirthratemakesitdifficulttoincreasepercapitaGNP. Anotherobstacletoeconomicgrowthislimitednaturalresources.Nocountrycandevelopbeyonditsresourcepotential.Unproductivelandoraharshclimatecanlimiteconomicgrowth.48Somecountriesmaybefortunateenoughtodiscoveravaluablemineraltofinancetheireconomicdevelopmentbutmostfocusonagricultureandasaresulttheireconomicgrowthishinderedbytheshortageofnaturalresourcesorenergysourcesneededforindustry. Stillanotherobstacletoeconomicdevelopmentisalackofappropriateeducationandtechnology.Anydevelopingcountriesdonothaveahighlyliteratepopulationorthehighleveloftechnicalskillsneededtobuildanindustrialsociety.Inadditionmostdonothavemoneytotrainengineersandscientists.49Manydevelopingcountriescannotevenaffordtoprovidefreepubliceducationforschool-agechildrenandinthosethatcannoteverychildisabletotakeadvantageofitbecausemostofthemhavetoworktohelpfeedtheirfamilies.Asaresultmuchofthepopulationmaynothavethebasicskillsneededtocontinuewithhighereducationwhenitisoffered. Governmentalsocanbeanobstacletoeconomicdevelopment.Acountrywhosegovernmentoftenchangeswillhaveahardtimedevelopingeconomically.Suchconstantchangesimpedelong-termplanning.50Economicdevelopmentismadeevenmoredifficultifthepoliticalchangesoccurthroughviolentrevolutionwhereindustrialfacilitiesmaybedestroyed. 49
Fatigueisoneofthemostcommoncomplaintsbroughttodoctorsfriendsandrelatives.You’dthinkinthiseraoflabor-savingandconvenienttransportationthatfewpeoplewouldhavereasontobesotired.Thecausesofmodern-dayfatiguearediverseandonlyrarelyrelatedtoexcessivephysicalexertion.Todayphysiciansreporttirednessismorelikelyaconsequenceofunderexercisethanofwearingyourselfdownwithoveractivity. Physicalfatigueisthewell-knownresultofoverworkingyourmuscles.46Physicalfatigueisusuallyapleasanttirednesssuchasthatwhichyoumightexperienceafterplayingahardsetoftennischoppingwoodorclimbingamountain.Thecureissimpleandfast:Yourestgivingyourbodyachancetogetridofaccumulatedwasteandrestoremusclefuel. 47Illnessinducedfatigueisawarningsignorconsequenceofsomeunderlyingphysicaldisorderperhapsthecommoncoldorfluorsomethingmoreseriouslikecancerwhileothersymptomsarepresentthatoftensuggestthetruecause.Evenafteranillnesspassedyou’relikelytofeeldraggedoutforaweekormore.48Takeyourfatigueasasignaltogoslowwhileyourbodyhasachancetorecoverfullyevenifallyouhadwasacold.Pushingyourselftoresumefullactivitytoosoonwillcertainlyprolongyourperiodoffatigue. Emotionalproblemsandconflictsespeciallydepressionandanxietyarebyfarthemostcommoncausesofprolongedfatigue.Whensuchfeelingsarenotexpressedopenlytheyoftencomeoutasphysicalsymptomswithfatigueasoneofthemostcommonmanifestations.49Understandingtheunderlyingemotionalproblemisthecrucialfirststeptowardcuringpsychologicalfatigueandbyitselfoftenresultsinconsiderablelesseningofthetiredness.Professionalpsychologicalhelporcareerormarriagecounselingmaybeneeded. Thereisagreatdealyoucandoonyourowntodealwithbothsevereprolongedfatigueandthoseperiodicwashed-outfeelings.Youmighttrytodomoderateexercise.50Contrarytowhatyoumaythinkexerciseenhancesratherthandrainsengeryandhelpsyoutoresistfatiguebyincreasingyourbody’sabilitytohandlemoreofaworkload.Attheendofadayexercisecanrelieveaccumulatedtensionsgiveyoumoreenergyintheeveningandhelpyousleepmorerestfully. Illnessinducedfatigueisawarningsignorconsequenceofsomeunderlyingphysicaldisorderperhapsthecommoncoldorfluorsomethingmoreseriouslikecancerwhileothersymptomsarepresentthatoftensuggestthetruecause.
PresidentBushhasonceagainstartedspeakingoutforcomprehensiveimmigrationreformandadraftplantorallyRepublicansenatorsontheissueiscirculatingjustasCongressionalhearingsontheissueapproach.MembersofCongressrecognizethatvotersarelookingforrealreformthatrestsonresoluteeffectiveenforcementofourimmigrationlaws.Theonlyseriouslegislativeproposalonthetableofferssuchenforcementbecauseitfocusesonmakingemployersaccountablefortheirhiringpractices.Tothatendthebillincorporateslessonslearnedfromthelargestimmigrationenforcementoperationeverundertaken.LastDecemberDepartmentofHomelandSecurityagentsdescendedonmeatprocessingplantsrunbySwirl&Companyinsixstatesarrestingmorethan1200unauthorizedworkers.ThearrestswereastonishingbecauseSwiftparticipatesinBasicPilotavoluntaryDepartmentofHomelandSecurityprogramthatallowsemployerstoelectronicallyverifytheworkeligibilityofnewlyhiredworkersagainstdepartmentandSocialSecuritydatabases.Theprogramisseenastheprecursorforaverificationsystemthatwouldbecomemandatorywithcomprehensiveimmigrationreform.SinceSwirlwasusingthedepartment’ssystemhowdiditendupwithillegalworkersTheBasicPilotprogramhasafatalflawwhichisthatitrequiresonlyelectronicverificationofemploymentqualification.Aneffectiveprogramshouldalsoinsistontamper-proofidentificationdocumentsforjob-seekersincorporatingbiometricslikedigitalphotographsandfingerprintstoproveidentity.Onlythenwoulditbepossibletoestablishnotonlythatjobapplicantsareauthorizedtoworkbutalsothattheyarewhotheysaytheyare.OtherwisevalidSocialSecuritynumberscanbepresentedtoemployersandBasicPilotwillverifythembutthenumbersmaynotbelongtotheworkerswhopresentthem.ToinsistonsecuredocumentswithbiometricidentifiersisnotacallforanationalID.Greencardstemporaryworkpermitsandpassportsaresecureandreliableforhiringpurposes.AddingSocialSecuritycardstothislistestablishingasinglestandardfortheirsecurityfeaturesandreplacingoldcardsoveradesignatedperiodwouldresolvetheproblemonanationalscale.Onlythenwouldemployersbeabletocomplyreliablywithverificationrequirementsasthebasisforsoundenforcementandbyextensionbordercontrol.LegalimmigrantsandAmericancitizenscouldprovetheiridentitiesandqualificationstoworkwithoutfacingdiscriminationbasedonappearanceorlanguage.Scarceenforcementresourcescouldbespentonapprehendingrealcriminalsandaddressingnationalsecuritythreats.Andanewsystemofenforcementwouldatlasthaveachancetowinbackpublicconfidenceinthenation’simmigrationpolicies.Aftermorethan20yearsoffailedeffortsCongressmustnotbakehalfaloaf.SecurebiometricSocialSecuritycardsareanessentialingredientinanycomprehensiveimmigrationreform.Intheauthor’sopinionwhichofthefollowingisthebestwayforaUScitizentobejudged
Eventheirparentsstruggletodrawthetiniesthintofemotionorsocialconnectionfromautistic患孤独症的childrensoimaginewhathappenswhenastrangersitswiththechildforhourstogetthroughthestandardIQtest.For10ofthetest’s12sectionsthechildmustlistenandrespondtospokenquestions.Sinceformanyautisticsitistorturetotrytoengagewithsomeoneevenonthisimpersonallevelit’snowondersomanywindupwithIQscoresjustaboveacarrot’s.Morepreciselyfullythreequartersofautisticsareclassifiedashavingbelow-normalintelligencewithmanydeemedmentallyretarded.ResearchershavetriedadifferentIQtestonethatrequiresnosocialinteraction.AstheyreportinthejournalPsychologicalScienceautisticchildren’sscorescameoutstarklydifferentthanontheoralinteractiveIQtest—suggestingaburningintelligenceinsidethesekidsthateducatorsarefailingtouncover.ForthestudychildrentooktwoIQtests.InthemorewidelyusedWechslertheytriedtoarrangeandcompletepicturesdosimplearithmeticdemonstratevocabularycomprehensionandanswerquestions—almostallinresponsetoastranger’squestions.IntheRaven’sProgressiveMatricestesttheygotbriefinstructionsthenwentoffontheirowntoanalyzethree-by-threearraysofgeometricdesignswithonemissingandchoosethedesignthatbelongedintheemptyplace.Thedisparityinscoreswasstriking.Overalltheautisticsscoredaroundthe30thpercentileontheWechslerwhichcorrespondstolowaverageIQ.Buttheyaveragedinthe56thpercentileontheRaven’s.notasingleautisticchildscoredinthehighintelligencerangeontheWechsler;ontheRaven’sonethirddid.Healthychildrenshowednosuchdisparity.Thatpresentsapuzzle.IfmanyautisticsarcmoreintelligentthananIQtestshowswhyhaven’ttheirparentsnoticedPartlybecausemanyparentswelcomealowscorewhichbringstheirchildmorespecialservicesfromschoolsandpublicagencies.Butanotherforceisatwork.Weoftenthinkofintelligenceaswhatyoucanshowsuchasbyspeakingfluentlysaysapsychologist.Parentsaswellasprofessionalsmightbebiasedtolookatthatratherthandigforthehiddenintellectualspark.Thechallengeistocoaxthatsparkintothekindofintelligencethatmanifestsitselfinpractice.Thatissomethingautismresearchersarefarfromdoing.Manyexpertsdismissautistics’exceptionalreadingartisticorotherabilitiesassideeffectsofabnormalbrainfunction.Theyadviseparentstosteertheirchildawayfromwhatheexcelsatandobsessesoverandtowardwhathestruggleswith.Itmakesyouwonderhowmanyotherchildrenwhoseintellectualpotentialwe’retooblindtoseewe’vealsogivenupon.Whichofthefollowingconflictswithwhatthetextconveys
StartingwithhisreviewofSkinner’sVerbalBehaviorNoamChomskyhadledthepsycholinguistswhoarguethatmanhasdevelopedaninnate天生的capacityfordealingwiththelinguisticuniversalscommontoalllanguages.Experienceandlearningthenprovideonlyinformationaboutthe1instancesofthoseuniversalaspectsoflanguagewhichareneededtocommunicatewithotherpeoplewithinaparticularlanguage2. Thislinguisticapproach3theviewthatlanguageisbuiltuponlearnedassociationsbetweenwords.Whatislearnedisnotstringsofwordsperse本身but4rulesthatenableaspeakerto5aninfinitevarietyofnovelsentences.6singlewordsarelearnedasconcepts:theydonotstandinaone-to-one7withtheparticularthingsignifiedbut8allmembersofageneralclass. Thisviewoftheinnateaspectoflanguagelearningisatfirstnotreadily9intoexistingpsychologicalframeworksand10achallengethathasstimulatedmuchthoughtandnewresearchdirections.Chomskyarguesthatapreconditionforlanguagedevelopmentistheexistenceofcertainprinciples"intrinsic原有的tothemind"thatprovideinvariantstructures11perceivinglearningandthinking.Language12alloftheseprocesses;thusitsstudy13ourtheoriesofknowledgeingeneral. Basictothismodeloflanguageisthenotionthatachild’slearningoflanguageisakindoftheory14.It’sthoughttobeaccomplished15explicitinstruction16ofintelligencelevelatanearlyagewhenheisnotcapableofothercomplex17ormotorachievementsandwithrelativelylittlereliabledatatogoon.18thechildconstructsatheoryofanideallanguagewhichhasbroad19power.Chomskyarguesthatallchildrencouldnotdevelopthesamebasictheory20itnotfortheinnateexistenceofpropertiesofmentalorganizationwhichlimitthepossiblepropertiesoflanguages. Readtilefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCandDonANSWERSHEET1.10points11
StartingwithhisreviewofSkinner’sVerbalBehaviorNoamChomskyhadledthepsycholinguistswhoarguethatmanhasdevelopedaninnate天生的capacityfordealingwiththelinguisticuniversalscommontoalllanguages.Experienceandlearningthenprovideonlyinformationaboutthe1instancesofthoseuniversalaspectsoflanguagewhichareneededtocommunicatewithotherpeoplewithinaparticularlanguage2. Thislinguisticapproach3theviewthatlanguageisbuiltuponlearnedassociationsbetweenwords.Whatislearnedisnotstringsofwordsperse本身but4rulesthatenableaspeakerto5aninfinitevarietyofnovelsentences.6singlewordsarelearnedasconcepts:theydonotstandinaone-to-one7withtheparticularthingsignifiedbut8allmembersofageneralclass. Thisviewoftheinnateaspectoflanguagelearningisatfirstnotreadily9intoexistingpsychologicalframeworksand10achallengethathasstimulatedmuchthoughtandnewresearchdirections.Chomskyarguesthatapreconditionforlanguagedevelopmentistheexistenceofcertainprinciples"intrinsic原有的tothemind"thatprovideinvariantstructures11perceivinglearningandthinking.Language12alloftheseprocesses;thusitsstudy13ourtheoriesofknowledgeingeneral. Basictothismodeloflanguageisthenotionthatachild’slearningoflanguageisakindoftheory14.It’sthoughttobeaccomplished15explicitinstruction16ofintelligencelevelatanearlyagewhenheisnotcapableofothercomplex17ormotorachievementsandwithrelativelylittlereliabledatatogoon.18thechildconstructsatheoryofanideallanguagewhichhasbroad19power.Chomskyarguesthatallchildrencouldnotdevelopthesamebasictheory20itnotfortheinnateexistenceofpropertiesofmentalorganizationwhichlimitthepossiblepropertiesoflanguages. Readtilefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCandDonANSWERSHEET1.10points17
StartingwithhisreviewofSkinner’sVerbalBehaviorNoamChomskyhadledthepsycholinguistswhoarguethatmanhasdevelopedaninnate天生的capacityfordealingwiththelinguisticuniversalscommontoalllanguages.Experienceandlearningthenprovideonlyinformationaboutthe1instancesofthoseuniversalaspectsoflanguagewhichareneededtocommunicatewithotherpeoplewithinaparticularlanguage2. Thislinguisticapproach3theviewthatlanguageisbuiltuponlearnedassociationsbetweenwords.Whatislearnedisnotstringsofwordsperse本身but4rulesthatenableaspeakerto5aninfinitevarietyofnovelsentences.6singlewordsarelearnedasconcepts:theydonotstandinaone-to-one7withtheparticularthingsignifiedbut8allmembersofageneralclass. Thisviewoftheinnateaspectoflanguagelearningisatfirstnotreadily9intoexistingpsychologicalframeworksand10achallengethathasstimulatedmuchthoughtandnewresearchdirections.Chomskyarguesthatapreconditionforlanguagedevelopmentistheexistenceofcertainprinciples"intrinsic原有的tothemind"thatprovideinvariantstructures11perceivinglearningandthinking.Language12alloftheseprocesses;thusitsstudy13ourtheoriesofknowledgeingeneral. Basictothismodeloflanguageisthenotionthatachild’slearningoflanguageisakindoftheory14.It’sthoughttobeaccomplished15explicitinstruction16ofintelligencelevelatanearlyagewhenheisnotcapableofothercomplex17ormotorachievementsandwithrelativelylittlereliabledatatogoon.18thechildconstructsatheoryofanideallanguagewhichhasbroad19power.Chomskyarguesthatallchildrencouldnotdevelopthesamebasictheory20itnotfortheinnateexistenceofpropertiesofmentalorganizationwhichlimitthepossiblepropertiesoflanguages. Readtilefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCandDonANSWERSHEET1.10points9
StartingwithhisreviewofSkinner’sVerbalBehaviorNoamChomskyhadledthepsycholinguistswhoarguethatmanhasdevelopedaninnate天生的capacityfordealingwiththelinguisticuniversalscommontoalllanguages.Experienceandlearningthenprovideonlyinformationaboutthe1instancesofthoseuniversalaspectsoflanguagewhichareneededtocommunicatewithotherpeoplewithinaparticularlanguage2. Thislinguisticapproach3theviewthatlanguageisbuiltuponlearnedassociationsbetweenwords.Whatislearnedisnotstringsofwordsperse本身but4rulesthatenableaspeakerto5aninfinitevarietyofnovelsentences.6singlewordsarelearnedasconcepts:theydonotstandinaone-to-one7withtheparticularthingsignifiedbut8allmembersofageneralclass. Thisviewoftheinnateaspectoflanguagelearningisatfirstnotreadily9intoexistingpsychologicalframeworksand10achallengethathasstimulatedmuchthoughtandnewresearchdirections.Chomskyarguesthatapreconditionforlanguagedevelopmentistheexistenceofcertainprinciples"intrinsic原有的tothemind"thatprovideinvariantstructures11perceivinglearningandthinking.Language12alloftheseprocesses;thusitsstudy13ourtheoriesofknowledgeingeneral. Basictothismodeloflanguageisthenotionthatachild’slearningoflanguageisakindoftheory14.It’sthoughttobeaccomplished15explicitinstruction16ofintelligencelevelatanearlyagewhenheisnotcapableofothercomplex17ormotorachievementsandwithrelativelylittlereliabledatatogoon.18thechildconstructsatheoryofanideallanguagewhichhasbroad19power.Chomskyarguesthatallchildrencouldnotdevelopthesamebasictheory20itnotfortheinnateexistenceofpropertiesofmentalorganizationwhichlimitthepossiblepropertiesoflanguages. Readtilefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCandDonANSWERSHEET1.10points3
StartingwithhisreviewofSkinner’sVerbalBehaviorNoamChomskyhadledthepsycholinguistswhoarguethatmanhasdevelopedaninnate天生的capacityfordealingwiththelinguisticuniversalscommontoalllanguages.Experienceandlearningthenprovideonlyinformationaboutthe1instancesofthoseuniversalaspectsoflanguagewhichareneededtocommunicatewithotherpeoplewithinaparticularlanguage2. Thislinguisticapproach3theviewthatlanguageisbuiltuponlearnedassociationsbetweenwords.Whatislearnedisnotstringsofwordsperse本身but4rulesthatenableaspeakerto5aninfinitevarietyofnovelsentences.6singlewordsarelearnedasconcepts:theydonotstandinaone-to-one7withtheparticularthingsignifiedbut8allmembersofageneralclass. Thisviewoftheinnateaspectoflanguagelearningisatfirstnotreadily9intoexistingpsychologicalframeworksand10achallengethathasstimulatedmuchthoughtandnewresearchdirections.Chomskyarguesthatapreconditionforlanguagedevelopmentistheexistenceofcertainprinciples"intrinsic原有的tothemind"thatprovideinvariantstructures11perceivinglearningandthinking.Language12alloftheseprocesses;thusitsstudy13ourtheoriesofknowledgeingeneral. Basictothismodeloflanguageisthenotionthatachild’slearningoflanguageisakindoftheory14.It’sthoughttobeaccomplished15explicitinstruction16ofintelligencelevelatanearlyagewhenheisnotcapableofothercomplex17ormotorachievementsandwithrelativelylittlereliabledatatogoon.18thechildconstructsatheoryofanideallanguagewhichhasbroad19power.Chomskyarguesthatallchildrencouldnotdevelopthesamebasictheory20itnotfortheinnateexistenceofpropertiesofmentalorganizationwhichlimitthepossiblepropertiesoflanguages. Readtilefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCandDonANSWERSHEET1.10points19
Wemightmarvelattheprocessmadeineveryfieldofstudybutthemethodoftestingaperson’sknowledgeandabilityremainasprimitiveasevertheywere.Itreallyisextraordinarythatafteralltheseyearseducationistshavestillfailedtodeviseanythingmoreefficientandreliablethanexaminations. 41.______ Theymaybeagoodmeansoftestingmemoryortheknackofworkingrapidlyunderextremepressurebuttheycantellyounothingaboutaperson’strueabilityandaptitude. 42.______ Yourwholefuturemaybedecidedinonefatefulday.Itdoesn’tmatterthatyouweren’tfeelingverywellorthatyourmotherdied.Littlethingslikethatdon’tcount:theexamgoeson.noonecangiveofhisbestwhenheisinmortalterrororafterasleeplessnightyetthisispreciselywhattheexaminationsystemexpectshimtodo.Themomentachildbeginsschoolheentersaworldofviciouscompetitionwheresuccessandfailureareclearlydefinedandmeasured.Canwewonderattheincreasingnumberof"dropouts":youngpeoplewhoarewrittenoffasutterfailuresbeforetheyhaveevenembarkedonacareerCanwebesurprisedatthesuiciderateamongstudents 43.______ Examinationsdonotmotivateastudenttoreadwidelybuttorestricthisreading;theydonotenablehimtoseekmoreandmoreknowledgebutinducecramming.Theylowerthestandardsofteachingfortheydeprivetheteacherofallfreedom.Teachersthemselvesareoftenjudgedbyexaminationresultsandinsteadofteachingtheirsubjectstheyarereducedtotrainingtheirstudentsinexamtechniqueswhichtheydespise.Themostsuccessfulcandidatesarenotalwaysthebesteducated;theyarebesttrainedinthetechniqueofworkingunderduress. 44.______ Examinersareonlyhuman.Theygettriedandhungry;theymakemistakes.Yettheyhavetomarkstacksofhastilyscrawledscriptsinalimitedamountoftime.Theyworkunderthesamesortofpressureasthecandidates.Andtheirwordcarriesweight.Afterajudge’sdecisionyouhavetherightofappealbutnotafteranexaminer’s. 45.______ IsitcynicaltosuggestthatexaminationsaremerelyaprofitablebusinessfortheinstitutionsthatrunthemThisiswhatitboilsdowntointhelastanalysis.Thebestcommentonthesystemisthisilliteratemessagerecentlyscrawledonawall:"Iwereateenagedrop-outandnowIamateenagemillionaire." [A]Agoodeducationshouldamongotherthingstrainyoutothinkforyourself.Theexaminationsystemdoesanythingbutthat.Whathastobelearntisrigidlylaiddownbyasyllabussothestudentsareencouragedtomemorize. [B]Theresultsonwhichsomuchdependsareoftennothingmorethanasubjectiveassessmentbysomeanonymousexaminer. [C]Examinationscanbetakenasatestofastudent’sknowledgeaboutaparticularsubjectwhichwouldtellthestudentwherehestandsamongothersandhowmuchheknowsandhowmuchheoughttoknow. [D]Asanxiety-makersexaminationsaresecondtonone.Thatisbecausesomuchdependsonthem.Theyarethemarkofsuccessorfailureinoursociety. [E]Thestudentappearingfortheexamtakesitunderextremetensionandpressurebecauseheknowsthathehasonlyonechancetoprovehisworthandifhefailshewillbeleftbehindfortherestofhislife. [F]Forallthepiousclaimthatexaminationstestwhatyouknowitiscommonknowledgethattheymoreoftendotheexactopposite. [G]Theremustsurelybemanysimplerandmoreeffectivewaysofassessingaperson’strueabilities. 45
Eventheirparentsstruggletodrawthetiniesthintofemotionorsocialconnectionfromautistic患孤独症的childrensoimaginewhathappenswhenastrangersitswiththechildforhourstogetthroughthestandardIQtest.For10ofthetest’s12sectionsthechildmustlistenandrespondtospokenquestions.Sinceformanyautisticsitistorturetotrytoengagewithsomeoneevenonthisimpersonallevelit’snowondersomanywindupwithIQscoresjustaboveacarrot’s.Morepreciselyfullythreequartersofautisticsareclassifiedashavingbelow-normalintelligencewithmanydeemedmentallyretarded.ResearchershavetriedadifferentIQtestonethatrequiresnosocialinteraction.AstheyreportinthejournalPsychologicalScienceautisticchildren’sscorescameoutstarklydifferentthanontheoralinteractiveIQtest—suggestingaburningintelligenceinsidethesekidsthateducatorsarefailingtouncover.ForthestudychildrentooktwoIQtests.InthemorewidelyusedWechslertheytriedtoarrangeandcompletepicturesdosimplearithmeticdemonstratevocabularycomprehensionandanswerquestions—almostallinresponsetoastranger’squestions.IntheRaven’sProgressiveMatricestesttheygotbriefinstructionsthenwentoffontheirowntoanalyzethree-by-threearraysofgeometricdesignswithonemissingandchoosethedesignthatbelongedintheemptyplace.Thedisparityinscoreswasstriking.Overalltheautisticsscoredaroundthe30thpercentileontheWechslerwhichcorrespondstolowaverageIQ.Buttheyaveragedinthe56thpercentileontheRaven’s.notasingleautisticchildscoredinthehighintelligencerangeontheWechsler;ontheRaven’sonethirddid.Healthychildrenshowednosuchdisparity.Thatpresentsapuzzle.IfmanyautisticsarcmoreintelligentthananIQtestshowswhyhaven’ttheirparentsnoticedPartlybecausemanyparentswelcomealowscorewhichbringstheirchildmorespecialservicesfromschoolsandpublicagencies.Butanotherforceisatwork.Weoftenthinkofintelligenceaswhatyoucanshowsuchasbyspeakingfluentlysaysapsychologist.Parentsaswellasprofessionalsmightbebiasedtolookatthatratherthandigforthehiddenintellectualspark.Thechallengeistocoaxthatsparkintothekindofintelligencethatmanifestsitselfinpractice.Thatissomethingautismresearchersarefarfromdoing.Manyexpertsdismissautistics’exceptionalreadingartisticorotherabilitiesassideeffectsofabnormalbrainfunction.Theyadviseparentstosteertheirchildawayfromwhatheexcelsatandobsessesoverandtowardwhathestruggleswith.Itmakesyouwonderhowmanyotherchildrenwhoseintellectualpotentialwe’retooblindtoseewe’vealsogivenupon.AutisticchildrenalwaysgetlowerscoresinIQteststhanotherchildrenbecause______
TheFederalCommunicationsCommissionisnotaloneinworryingabouttelevisionstationsthataircorporateadvertisementsmasqueradingasnewsstories.InfacttheFCCrequiresthatbroadcaststationsdisclosethecorporatebackersofvideonewsreleasesorfaceamaximumfineof$32500foreachviolation.Enoughviolationsandastationcouldloseitslicense.TheFCCsetsoutaclearpolicy:Alloutsidenewsreportingmustbeidentifieddisclosingthesourceofanyvideonewsreleaseairedonanewsprogram.Thereareoccasionaldeclines.AnonprofitconsumerwatchdoggroupreportedtotheFCCthat77stationsbroadcastvideofeaturesaboutproductsfrom49companieswithoutpointingoutthattheywereproducedbypublicrelationsfirmsrepresentingthesecorporations.Publicrelationsfirmshaveonegoal:tomaketheirvideonewsreleaseslookasiftheyarelegitimatenewsreportsnotpropaganda.HoweverPR-producedvideonewsreleasesmerelyarethetipoftheiceberg.Eversincenewspapersbeganspecial-interestgroupshavetriedtoinfluencethequalityandquantityofthenewsprinted.Ofteninexchangeforadvertisingrevenuenewspaperswouldprintglowingstoriesoftheirsponsorsandsuppressanynewsthatmighthurttheirheavyadvertisers.Thosewithouttheabilitytoinformthepresseitherthroughnewsreleasesorcontactsusuallyareignoredunlesstheycommitacrimeoractinattention-gettingways.Formostofthe20thcenturywomenandpeopleofcolorfounditalmostimpossibletobreakthespecial-interestnewsbarriers.Theirstorieswereignoredunlesstherewasasensationaloruniqueelement.Usuallythoughitemsconcerningtheseminoritiesrequiredanenormouswrongdoingsuchasthemurderofsomeoneinthewhitecommunityorsomeattackonthestatusquothatthreatenedthepeaceandquietaswellastheproductivityofaneighborhood.Therehavebeensplendidexceptionsbutnotmany.OnereasontheHispanicnewsmediahasbeensosuccessfulisthatitcaterstoitsaudienceinthesamemannerallmediadoes.Whileitsbiasmayseemdifferentitactuallyisthesamebiasallmediahas:anoverwhelmingconcerntokeepitssupportershappy.SowhilethehueandcryoverPR-createdvideonewsreleasesarewellandgoodtheyreallydonotattacktheproblemofbiasednewsandappealstoaspecificgroupthatsharesthesameprejudicesandconcernsaboutthepresentandfuture.AllofthisisonekeyreasonAmericanssooftenaresurprisedwhenthenewsoutletsareforcedtoreportstoriesthatdonotpleaseadvertisersorconsumers.Bettertocontinuewhenpossibleasteadysupplyofnewsaboutthelatestcelebritybabyoryetanotherpieceaboutsexoffendersorrestauranthealthviolations.Fromthetextwecanconcludethatnewsmediathatreleasebiasednewsreportswouldprobably______
Wemightmarvelattheprocessmadeineveryfieldofstudybutthemethodoftestingaperson’sknowledgeandabilityremainasprimitiveasevertheywere.Itreallyisextraordinarythatafteralltheseyearseducationistshavestillfailedtodeviseanythingmoreefficientandreliablethanexaminations. 41.______ Theymaybeagoodmeansoftestingmemoryortheknackofworkingrapidlyunderextremepressurebuttheycantellyounothingaboutaperson’strueabilityandaptitude. 42.______ Yourwholefuturemaybedecidedinonefatefulday.Itdoesn’tmatterthatyouweren’tfeelingverywellorthatyourmotherdied.Littlethingslikethatdon’tcount:theexamgoeson.noonecangiveofhisbestwhenheisinmortalterrororafterasleeplessnightyetthisispreciselywhattheexaminationsystemexpectshimtodo.Themomentachildbeginsschoolheentersaworldofviciouscompetitionwheresuccessandfailureareclearlydefinedandmeasured.Canwewonderattheincreasingnumberof"dropouts":youngpeoplewhoarewrittenoffasutterfailuresbeforetheyhaveevenembarkedonacareerCanwebesurprisedatthesuiciderateamongstudents 43.______ Examinationsdonotmotivateastudenttoreadwidelybuttorestricthisreading;theydonotenablehimtoseekmoreandmoreknowledgebutinducecramming.Theylowerthestandardsofteachingfortheydeprivetheteacherofallfreedom.Teachersthemselvesareoftenjudgedbyexaminationresultsandinsteadofteachingtheirsubjectstheyarereducedtotrainingtheirstudentsinexamtechniqueswhichtheydespise.Themostsuccessfulcandidatesarenotalwaysthebesteducated;theyarebesttrainedinthetechniqueofworkingunderduress. 44.______ Examinersareonlyhuman.Theygettriedandhungry;theymakemistakes.Yettheyhavetomarkstacksofhastilyscrawledscriptsinalimitedamountoftime.Theyworkunderthesamesortofpressureasthecandidates.Andtheirwordcarriesweight.Afterajudge’sdecisionyouhavetherightofappealbutnotafteranexaminer’s. 45.______ IsitcynicaltosuggestthatexaminationsaremerelyaprofitablebusinessfortheinstitutionsthatrunthemThisiswhatitboilsdowntointhelastanalysis.Thebestcommentonthesystemisthisilliteratemessagerecentlyscrawledonawall:"Iwereateenagedrop-outandnowIamateenagemillionaire." [A]Agoodeducationshouldamongotherthingstrainyoutothinkforyourself.Theexaminationsystemdoesanythingbutthat.Whathastobelearntisrigidlylaiddownbyasyllabussothestudentsareencouragedtomemorize. [B]Theresultsonwhichsomuchdependsareoftennothingmorethanasubjectiveassessmentbysomeanonymousexaminer. [C]Examinationscanbetakenasatestofastudent’sknowledgeaboutaparticularsubjectwhichwouldtellthestudentwherehestandsamongothersandhowmuchheknowsandhowmuchheoughttoknow. [D]Asanxiety-makersexaminationsaresecondtonone.Thatisbecausesomuchdependsonthem.Theyarethemarkofsuccessorfailureinoursociety. [E]Thestudentappearingfortheexamtakesitunderextremetensionandpressurebecauseheknowsthathehasonlyonechancetoprovehisworthandifhefailshewillbeleftbehindfortherestofhislife. [F]Forallthepiousclaimthatexaminationstestwhatyouknowitiscommonknowledgethattheymoreoftendotheexactopposite. [G]Theremustsurelybemanysimplerandmoreeffectivewaysofassessingaperson’strueabilities. 41
StartingwithhisreviewofSkinner’sVerbalBehaviorNoamChomskyhadledthepsycholinguistswhoarguethatmanhasdevelopedaninnate天生的capacityfordealingwiththelinguisticuniversalscommontoalllanguages.Experienceandlearningthenprovideonlyinformationaboutthe1instancesofthoseuniversalaspectsoflanguagewhichareneededtocommunicatewithotherpeoplewithinaparticularlanguage2. Thislinguisticapproach3theviewthatlanguageisbuiltuponlearnedassociationsbetweenwords.Whatislearnedisnotstringsofwordsperse本身but4rulesthatenableaspeakerto5aninfinitevarietyofnovelsentences.6singlewordsarelearnedasconcepts:theydonotstandinaone-to-one7withtheparticularthingsignifiedbut8allmembersofageneralclass. Thisviewoftheinnateaspectoflanguagelearningisatfirstnotreadily9intoexistingpsychologicalframeworksand10achallengethathasstimulatedmuchthoughtandnewresearchdirections.Chomskyarguesthatapreconditionforlanguagedevelopmentistheexistenceofcertainprinciples"intrinsic原有的tothemind"thatprovideinvariantstructures11perceivinglearningandthinking.Language12alloftheseprocesses;thusitsstudy13ourtheoriesofknowledgeingeneral. Basictothismodeloflanguageisthenotionthatachild’slearningoflanguageisakindoftheory14.It’sthoughttobeaccomplished15explicitinstruction16ofintelligencelevelatanearlyagewhenheisnotcapableofothercomplex17ormotorachievementsandwithrelativelylittlereliabledatatogoon.18thechildconstructsatheoryofanideallanguagewhichhasbroad19power.Chomskyarguesthatallchildrencouldnotdevelopthesamebasictheory20itnotfortheinnateexistenceofpropertiesofmentalorganizationwhichlimitthepossiblepropertiesoflanguages. Readtilefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCandDonANSWERSHEET1.10points15
StartingwithhisreviewofSkinner’sVerbalBehaviorNoamChomskyhadledthepsycholinguistswhoarguethatmanhasdevelopedaninnate天生的capacityfordealingwiththelinguisticuniversalscommontoalllanguages.Experienceandlearningthenprovideonlyinformationaboutthe1instancesofthoseuniversalaspectsoflanguagewhichareneededtocommunicatewithotherpeoplewithinaparticularlanguage2. Thislinguisticapproach3theviewthatlanguageisbuiltuponlearnedassociationsbetweenwords.Whatislearnedisnotstringsofwordsperse本身but4rulesthatenableaspeakerto5aninfinitevarietyofnovelsentences.6singlewordsarelearnedasconcepts:theydonotstandinaone-to-one7withtheparticularthingsignifiedbut8allmembersofageneralclass. Thisviewoftheinnateaspectoflanguagelearningisatfirstnotreadily9intoexistingpsychologicalframeworksand10achallengethathasstimulatedmuchthoughtandnewresearchdirections.Chomskyarguesthatapreconditionforlanguagedevelopmentistheexistenceofcertainprinciples"intrinsic原有的tothemind"thatprovideinvariantstructures11perceivinglearningandthinking.Language12alloftheseprocesses;thusitsstudy13ourtheoriesofknowledgeingeneral. Basictothismodeloflanguageisthenotionthatachild’slearningoflanguageisakindoftheory14.It’sthoughttobeaccomplished15explicitinstruction16ofintelligencelevelatanearlyagewhenheisnotcapableofothercomplex17ormotorachievementsandwithrelativelylittlereliabledatatogoon.18thechildconstructsatheoryofanideallanguagewhichhasbroad19power.Chomskyarguesthatallchildrencouldnotdevelopthesamebasictheory20itnotfortheinnateexistenceofpropertiesofmentalorganizationwhichlimitthepossiblepropertiesoflanguages. Readtilefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCandDonANSWERSHEET1.10points5
StartingwithhisreviewofSkinner’sVerbalBehaviorNoamChomskyhadledthepsycholinguistswhoarguethatmanhasdevelopedaninnate天生的capacityfordealingwiththelinguisticuniversalscommontoalllanguages.Experienceandlearningthenprovideonlyinformationaboutthe1instancesofthoseuniversalaspectsoflanguagewhichareneededtocommunicatewithotherpeoplewithinaparticularlanguage2. Thislinguisticapproach3theviewthatlanguageisbuiltuponlearnedassociationsbetweenwords.Whatislearnedisnotstringsofwordsperse本身but4rulesthatenableaspeakerto5aninfinitevarietyofnovelsentences.6singlewordsarelearnedasconcepts:theydonotstandinaone-to-one7withtheparticularthingsignifiedbut8allmembersofageneralclass. Thisviewoftheinnateaspectoflanguagelearningisatfirstnotreadily9intoexistingpsychologicalframeworksand10achallengethathasstimulatedmuchthoughtandnewresearchdirections.Chomskyarguesthatapreconditionforlanguagedevelopmentistheexistenceofcertainprinciples"intrinsic原有的tothemind"thatprovideinvariantstructures11perceivinglearningandthinking.Language12alloftheseprocesses;thusitsstudy13ourtheoriesofknowledgeingeneral. Basictothismodeloflanguageisthenotionthatachild’slearningoflanguageisakindoftheory14.It’sthoughttobeaccomplished15explicitinstruction16ofintelligencelevelatanearlyagewhenheisnotcapableofothercomplex17ormotorachievementsandwithrelativelylittlereliabledatatogoon.18thechildconstructsatheoryofanideallanguagewhichhasbroad19power.Chomskyarguesthatallchildrencouldnotdevelopthesamebasictheory20itnotfortheinnateexistenceofpropertiesofmentalorganizationwhichlimitthepossiblepropertiesoflanguages. Readtilefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCandDonANSWERSHEET1.10points1
Manypeopleareconcernedabouttheeconomicconditionofdevelopingcountries—countrieswhoseaveragepercapitaGNPisafractionofthatinmoreindustrializedcountries.Howeverforthedevelopingcountriesthereexistmanyobstaclestotheireconomicdevelopment. Onemajorobstacletoeconomicdevelopmentispopulationgrowth.46Thepopulationsofmostdevelopingcountriesgrowataratemuchfasterthanthoseofindustrializedcountriesandthepopulationofsomeofthemissolargethatthereisbarelyenoughfertilelandandotherresourcestosupportit.Manylessdevelopedcountriesdependextensivelyonagricultureaddingtotheproblem.Inthesecountriesanincentivetohavemanychildrenexists.47Mostfarmsareworkedbyfamiliesandchildrencanworkinthefieldsatanearlyagebecausemostfarmersbelievethatmorechildrenmeansmoreworkers.Inadditionhavingmanychildrenensurestheparentsthatsomeonewilllookafterthemintheiroldage. Anotherproblemfordevelopingcountriesisincreasingaveragelifeexpectancy—theaverageremaininglifetimeforpersonswhoreachacertainage.Bettereducationinternationalaidandemphasisonhealth-carefacilitieshelppeoplelivelonger.AhighlifeexpectancycoupledwithahighcrudebirthratemakesitdifficulttoincreasepercapitaGNP. Anotherobstacletoeconomicgrowthislimitednaturalresources.Nocountrycandevelopbeyonditsresourcepotential.Unproductivelandoraharshclimatecanlimiteconomicgrowth.48Somecountriesmaybefortunateenoughtodiscoveravaluablemineraltofinancetheireconomicdevelopmentbutmostfocusonagricultureandasaresulttheireconomicgrowthishinderedbytheshortageofnaturalresourcesorenergysourcesneededforindustry. Stillanotherobstacletoeconomicdevelopmentisalackofappropriateeducationandtechnology.Anydevelopingcountriesdonothaveahighlyliteratepopulationorthehighleveloftechnicalskillsneededtobuildanindustrialsociety.Inadditionmostdonothavemoneytotrainengineersandscientists.49Manydevelopingcountriescannotevenaffordtoprovidefreepubliceducationforschool-agechildrenandinthosethatcannoteverychildisabletotakeadvantageofitbecausemostofthemhavetoworktohelpfeedtheirfamilies.Asaresultmuchofthepopulationmaynothavethebasicskillsneededtocontinuewithhighereducationwhenitisoffered. Governmentalsocanbeanobstacletoeconomicdevelopment.Acountrywhosegovernmentoftenchangeswillhaveahardtimedevelopingeconomically.Suchconstantchangesimpedelong-termplanning.50Economicdevelopmentismadeevenmoredifficultifthepoliticalchangesoccurthroughviolentrevolutionwhereindustrialfacilitiesmaybedestroyed. 47
PresidentBushhasonceagainstartedspeakingoutforcomprehensiveimmigrationreformandadraftplantorallyRepublicansenatorsontheissueiscirculatingjustasCongressionalhearingsontheissueapproach.MembersofCongressrecognizethatvotersarelookingforrealreformthatrestsonresoluteeffectiveenforcementofourimmigrationlaws.Theonlyseriouslegislativeproposalonthetableofferssuchenforcementbecauseitfocusesonmakingemployersaccountablefortheirhiringpractices.Tothatendthebillincorporateslessonslearnedfromthelargestimmigrationenforcementoperationeverundertaken.LastDecemberDepartmentofHomelandSecurityagentsdescendedonmeatprocessingplantsrunbySwirl&Companyinsixstatesarrestingmorethan1200unauthorizedworkers.ThearrestswereastonishingbecauseSwiftparticipatesinBasicPilotavoluntaryDepartmentofHomelandSecurityprogramthatallowsemployerstoelectronicallyverifytheworkeligibilityofnewlyhiredworkersagainstdepartmentandSocialSecuritydatabases.Theprogramisseenastheprecursorforaverificationsystemthatwouldbecomemandatorywithcomprehensiveimmigrationreform.SinceSwirlwasusingthedepartment’ssystemhowdiditendupwithillegalworkersTheBasicPilotprogramhasafatalflawwhichisthatitrequiresonlyelectronicverificationofemploymentqualification.Aneffectiveprogramshouldalsoinsistontamper-proofidentificationdocumentsforjob-seekersincorporatingbiometricslikedigitalphotographsandfingerprintstoproveidentity.Onlythenwoulditbepossibletoestablishnotonlythatjobapplicantsareauthorizedtoworkbutalsothattheyarewhotheysaytheyare.OtherwisevalidSocialSecuritynumberscanbepresentedtoemployersandBasicPilotwillverifythembutthenumbersmaynotbelongtotheworkerswhopresentthem.ToinsistonsecuredocumentswithbiometricidentifiersisnotacallforanationalID.Greencardstemporaryworkpermitsandpassportsaresecureandreliableforhiringpurposes.AddingSocialSecuritycardstothislistestablishingasinglestandardfortheirsecurityfeaturesandreplacingoldcardsoveradesignatedperiodwouldresolvetheproblemonanationalscale.Onlythenwouldemployersbeabletocomplyreliablywithverificationrequirementsasthebasisforsoundenforcementandbyextensionbordercontrol.LegalimmigrantsandAmericancitizenscouldprovetheiridentitiesandqualificationstoworkwithoutfacingdiscriminationbasedonappearanceorlanguage.Scarceenforcementresourcescouldbespentonapprehendingrealcriminalsandaddressingnationalsecuritythreats.Andanewsystemofenforcementwouldatlasthaveachancetowinbackpublicconfidenceinthenation’simmigrationpolicies.Aftermorethan20yearsoffailedeffortsCongressmustnotbakehalfaloaf.SecurebiometricSocialSecuritycardsareanessentialingredientinanycomprehensiveimmigrationreform.AccordingtothetexttheBasicPilotprogramcanonlybefullyeffectiveunless______
[A]Generallyhowevermodernexaminationsarewritten.Twotypesoftestsarecommonlyusedinmodernschools.Thefirsttypeissometimescalledan"objective"test.Itisintendedtodealwithfactsnotpersonalopinions.Tomakeupanobjectivetesttheteacherwritesaseriesofquestioneachofwhichhasonlyonecorrectanswer.AlongwitheachquestiontheteacherwritesthecorrectanswerandalsothreestatementsthatlooklikeanswerstostudentswhohavenotlearnedthematerialproperlyThestudenthasjustonetask:hemustrecognizethecorrectanswerandcopyitsletterornumberonhisexaminationpaper. [B]Foraclearerpictureofwhatthestudentknowsmostteachersuseanotherkindofexaminationinadditiontoobjectivetests.Theyuse"essay"testswhichrequirestudentstowritelonganswerstobroadgeneralquestionssuchasthefollowing:MentionseveralwaysinwhichMahatmaGandhihasinfluencedthethinkingofpeopleinhisowncountryandinotherpartsoftheworld. [C]Whetheranobjectivetestoranessaytestisusedproblemsarise.Whensomeobjectivequestionsareusedalongwithsomeessayquestionshoweverafairlyclearpictureofthestudent’sknowledgecanusuallybeobtained. [D]Fortestingastudent’smemoryoffactsanddetailstheobjectivetesthasadvantages.Itcanbescoredveryquicklybytheteacherorevenbyamachine.Inashorttimetheteachercanfindoutagreatdealaboutthestudent’srangeofknowledge.Fortestingsomekindsoflearninghoweversuchatestisnotverysatisfactory.Aluckystudentmayguessthecorrectanswerwithoutreallyknowingthematerial. [E]Inancienttimesthemostimportantexaminationswerespokennotwritten.IntheschoolsofancientGreeceandRometestingusuallyconsistedofsayingpoetryaloudorgivingspeeches.IntheEuropeanuniversitiesoftheMiddleAgesstudentswhowereworkingforadvanceddegreeshadtodiscussquestionsintheirfieldofstudywithpeoplewhohadmadeaspecialstudyofthesubject.Thiscustomexiststodayaspartoftheprocessoftestingcandidatesfordoctor’sdegree. [F]Oneadvantageoftheessaytestisthatitreducestheelementofluck.Thestudentcannotgetahighscorejustbymakingaluckyguess.Anotheradvantageisthatitshowstheexaminermoreaboutthestudent’sabilitytoputfactstogetherintoameaningfulwhole.Itshouldshowhowdeeplyhehasthoughtaboutthesubject.Sometimesthoughessaytestshavedisadvantagestoo.Somestudentsareabletowritegoodanswerswithoutreallyknowingmuchaboutthesubjectwhileotherstudentswhoactuallyknowthematerialhavetroubleexpressingtheirideasinessayform. [G]Besidesonanessaytestthestudent’sscoremaydependupontheexaminer’sfeelingsatthetimeofreadingtheanswer.Ifheisfeelingtiredorboredthestudentmayreceivealowerscorethanheshould.Anotherexaminerreadingthesameanswermightgiveitamuchhighermark.Fromthisstandpointtheobjectivetestgiveseachstudentafairerchanceandofcourseitiseasierandquickertoscore. 43
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