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(46) Students of United States history, seeking to identify the circumstances that encouraged the em...
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IncomeinequalityintheUnitedStateremainedrelativelystableforaperiodofnearlyfortyyears.Beginninginthe1970’showeverthisperiodofstabilityendedasthefirstsignsofwideningincomeinequalitybecameapparent.Overthecourseofthe1970’sand1980’sanincreasinglycleartrendtowardgreaterincomeinequalityemerged.Bytheendofthe1980’sthetop20percentofworkerswerereceivingthelargestshareofincomeeverrecordedbygovernmentfiguresandthebottomthreefifthswerereceivingthelowestshareseverrecorded.Thistrendhascontinuedintothe1990’sandcurrentlyshowsnosignsofdecline.Whentheindicatorsofgrowinginequalitywerefirstobservedinthe1970’ssomeresearchersarguedthattheeffectsweremerelytemporaryartifactsofshort-termlabormarketdisturbances.Thenewoccupationalstructureappearstobeonewithanincreaseofwell-paidtechnicalscientificandprofessionaljobsatthetopaslidingmiddleclassandagrowingpoorly-paidserviceandretailjobsatthebottom.Severalimportantlabor-forcechangesappearedtobecontributingtotheshiftingoccupationalstructure. Asoccupationalreconstructingandgrowingincomeinequalityhavebecomeincreasinglyevidentaheateddebateastothecausesandmagnitudeofthesechangesarose.Twodominantbodiesofthoughtemergedaroundtheissue:thejob-skillmismatchthesisandthepolarizationthesis.Mismatchtheoristsarguethatthereisanincreasingdistancebetweenthehighskillrequirementsofpost-industrialjobsandtheinadequatetrainingandmediocrequalificationsofworkers.Theyseethepost-industrialeconomyleavingbehindunskilledworkersespeciallywomenandminorities.Forthemismatchtheoristthetrendtowardgreaterinequalityistemporaryaridwilldissipateoncethesupplyofworkersacquirestheskillsdemandedbyapost-industrialeconomy.Andtheypredictthattheworkerswillexperienceanupgradingintheirwagesoverthelongrun.Polarizationtheoristsontheotherhandbelievethattheriseininequalityispermanentaresultoftheshifttoaservice-basedeconomy.Thisvisionofthepostindustrialeconomyischaracteristicallypolarized.Theproblemaccordingtothesetheoristsisthetypeofjobsbeinggeneratedintheneweconomynotworkerattributes.Becausetheybelievethecausesarestructuralandpermanentpolarizationtheoristswoulddenytheefficacyofpublicpoliciesdesignedtoeducateandtrainunskilledworkers.Theypredictalong-termcontinuationofthetrendtowardsincreasingincomeinequality. Studiesshowthatthelong-runincreaseinincomeinequalityisalsorelatedtochangesintheNation’slabormarketanditshouseholdcomposition.Thewagedistributionhasbecomeconsiderablymoreunequalwithmorehighlyskilledtrainedandeducatedworkersatthetopexperiencingrealwagegainsandthoseatthebottomrealwagelosses.Onefactoristheshiftinemploymentfromthosegoods-producingindustriesthathavedisproportionatelyprovidedhigh-wageopportunitiesforlow-skilledworkerstowardsservicesthatdisproportionatelyemploycollegegraduatesandtowardslow-wagesectorssuchasretailtrade.Butwithinindustryshiftsinlabordemandawayfromless-educatedworkersareperhapsamoreimportantexplanationoferodingwagesthantheshiftoutofmanufacturing.Alsocitedasputtingdownwardpressureonthewagesofless-educatedworkersareintensifyingglobalcompetitionandimmigrationthedeclineoftheproportionofworkersbelongingtounionsthedeclineintherealvalueoftheminimumwagetheincreasingneedforcomputerskillsandtheincreasinguseoftemporaryworkers. Accordingtothestatisticsofthe1980swhichofthefollowingisNOTtrue
PeopleintheUnitedStatesinthenineteenthcenturywerehauntedbytheprospectthatunprecedentedchangeinthenation’seconomywouldbringsocialchaos.Intheyearsfollowing1820afterseveraldecadesofrelativestabilitytheeconomyenteredaperiodofsustainedandextremelyrapidgrowththatcontinuedtotheendofthenineteenthcentury.Accompanyingthatgrowthwasastructuralchangethatfeaturedincreasingeconomicdiversificationandagradualshiftinthenation’slaborforcefromagriculturetomanufacturingandothernonagriculturapursuits Althoughthebirthratecontinuedtodeclinefromitshighleveloftheeighteenthandearlynineteenthcenturiesthepopulationroughlydoubledeverygenerationduringtherestofthenineteenthcentury.Asthepopulationgrewitsmakeupalsochanged.Massivewavesofimmigrationbroughtnewethnicgroupsintothecountry.Geographicandsocialmobility--downwardaswellasupward--touchedalmosteveryone.Localstudiesindicatethatnearlythree-quartersofthepopulationintheNorthandSouthintheemergingcitiesoftheNortheastandintherestlessruralcountiesoftheWestchangedtheirresidenceeachdecade.AsaconsequencehistorianDavidDonaldhaswritten"Socialatomizationaffectedeverysegmentofsociety"anditseemedtomanypeoplethat"alltherecognizedvaluesoforderlycivilizationweregraduallybeingeroded." Rapidindustrializationandincreasedgeographicmobilityinthenineteenthcenturyhadspecialimplicationsforwomenbecausethesechangestendedtomagnifysocialdistinctions.Astherolesmenandwomenplayedinsocietybecamemorerigidlydefinedsodidtherolestheyplayedinthehome.Inthecontextofextremecompetitivenessanddizzyingsocialchangethehouseholdlostmanyofitsearlierfunctionsandthehomecametoserveasahavenoftranquillityandorder.Asthesizeoffamiliesdecreasedtherolesofhusbandandwifebecamemoreclearlydifferentiatedthaneverbefore.Inthemiddleclassespeciallymenparticipatedintheproductiveeconomywhilewomenruledthehomeandservedasthecustodiansofcivilityandculture.Theintimacyofmarriagethatwascommoninearlierperiodswasrentandagulfthatattimesseemedunbridgeablewascreatedbetweenhusbandsandwives. Whatdoesthepassagemainlydiscuss
[A]THINGShavenotbeengoingwellforSonylately.LastmonthseniorexecutivesattheJapaneseelectronicsgiantissuedanunprecedentedapologyafterdiscoveringthat9.6mlaptopbatteriessuppliedtoothercomputer-makerswerefaultyandwouldhavetoberecalledatacostof$436m.Sony’sBlue-rayhigh-definitiontechnologylaunchedthissummerhassufferedfromdelaysandcomponentshortages."Theyreallyneedsomegoodnews"saysPaulJacksonofForresteraconsultancy. [B]IngamingSonyfacesfarstrongercompetitionthanitdidwhenitlaunchedthePlayStation2in2000.ThePS2wentontosellover100munitsgivingSony70%ofthemarket.Butgamingisacyclicalbusinessandsuccessinonerounddoesnotguaranteesuccessinthenext.Microsofthasalreadysoldover6mofitsXbox360consoleslaunchedayearagoandexpectstohavesold10mbytheendof2006.ManufacturingproblemsdelayedthePS3’slaunchfromMayandmeantthatonly93000consoleswereavailablefortheJapaneselaunchSonyhopestosell2mbytheendoftheyearbutevenifitdoessoitwillstarttheraceinthirdplace. [C]YetitwillbesometimebeforeitispossibletotellwhetherthePS3canrescueSony.Beneaththeshort-termtroublesthecompanyisplayingalonggame.SonyisbettingthatthePS3’sadvancedtechnologywillsustainthecompanyforadecadebyextendingthePlayStationfranchisebeyondgaming. [D]FinallythePS3isalitmustestforSirHoward’sturnaroundeffortoneoftheaimsofwhichistogetSony’svariousdivisionstoco-operatemorefully.Sonyhasimprovedmarginsinitselectronicsbusinessandreducedheadcountby10000aheadofschedule.SirHowardevensuggestedthisweekthatthebatteryfiascohadhelpedbymakingiteasierforhimtoconvincedoubterswithinSonyoftheneedtochange. [E]SonyneedsthePS3tosucceedforthreereasons:tomaintainitslucrativedominanceofthegamesindustry;toseedthemarketforBlue-rayandestablishSonyintheemergingmarketforinternetvideodownloads;andtodemonstratethattheturnaroundbeingledbyHowardStringerwhotookoveraschiefexecutivein2005isworkingandthatSony’sgamingelectronicsandcontentdivisionsreallycanworktogether.DespitetheenthusiasmofthePS3’searlybuyerssuccessineachoftheseareasisfarfromassured. [F]Americanregulatorsbeganinvestigatingthecompanylastmonthaspartofaninquiryintoallegationsofprice-fixinginthememory-chipmarket.Andhavingbragbeentheworld’smostvaluableelectronicsfirmbystockmarketvalueSony’smarketcapitalisationhasfallentolessthanhalfthatofSamsungitsSouthKoreanrival. [G]SoalotisridingonthePlayStation3PS3thelatestincarnationofSony’sindustry-leadinggamesconsolewhichwaslaunchedwithmuchfanfareinJapanonNovember11th.AttheYurakuchoflagshipstoreofBicCameraoneofJapan’slargestelectronicsretailershundredsofgarnersqueuedthroughacoldnight.KenKutaragiwhorunsSony’sgamingdivisionwastheretowelcometheminthemorning. [H]ThePS3isalsomeanttoensurethatBlue-raytriumphsoverHD-DVDasthehigh-definitionsuccessortotheDVDvideoformat.TheideaisthatmillionsofPS3sboughtbygarnerswillseedthemarketforBlue-rayprovidingitwithcriticalmassandensuringthatHollywoodstudioswhicharereluctanttobacktworivalstandardsplumpforBlue-rayoverHD-DVD.ButinsteadofridingthePS3asaTrojanhorseBlue-rayhasinsteadhobbleditbyincreasingitspriceanddelayingitsintroduction. [I]Soafewteethingproblemsintheearlydaysarenothingtoworryabout;besidesthePS2wasalsocriticisedforbeingexpensiveover-engineeredandunreliablewhenitfirstappeared.Buthavingachieved70%marketsharelasttimearoundSonyiscertaintolosegroundthistime.Theonlyquestionishowmuch. 42
EgyptianwinehasanextensivehistorywithinthehistoryofEgyptiancivilization.Grapeswerenot1tothelandscapeofEgyptratherthevinesthemselvesare2tohavebeenimportedfromthePhoenicians3theactualoriginsremainin4.Whatisknownisthat5thethirdmillenniumBCEgyptiankingsofthefirst6hadextensivewinecellarsandwinewasusedextensivelyinthetempleceremonies.Themain7ofwineinEgypttookplacebetweenthekingnoblesandthepriestsintempleceremoniesandis8bynumerouspaintedrelief’sandother9evidence.ThevineyardsofancientEgyptwerequitedifferentfromthemodernmethodsofwinemakingtoday.10viticultureorwinemakingceasedto11anexclusivelyceremonialpurposetheEgyptiansbegantoexperimentwithsimplestructuresfortheirvinestotrainon12foundawaytotraintheirvinessotheywereeasylow13bushesandfoundwaysforthesoilto14moremoistureforthevines.EgyptianwinemakingexperimentsincludedReuseofdifferentwinepressesaddingheattothemustthegrapejuicereadyforfermentation15makethewinesweetanddifferencesinvattypesandmaterials.The16finishedproductofwinewaspouredthroughaclothfalterandthenintoearthenwarejars17theywouldbesealedwithnaturaltarandleftto18.TheEgyptianskeptaccuraterecordsoftheirvintagesand19oftheirwineseachjarofwinewasclearly20withit’sownvintageandquality. 4
EgyptianwinehasanextensivehistorywithinthehistoryofEgyptiancivilization.Grapeswerenot1tothelandscapeofEgyptratherthevinesthemselvesare2tohavebeenimportedfromthePhoenicians3theactualoriginsremainin4.Whatisknownisthat5thethirdmillenniumBCEgyptiankingsofthefirst6hadextensivewinecellarsandwinewasusedextensivelyinthetempleceremonies.Themain7ofwineinEgypttookplacebetweenthekingnoblesandthepriestsintempleceremoniesandis8bynumerouspaintedrelief’sandother9evidence.ThevineyardsofancientEgyptwerequitedifferentfromthemodernmethodsofwinemakingtoday.10viticultureorwinemakingceasedto11anexclusivelyceremonialpurposetheEgyptiansbegantoexperimentwithsimplestructuresfortheirvinestotrainon12foundawaytotraintheirvinessotheywereeasylow13bushesandfoundwaysforthesoilto14moremoistureforthevines.EgyptianwinemakingexperimentsincludedReuseofdifferentwinepressesaddingheattothemustthegrapejuicereadyforfermentation15makethewinesweetanddifferencesinvattypesandmaterials.The16finishedproductofwinewaspouredthroughaclothfalterandthenintoearthenwarejars17theywouldbesealedwithnaturaltarandleftto18.TheEgyptianskeptaccuraterecordsoftheirvintagesand19oftheirwineseachjarofwinewasclearly20withit’sownvintageandquality. 14
EgyptianwinehasanextensivehistorywithinthehistoryofEgyptiancivilization.Grapeswerenot1tothelandscapeofEgyptratherthevinesthemselvesare2tohavebeenimportedfromthePhoenicians3theactualoriginsremainin4.Whatisknownisthat5thethirdmillenniumBCEgyptiankingsofthefirst6hadextensivewinecellarsandwinewasusedextensivelyinthetempleceremonies.Themain7ofwineinEgypttookplacebetweenthekingnoblesandthepriestsintempleceremoniesandis8bynumerouspaintedrelief’sandother9evidence.ThevineyardsofancientEgyptwerequitedifferentfromthemodernmethodsofwinemakingtoday.10viticultureorwinemakingceasedto11anexclusivelyceremonialpurposetheEgyptiansbegantoexperimentwithsimplestructuresfortheirvinestotrainon12foundawaytotraintheirvinessotheywereeasylow13bushesandfoundwaysforthesoilto14moremoistureforthevines.EgyptianwinemakingexperimentsincludedReuseofdifferentwinepressesaddingheattothemustthegrapejuicereadyforfermentation15makethewinesweetanddifferencesinvattypesandmaterials.The16finishedproductofwinewaspouredthroughaclothfalterandthenintoearthenwarejars17theywouldbesealedwithnaturaltarandleftto18.TheEgyptianskeptaccuraterecordsoftheirvintagesand19oftheirwineseachjarofwinewasclearly20withit’sownvintageandquality. 2
Directions: Writeanessayof160--200wordsbasedonthefollowingtopic. MyIdealFutureJob Inyouressayyoushould 1stateclearlywhatyouridealfuturejobis 2illustratewhyyouwouldliketotakethisjoband 3drawanatureconclusiontoyouressay. YoushouldwriteneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.
ScientistsatJohnsHopkinshavediscovered"striking"differencesbetweenmenandwomeninapartofthebrainlinkedwithabilitytoestimatetimejudgespeedvisualizethingsthree-dimensionallyandsolvemathematicalproblems. 47Thedifferencestheresearcherssaymayunderliewell-knowntrendsthatvarybysexsuchasthefactthatmorementhanwomenarearchitectsmathematiciansandrace-cardrivers. InastudyreportedthisweekintheJournalCerebralCortextheresearchersshowthatabrainregioncalledtheinferiorparietallobuleissignificantlylargeroverallinmenthaninwomen.Theareaispartofthecerebralcortexandappearsonbothsidesofthebrainjustaboveear-level. Alsothere’sasymmetrydifferencewithmenhavingalargerleftIPLthanright.48Inwomeninthestudyit’stherightIPLthat’ssomewhatlargerthoughthedifferencebetweenthetwosidesofthebrainislessobviousthaninmensayspsychiatristGodfreyPearlsonM.D.whoheadedtheproject. ResearchersalsocomparedIPLvolumesontheleftandtherightsidesofthebrain.Afterallowancesformen’slargeroverallheadandbrainsizemenhadroughly6percentmoreIPLtissuethanwomen. "Theinferiorparietallobuleisfarmoredevelopedinpeoplethaninanimalsandhasevolvedrelativelyrecently"saysPearlson.49Itallowsthebraintoprocessinformationfromsensessuchasvisionandtouchandenablesthesortofthinkinginvolvedinselectiveattentionandperception. StudieslinktherightIPLwithaworkingmemoryofspatialrelationshipstheabilitytosenserelationshipsbetweenbodypartsandawarenessofaperson’sownaffectorfeelings.TheleftIPLPearlsonsaysismoreinvolvedinperceptionsuchasjudginghowfastsomethingismovingestimatingtimeandhavingtheabilitytomentallyrotate3-Dfigures. "Tosaythismeansmenareautomaticallybetteratsomethingsthanwomenisasimplification"saysPearlson."It’seasytofindwomenwhoarefantasticatmathandphysicsandmenwhoexcelinlanguageskills.Onlywhenwelookatverylargepopulationsandlookforslightbutsignificanttrendsdoweseethegeneralizations.50Thereareplentyofexceptionsbutthere’salsoagrainoftruthrevealedthroughthebrainstructurethatwethinkunderliessomeofthewayspeoplecharacterizethesexes." 50
EgyptianwinehasanextensivehistorywithinthehistoryofEgyptiancivilization.Grapeswerenot1tothelandscapeofEgyptratherthevinesthemselvesare2tohavebeenimportedfromthePhoenicians3theactualoriginsremainin4.Whatisknownisthat5thethirdmillenniumBCEgyptiankingsofthefirst6hadextensivewinecellarsandwinewasusedextensivelyinthetempleceremonies.Themain7ofwineinEgypttookplacebetweenthekingnoblesandthepriestsintempleceremoniesandis8bynumerouspaintedrelief’sandother9evidence.ThevineyardsofancientEgyptwerequitedifferentfromthemodernmethodsofwinemakingtoday.10viticultureorwinemakingceasedto11anexclusivelyceremonialpurposetheEgyptiansbegantoexperimentwithsimplestructuresfortheirvinestotrainon12foundawaytotraintheirvinessotheywereeasylow13bushesandfoundwaysforthesoilto14moremoistureforthevines.EgyptianwinemakingexperimentsincludedReuseofdifferentwinepressesaddingheattothemustthegrapejuicereadyforfermentation15makethewinesweetanddifferencesinvattypesandmaterials.The16finishedproductofwinewaspouredthroughaclothfalterandthenintoearthenwarejars17theywouldbesealedwithnaturaltarandleftto18.TheEgyptianskeptaccuraterecordsoftheirvintagesand19oftheirwineseachjarofwinewasclearly20withit’sownvintageandquality. 8
EgyptianwinehasanextensivehistorywithinthehistoryofEgyptiancivilization.Grapeswerenot1tothelandscapeofEgyptratherthevinesthemselvesare2tohavebeenimportedfromthePhoenicians3theactualoriginsremainin4.Whatisknownisthat5thethirdmillenniumBCEgyptiankingsofthefirst6hadextensivewinecellarsandwinewasusedextensivelyinthetempleceremonies.Themain7ofwineinEgypttookplacebetweenthekingnoblesandthepriestsintempleceremoniesandis8bynumerouspaintedrelief’sandother9evidence.ThevineyardsofancientEgyptwerequitedifferentfromthemodernmethodsofwinemakingtoday.10viticultureorwinemakingceasedto11anexclusivelyceremonialpurposetheEgyptiansbegantoexperimentwithsimplestructuresfortheirvinestotrainon12foundawaytotraintheirvinessotheywereeasylow13bushesandfoundwaysforthesoilto14moremoistureforthevines.EgyptianwinemakingexperimentsincludedReuseofdifferentwinepressesaddingheattothemustthegrapejuicereadyforfermentation15makethewinesweetanddifferencesinvattypesandmaterials.The16finishedproductofwinewaspouredthroughaclothfalterandthenintoearthenwarejars17theywouldbesealedwithnaturaltarandleftto18.TheEgyptianskeptaccuraterecordsoftheirvintagesand19oftheirwineseachjarofwinewasclearly20withit’sownvintageandquality. 20
[A]THINGShavenotbeengoingwellforSonylately.LastmonthseniorexecutivesattheJapaneseelectronicsgiantissuedanunprecedentedapologyafterdiscoveringthat9.6mlaptopbatteriessuppliedtoothercomputer-makerswerefaultyandwouldhavetoberecalledatacostof$436m.Sony’sBlue-rayhigh-definitiontechnologylaunchedthissummerhassufferedfromdelaysandcomponentshortages."Theyreallyneedsomegoodnews"saysPaulJacksonofForresteraconsultancy. [B]IngamingSonyfacesfarstrongercompetitionthanitdidwhenitlaunchedthePlayStation2in2000.ThePS2wentontosellover100munitsgivingSony70%ofthemarket.Butgamingisacyclicalbusinessandsuccessinonerounddoesnotguaranteesuccessinthenext.Microsofthasalreadysoldover6mofitsXbox360consoleslaunchedayearagoandexpectstohavesold10mbytheendof2006.ManufacturingproblemsdelayedthePS3’slaunchfromMayandmeantthatonly93000consoleswereavailablefortheJapaneselaunchSonyhopestosell2mbytheendoftheyearbutevenifitdoessoitwillstarttheraceinthirdplace. [C]YetitwillbesometimebeforeitispossibletotellwhetherthePS3canrescueSony.Beneaththeshort-termtroublesthecompanyisplayingalonggame.SonyisbettingthatthePS3’sadvancedtechnologywillsustainthecompanyforadecadebyextendingthePlayStationfranchisebeyondgaming. [D]FinallythePS3isalitmustestforSirHoward’sturnaroundeffortoneoftheaimsofwhichistogetSony’svariousdivisionstoco-operatemorefully.Sonyhasimprovedmarginsinitselectronicsbusinessandreducedheadcountby10000aheadofschedule.SirHowardevensuggestedthisweekthatthebatteryfiascohadhelpedbymakingiteasierforhimtoconvincedoubterswithinSonyoftheneedtochange. [E]SonyneedsthePS3tosucceedforthreereasons:tomaintainitslucrativedominanceofthegamesindustry;toseedthemarketforBlue-rayandestablishSonyintheemergingmarketforinternetvideodownloads;andtodemonstratethattheturnaroundbeingledbyHowardStringerwhotookoveraschiefexecutivein2005isworkingandthatSony’sgamingelectronicsandcontentdivisionsreallycanworktogether.DespitetheenthusiasmofthePS3’searlybuyerssuccessineachoftheseareasisfarfromassured. [F]Americanregulatorsbeganinvestigatingthecompanylastmonthaspartofaninquiryintoallegationsofprice-fixinginthememory-chipmarket.Andhavingbragbeentheworld’smostvaluableelectronicsfirmbystockmarketvalueSony’smarketcapitalisationhasfallentolessthanhalfthatofSamsungitsSouthKoreanrival. [G]SoalotisridingonthePlayStation3PS3thelatestincarnationofSony’sindustry-leadinggamesconsolewhichwaslaunchedwithmuchfanfareinJapanonNovember11th.AttheYurakuchoflagshipstoreofBicCameraoneofJapan’slargestelectronicsretailershundredsofgarnersqueuedthroughacoldnight.KenKutaragiwhorunsSony’sgamingdivisionwastheretowelcometheminthemorning. [H]ThePS3isalsomeanttoensurethatBlue-raytriumphsoverHD-DVDasthehigh-definitionsuccessortotheDVDvideoformat.TheideaisthatmillionsofPS3sboughtbygarnerswillseedthemarketforBlue-rayprovidingitwithcriticalmassandensuringthatHollywoodstudioswhicharereluctanttobacktworivalstandardsplumpforBlue-rayoverHD-DVD.ButinsteadofridingthePS3asaTrojanhorseBlue-rayhasinsteadhobbleditbyincreasingitspriceanddelayingitsintroduction. [I]Soafewteethingproblemsintheearlydaysarenothingtoworryabout;besidesthePS2wasalsocriticisedforbeingexpensiveover-engineeredandunreliablewhenitfirstappeared.Buthavingachieved70%marketsharelasttimearoundSonyiscertaintolosegroundthistime.Theonlyquestionishowmuch. 44
Extraordinarycreativeactivityhasbeencharacterizedasrevolutionaryflyinginthefaceofwhatisestablishedandproducingnotwhatisacceptablebutwhatwillbecomeaccepted.Accordingtothisformulationhighlycreativeactivitytranscendsthelimitsofanexistingformandestablishesanewprincipleoforganization.Howevertheideathatextraordinarycreativitytranscendsestablishedlimitsismisleadingwhenitisappliedtotheartseventhoughitmaybevalidforthescience;Differencesbetweenhighlycreativeartandhighlycreativescienceariseinpartfromadifferenceintheirgoal.Forthesciencesanewtheoryisthegoalandendresultofthecreativeact.Innovativescienceproducesnewpropositionsintermsofwhichdiversephenomenacanberelatedtooneanotherinmorecoherentways.Suchphenomenaasabrilliantdiamondoranestingbirdarerelegatedtotheroleofdateservingasthemeansforformulatingortestinganewtheory.Thegoalofhighlycreativeartisdifferent:thephenomenonitselfbecomesthedirectproductofthecreativeact.Shakespeare’sHamletisnotatractaboutthebehaviorofindecisiveprincesortheusesofpoliticalpowernorisPicasso’spaintingGuernicaprimarilyaprepositionalstatementabouttheSpanishCivilWarortheevilsoffascism.What’highlycreativeactivityproducesisnotanewgeneralizationthat’transcendsestablishedlimitsbutratheranaestheticparticular.Aestheticparticularsproducedbythehighlycreativeartistextendorexploitratherthantranscendthatform. Thisisnottodenythatahighlycreativeartistsometimesestablishesanewprincipleoforganizationinthehistoryofanartisticfield;thecomposerMonteverdiwhocreatedmusicofthehighestaestheticvaluecomestomind.Moregenerallyhoweverwhetherornotacompositionestablishesanewprincipleinthehistoryofmusichasnobearingonitsaestheticworth.BecausetheyembodyanewprincipleoforganizationsomemusicalworkssuchastheoperasoftheFlorentineCamerataareofsignalhistoricalimportancebutfewlistenersormusicologistswouldincludetheseamongthegreatworksofmusic.OntheotherhandMozart’sTheMarriageofFigaro费加罗的婚礼issurelyamongthemasterpieceofmusiceventhoughitsmodestinnovationsareconfinedtoextendingexistingmeans.IthasbeensaidofBeethoventhathetoppledtherulesandfreedmusicfromthestiflingconfinesofconvention.ButaclosestudyofhiscompositionrevealsthatBeethovenoverturnednofundamentalrules.RatherhewasanincomparablestrategistwhoexploitedlimitsoftherulesformsandconventionsthatheinheritedfrompredecessorssuchasHaydnandMozartHandelandBach—instrikinglyoriginalways. What’sthebesttitleofthepassage
EgyptianwinehasanextensivehistorywithinthehistoryofEgyptiancivilization.Grapeswerenot1tothelandscapeofEgyptratherthevinesthemselvesare2tohavebeenimportedfromthePhoenicians3theactualoriginsremainin4.Whatisknownisthat5thethirdmillenniumBCEgyptiankingsofthefirst6hadextensivewinecellarsandwinewasusedextensivelyinthetempleceremonies.Themain7ofwineinEgypttookplacebetweenthekingnoblesandthepriestsintempleceremoniesandis8bynumerouspaintedrelief’sandother9evidence.ThevineyardsofancientEgyptwerequitedifferentfromthemodernmethodsofwinemakingtoday.10viticultureorwinemakingceasedto11anexclusivelyceremonialpurposetheEgyptiansbegantoexperimentwithsimplestructuresfortheirvinestotrainon12foundawaytotraintheirvinessotheywereeasylow13bushesandfoundwaysforthesoilto14moremoistureforthevines.EgyptianwinemakingexperimentsincludedReuseofdifferentwinepressesaddingheattothemustthegrapejuicereadyforfermentation15makethewinesweetanddifferencesinvattypesandmaterials.The16finishedproductofwinewaspouredthroughaclothfalterandthenintoearthenwarejars17theywouldbesealedwithnaturaltarandleftto18.TheEgyptianskeptaccuraterecordsoftheirvintagesand19oftheirwineseachjarofwinewasclearly20withit’sownvintageandquality. 6
Extraordinarycreativeactivityhasbeencharacterizedasrevolutionaryflyinginthefaceofwhatisestablishedandproducingnotwhatisacceptablebutwhatwillbecomeaccepted.Accordingtothisformulationhighlycreativeactivitytranscendsthelimitsofanexistingformandestablishesanewprincipleoforganization.Howevertheideathatextraordinarycreativitytranscendsestablishedlimitsismisleadingwhenitisappliedtotheartseventhoughitmaybevalidforthescience;Differencesbetweenhighlycreativeartandhighlycreativescienceariseinpartfromadifferenceintheirgoal.Forthesciencesanewtheoryisthegoalandendresultofthecreativeact.Innovativescienceproducesnewpropositionsintermsofwhichdiversephenomenacanberelatedtooneanotherinmorecoherentways.Suchphenomenaasabrilliantdiamondoranestingbirdarerelegatedtotheroleofdateservingasthemeansforformulatingortestinganewtheory.Thegoalofhighlycreativeartisdifferent:thephenomenonitselfbecomesthedirectproductofthecreativeact.Shakespeare’sHamletisnotatractaboutthebehaviorofindecisiveprincesortheusesofpoliticalpowernorisPicasso’spaintingGuernicaprimarilyaprepositionalstatementabouttheSpanishCivilWarortheevilsoffascism.What’highlycreativeactivityproducesisnotanewgeneralizationthat’transcendsestablishedlimitsbutratheranaestheticparticular.Aestheticparticularsproducedbythehighlycreativeartistextendorexploitratherthantranscendthatform. Thisisnottodenythatahighlycreativeartistsometimesestablishesanewprincipleoforganizationinthehistoryofanartisticfield;thecomposerMonteverdiwhocreatedmusicofthehighestaestheticvaluecomestomind.Moregenerallyhoweverwhetherornotacompositionestablishesanewprincipleinthehistoryofmusichasnobearingonitsaestheticworth.BecausetheyembodyanewprincipleoforganizationsomemusicalworkssuchastheoperasoftheFlorentineCamerataareofsignalhistoricalimportancebutfewlistenersormusicologistswouldincludetheseamongthegreatworksofmusic.OntheotherhandMozart’sTheMarriageofFigaro费加罗的婚礼issurelyamongthemasterpieceofmusiceventhoughitsmodestinnovationsareconfinedtoextendingexistingmeans.IthasbeensaidofBeethoventhathetoppledtherulesandfreedmusicfromthestiflingconfinesofconvention.ButaclosestudyofhiscompositionrevealsthatBeethovenoverturnednofundamentalrules.RatherhewasanincomparablestrategistwhoexploitedlimitsoftherulesformsandconventionsthatheinheritedfrompredecessorssuchasHaydnandMozartHandelandBach—instrikinglyoriginalways. Thepassageimpliesthatanoriginalcontributioninscienceisonethat
Myinspirationismygrandmotherwho’sstillaliveat96.SheraisedmefromthetimeIwas8onadairyfarminWisconsin.InanothererashecouldhavedonewhatIdoalthoughIdidn’tknowwhataCEOwasthen.I’marealgo-getteranddon’tknowanyotherway.Itellmy12-year-olddaughterifyouhaveatestwhynottryforanAIdon’tbelieveinhalfdoingsomething. Inmycareerthebiggestshockcameinmy20’s.Ilovedmyjobasafieldsystemsanalystat3Mandwantedmyfirstmanager’sjobatheadquarters.TheyeventoldmeIwasthebestcandidatetotallyqualified.Thentheytoldme"It’snotpossiblebecauseyou’reawoman."IwassoshockedthatIquit.IhadthisfeelingofbeingtotallyblownawayasIcrawledbacktoAtlanta. Ipreachtopeople:therearenobadbosses.Youlearnhownottotreatpeople.Myworstbosswasfullofhimselfandwantedtomicromanage.Themandidn’thaveacomplimentaryboneinhisbody.Istillhavemyperformancereviewhewroteinsmallanalprint.ItwaswinterinMinnesota.Ididn’twanttodrive.Iwasoutthedoorat5p.m.becausethebusleftthefrontdoorat5:06.HeputthatdowninmyreviewhowfastIwasoutthedoor.Itdidn’tmattertherestoftheyearIwasthereuntil6or7. LaterwhenIswitchedcompanies.Iattendedanoff-sitestrategymeetinginFlorida.Therewasabarbecueandthemeetingcontinuedonintotheevening.Myboss’bossthrewatowelacrosstheroomandsaid"CleanupCarol."Icaughtthetowelwentoverandscrubbedhisface.Everybodyintheroomwent"Ohhhh." TheluckiestthinginmycareeristhatIhaveacomputersciencedegree.Doorsopenedwideatatimewhenitwasn’tnecessarilygreatforwomen.IfIcouldwaveamagicwandI’dhaveeverygirlpasscollegefreshmancalculus. Whatisthebiggestshockinthewriter’scareer
ThediscoverylastweekofpossibleevidenceoflifeonMarshaselectrifieddebateoverwhethertheuniverseisabarrenvoidoranurserypregnantwithlife.Scientistswhohavecomestunninglyclosetorepeatinggenesisortheoriginoflifeinatesttubesaythebuildingblocksforlifeexisteverywhere.Thechallengeisputtingthemtogether.46Theoriginoflifeisarelativelyeasyconceptandthere’sawidevarietyofconditionsunderwhichitwilltakeplacesaidlateStanleyMilleraprofessorattheUniversityofCaliforniaandapioneerinthefield.PerhapstheremarkablethingisthateventhoughMarsisnotafavorableenvironmenttheoriginoflifetookplace.Astronomershavefoundthatthesamegasespresentinoursolarsystemarepresentthroughouttheuniverse.47EffortstomakemicroscopiclifefromthesebasicelementsonEarthsuggeststhechanceoflifearisingundersimilarcircumstancesisthesameeverywheresaychemistsbiologistsandotherexperts.Itseemsfairlylikelythatlifesimilartooursifthereiswateravailable’wouldevolveinotherenvironmentsinourgalaxyorouruniversesaidJamesFerrisaleadingresearcherandeditorofthejournalOriginsofLifeandEvolutionoftheBiosphere.Underlyingmuchoftheresearchisthequestion..WasthedevelopmentoflifeonEarthuniqueordidtheuniverse’schemicalelementsnaturallyevolveintolife48Theanswerappearstobethatatleastthechemicalreactionsthatsetthestageforearlylifewouldbesimilareverywherebutresultantlivingorganismswoulddifferbecauseofthegeneticmutationsinevolution.Ifyou’vegotthesamestartingmaterialsandthesameconditionsyou’regoingtogettheamecompoundsthat’sforsureMillersaid.Therealquestioniswhetherornottherearechanceelementsintheformationoflife.49Ina1953experimentMillermixedbasicgasesapproximatingtheEarth’searlyatmospherewithanelectricchargeinsideaglasschamberandproducedaminoacidsaprimitivebuildingblockoflife.Hethensuggestedthatlifewasanaturalevolution.Itseemedthatsciencewasonthevergeofconjuringupcreationsinthelaboratorybutthenext43yearsweretopresentunexpectedchallenges.50Makingtheaminoacidsmadeitseemliketherestofthestepswouldbeveryeasy;it’sturnedouttobemoredifficultthanIthoughtitwouldbeMillersaidinaninterview.
EgyptianwinehasanextensivehistorywithinthehistoryofEgyptiancivilization.Grapeswerenot1tothelandscapeofEgyptratherthevinesthemselvesare2tohavebeenimportedfromthePhoenicians3theactualoriginsremainin4.Whatisknownisthat5thethirdmillenniumBCEgyptiankingsofthefirst6hadextensivewinecellarsandwinewasusedextensivelyinthetempleceremonies.Themain7ofwineinEgypttookplacebetweenthekingnoblesandthepriestsintempleceremoniesandis8bynumerouspaintedrelief’sandother9evidence.ThevineyardsofancientEgyptwerequitedifferentfromthemodernmethodsofwinemakingtoday.10viticultureorwinemakingceasedto11anexclusivelyceremonialpurposetheEgyptiansbegantoexperimentwithsimplestructuresfortheirvinestotrainon12foundawaytotraintheirvinessotheywereeasylow13bushesandfoundwaysforthesoilto14moremoistureforthevines.EgyptianwinemakingexperimentsincludedReuseofdifferentwinepressesaddingheattothemustthegrapejuicereadyforfermentation15makethewinesweetanddifferencesinvattypesandmaterials.The16finishedproductofwinewaspouredthroughaclothfalterandthenintoearthenwarejars17theywouldbesealedwithnaturaltarandleftto18.TheEgyptianskeptaccuraterecordsoftheirvintagesand19oftheirwineseachjarofwinewasclearly20withit’sownvintageandquality. 16
Myinspirationismygrandmotherwho’sstillaliveat96.SheraisedmefromthetimeIwas8onadairyfarminWisconsin.InanothererashecouldhavedonewhatIdoalthoughIdidn’tknowwhataCEOwasthen.I’marealgo-getteranddon’tknowanyotherway.Itellmy12-year-olddaughterifyouhaveatestwhynottryforanAIdon’tbelieveinhalfdoingsomething.Inmycareerthebiggestshockcameinmy20’s.Ilovedmyjobasafieldsystemsanalystat3Mandwantedmyfirstmanager’sjobatheadquarters.TheyeventoldmeIwasthebestcandidatetotallyqualified.ThentheytoldmeIt’snotpossiblebecauseyou’reawoman.IwassoshockedthatIquit.IhadthisfeelingofbeingtotallyblownawayasIcrawledbacktoAtlanta.Ipreachtopeople:therearenobadbosses.Youlearnhownottotreatpeople.Myworstbosswasfullofhimselfandwantedtomicromanage.Themandidn’thaveacomplimentaryboneinhisbody.Istillhavemyperformancereviewhewroteinsmallanalprint.ItwaswinterinMinnesota.Ididn’twanttodrive.Iwasoutthedoorat5p.m.becausethebusleftthefrontdoorat5:06.HeputthatdowninmyreviewhowfastIwasoutthedoor.Itdidn’tmattertherestoftheyearIwasthereuntil6or7.LaterwhenIswitchedcompanies.Iattendedanoff-sitestrategymeetinginFlorida.Therewasabarbecueandthemeetingcontinuedonintotheevening.Myboss’bossthrewatowelacrosstheroomandsaidCleanupCarol.Icaughtthetowelwentoverandscrubbedhisface.EverybodyintheroomwentOhhhh.TheluckiestthinginmycareeristhatIhaveacomputersciencedegree.Doorsopenedwideatatimewhenitwasn’tnecessarilygreatforwomen.IfIcouldwaveamagicwandI’dhaveeverygirlpasscollegefreshmancalculus.EverybodyintheroomwentOhhhh’Line4Para.4because______.
JustunderayearagoasharpdropinequatorialPacificsea-surfacetemperatureindicatedtheendofthe1997~1998E1Nino.Calledbysomeone"theclimateeventofthecentury"itwasbyseveralmeasuresthestrongestonrecord.41______.Thisismorethansimplyanacademicquestion:the1997~1998E1NinoseverelydisruptedglobalweatherpatternsandPacificmarineecosystemsandbyoneestimatecaused＄033billionindamageandcost23000livesworldwide.42______.Clearlywehavemuchtolearnfromthisexperience. 43______.NowE1NinomoregenerallyreferstoawarmingofthetropicalPacificbasinthatoccursroughlyeverythreetosevenyearsinassociationwithaweakeningofthetradewinds.TheoppositesideofElNinoLaNinaischaracterizedbystronger-than-normaltradewindsandunusuallycoldsea-surfacetemperaturesinthetropicalPacific.BothE1NinoandLaNinaareaccompaniedbyswingsinatmosphericpressurebetweentheeasternandwesternPacific.TheseswingsareknownastheSouthernOscillation.ThesephenomenaarecollectivelyreferredtoasENSOorE1Nino/SouthernOscillation. ThegeneralmechanismsunderlyingtheENSOinvolvelarge-scaleocean-atmosphereinteractionsandequatorialoceandynamics.ButeachElNinoandLaNinaisuniqueinthecombinationofitsstrengthdurationandpatternofdevelopment.IrregularityintheENSOcyclecanbeseenbothintherecorddatingbacktothemiddleofthe19thcenturyandinothersupportingdatasuchaslakesedimentscoralgrowthringsandtreeringsgoingbackhundredsoreventhousandsofyears.44______. Nonethelessthe1997~1998E1Ninowasanunusualone.ItdevelopedsorapidlythateverymonthbetweenJuneandDecember1997setanewmonthlyrecordhighforsea-surfacetemperaturesintheeasternequatorialPacific.AnomaliesthatisdeviationsfromnormalinDecember1997werethehighesteverrecordedalongtheEquatorintheeasternPacific.Moreoverbefore1997~1998thepreviousrecord-settingE1Ninooccurredin1982~1983.45______. Severalfactorsmayhavecontributedtothestrengthofthe1997~1998E1Nino.OneischaoswhichsometheoriesinvoketoaccountfortheirregularityoftheENSOcycle.NonlinearresonancesinvolvingENSOandtheseasonalcyclehavereceivedspecialattentionbutotherchaoticinteractionsmayaffectENSOaswell.In1997~1998eventspossiblyactedtogethertoproduceanextraordinarilystrongE1Ninosimplyduetotheunderlyingtendencytowardschaosintheelimatesystem. [A]SoinprincipleitshouldnotbesurprisingthatanunusuallystrongE1Ninooccurseversooften. [B]IdentifyingwhyitwassostrongchallengesourunderstandingofthephysicalmechanismsresponsibleforE1Nino. [C]Fromthatperspectivethestrengthofthe1997~1998E1NinomaybebutonemanifestationofalinkagebetweeninterannualanddecadalclimatevariationsinthePacific. [D]Thesetwo"superE1Ninos"wereseparatedbyonly15yearscomparedwithatypical30~40yeargapbetweensucheventsearlierinthe20thcentury. [E]E1NinoSpanishfor"thechild"andspecificallytheChristchildisthenamePeruvianfishermangavetocoastalsea-temperaturewarningsthatfirstappearedaroundChristmastime. [F]TherewerewarningsofacomingE1Ninobeforeitoccurred.Butalthoughmanycomputerforecastmodelspredictedthat1997wouldbewarminthetropicalPacificuptothreeseasonsinadvancenonepredictedtherapiddevelopmentorultimateintensityoftheeventbeforeitbegan. [G]InassociationwiththePacificDecadalOscillationsea-surfacetemperatureshavegenerallybeenhigherinthetropicalPacificfromtheMid-1970s.SincethentherehavebeenmoreE1NinosthanLaNinas. 44
EgyptianwinehasanextensivehistorywithinthehistoryofEgyptiancivilization.Grapeswerenot1tothelandscapeofEgyptratherthevinesthemselvesare2tohavebeenimportedfromthePhoenicians3theactualoriginsremainin4.Whatisknownisthat5thethirdmillenniumBCEgyptiankingsofthefirst6hadextensivewinecellarsandwinewasusedextensivelyinthetempleceremonies.Themain7ofwineinEgypttookplacebetweenthekingnoblesandthepriestsintempleceremoniesandis8bynumerouspaintedrelief’sandother9evidence.ThevineyardsofancientEgyptwerequitedifferentfromthemodernmethodsofwinemakingtoday.10viticultureorwinemakingceasedto11anexclusivelyceremonialpurposetheEgyptiansbegantoexperimentwithsimplestructuresfortheirvinestotrainon12foundawaytotraintheirvinessotheywereeasylow13bushesandfoundwaysforthesoilto14moremoistureforthevines.EgyptianwinemakingexperimentsincludedReuseofdifferentwinepressesaddingheattothemustthegrapejuicereadyforfermentation15makethewinesweetanddifferencesinvattypesandmaterials.The16finishedproductofwinewaspouredthroughaclothfalterandthenintoearthenwarejars17theywouldbesealedwithnaturaltarandleftto18.TheEgyptianskeptaccuraterecordsoftheirvintagesand19oftheirwineseachjarofwinewasclearly20withit’sownvintageandquality. 10
EgyptianwinehasanextensivehistorywithinthehistoryofEgyptiancivilization.Grapeswerenot1tothelandscapeofEgyptratherthevinesthemselvesare2tohavebeenimportedfromthePhoenicians3theactualoriginsremainin4.Whatisknownisthat5thethirdmillenniumBCEgyptiankingsofthefirst6hadextensivewinecellarsandwinewasusedextensivelyinthetempleceremonies.Themain7ofwineinEgypttookplacebetweenthekingnoblesandthepriestsintempleceremoniesandis8bynumerouspaintedrelief’sandother9evidence.ThevineyardsofancientEgyptwerequitedifferentfromthemodernmethodsofwinemakingtoday.10viticultureorwinemakingceasedto11anexclusivelyceremonialpurposetheEgyptiansbegantoexperimentwithsimplestructuresfortheirvinestotrainon12foundawaytotraintheirvinessotheywereeasylow13bushesandfoundwaysforthesoilto14moremoistureforthevines.EgyptianwinemakingexperimentsincludedReuseofdifferentwinepressesaddingheattothemustthegrapejuicereadyforfermentation15makethewinesweetanddifferencesinvattypesandmaterials.The16finishedproductofwinewaspouredthroughaclothfalterandthenintoearthenwarejars17theywouldbesealedwithnaturaltarandleftto18.TheEgyptianskeptaccuraterecordsoftheirvintagesand19oftheirwineseachjarofwinewasclearly20withit’sownvintageandquality. 12
PeopleintheUnitedStatesinthenineteenthcenturywerehauntedbytheprospectthatunprecedentedchangeinthenation’seconomywouldbringsocialchaos.Intheyearsfollowing1820afterseveraldecadesofrelativestabilitytheeconomyenteredaperiodofsustainedandextremelyrapidgrowththatcontinuedtotheendofthenineteenthcentury.Accompanyingthatgrowthwasastructuralchangethatfeaturedincreasingeconomicdiversificationandagradualshiftinthenation’slaborforcefromagriculturetomanufacturingandothernonagriculturapursuits Althoughthebirthratecontinuedtodeclinefromitshighleveloftheeighteenthandearlynineteenthcenturiesthepopulationroughlydoubledeverygenerationduringtherestofthenineteenthcentury.Asthepopulationgrewitsmakeupalsochanged.Massivewavesofimmigrationbroughtnewethnicgroupsintothecountry.Geographicandsocialmobility--downwardaswellasupward--touchedalmosteveryone.Localstudiesindicatethatnearlythree-quartersofthepopulationintheNorthandSouthintheemergingcitiesoftheNortheastandintherestlessruralcountiesoftheWestchangedtheirresidenceeachdecade.AsaconsequencehistorianDavidDonaldhaswritten"Socialatomizationaffectedeverysegmentofsociety"anditseemedtomanypeoplethat"alltherecognizedvaluesoforderlycivilizationweregraduallybeingeroded." Rapidindustrializationandincreasedgeographicmobilityinthenineteenthcenturyhadspecialimplicationsforwomenbecausethesechangestendedtomagnifysocialdistinctions.Astherolesmenandwomenplayedinsocietybecamemorerigidlydefinedsodidtherolestheyplayedinthehome.Inthecontextofextremecompetitivenessanddizzyingsocialchangethehouseholdlostmanyofitsearlierfunctionsandthehomecametoserveasahavenoftranquillityandorder.Asthesizeoffamiliesdecreasedtherolesofhusbandandwifebecamemoreclearlydifferentiatedthaneverbefore.Inthemiddleclassespeciallymenparticipatedintheproductiveeconomywhilewomenruledthehomeandservedasthecustodiansofcivilityandculture.Theintimacyofmarriagethatwascommoninearlierperiodswasrentandagulfthatattimesseemedunbridgeablewascreatedbetweenhusbandsandwives. WhichofthefollowingbestdescribesthesocietyaboutwhichDavidDonaldwrote
ScientistsatJohnsHopkinshavediscovered"striking"differencesbetweenmenandwomeninapartofthebrainlinkedwithabilitytoestimatetimejudgespeedvisualizethingsthree-dimensionallyandsolvemathematicalproblems. 47Thedifferencestheresearcherssaymayunderliewell-knowntrendsthatvarybysexsuchasthefactthatmorementhanwomenarearchitectsmathematiciansandrace-cardrivers. InastudyreportedthisweekintheJournalCerebralCortextheresearchersshowthatabrainregioncalledtheinferiorparietallobuleissignificantlylargeroverallinmenthaninwomen.Theareaispartofthecerebralcortexandappearsonbothsidesofthebrainjustaboveear-level. Alsothere’sasymmetrydifferencewithmenhavingalargerleftIPLthanright.48Inwomeninthestudyit’stherightIPLthat’ssomewhatlargerthoughthedifferencebetweenthetwosidesofthebrainislessobviousthaninmensayspsychiatristGodfreyPearlsonM.D.whoheadedtheproject. ResearchersalsocomparedIPLvolumesontheleftandtherightsidesofthebrain.Afterallowancesformen’slargeroverallheadandbrainsizemenhadroughly6percentmoreIPLtissuethanwomen. "Theinferiorparietallobuleisfarmoredevelopedinpeoplethaninanimalsandhasevolvedrelativelyrecently"saysPearlson.49Itallowsthebraintoprocessinformationfromsensessuchasvisionandtouchandenablesthesortofthinkinginvolvedinselectiveattentionandperception. StudieslinktherightIPLwithaworkingmemoryofspatialrelationshipstheabilitytosenserelationshipsbetweenbodypartsandawarenessofaperson’sownaffectorfeelings.TheleftIPLPearlsonsaysismoreinvolvedinperceptionsuchasjudginghowfastsomethingismovingestimatingtimeandhavingtheabilitytomentallyrotate3-Dfigures. "Tosaythismeansmenareautomaticallybetteratsomethingsthanwomenisasimplification"saysPearlson."It’seasytofindwomenwhoarefantasticatmathandphysicsandmenwhoexcelinlanguageskills.Onlywhenwelookatverylargepopulationsandlookforslightbutsignificanttrendsdoweseethegeneralizations.50Thereareplentyofexceptionsbutthere’salsoagrainoftruthrevealedthroughthebrainstructurethatwethinkunderliessomeofthewayspeoplecharacterizethesexes." 46
EgyptianwinehasanextensivehistorywithinthehistoryofEgyptiancivilization.Grapeswerenot1tothelandscapeofEgyptratherthevinesthemselvesare2tohavebeenimportedfromthePhoenicians3theactualoriginsremainin4.Whatisknownisthat5thethirdmillenniumBCEgyptiankingsofthefirst6hadextensivewinecellarsandwinewasusedextensivelyinthetempleceremonies.Themain7ofwineinEgypttookplacebetweenthekingnoblesandthepriestsintempleceremoniesandis8bynumerouspaintedrelief’sandother9evidence.ThevineyardsofancientEgyptwerequitedifferentfromthemodernmethodsofwinemakingtoday.10viticultureorwinemakingceasedto11anexclusivelyceremonialpurposetheEgyptiansbegantoexperimentwithsimplestructuresfortheirvinestotrainon12foundawaytotraintheirvinessotheywereeasylow13bushesandfoundwaysforthesoilto14moremoistureforthevines.EgyptianwinemakingexperimentsincludedReuseofdifferentwinepressesaddingheattothemustthegrapejuicereadyforfermentation15makethewinesweetanddifferencesinvattypesandmaterials.The16finishedproductofwinewaspouredthroughaclothfalterandthenintoearthenwarejars17theywouldbesealedwithnaturaltarandleftto18.TheEgyptianskeptaccuraterecordsoftheirvintagesand19oftheirwineseachjarofwinewasclearly20withit’sownvintageandquality. 18
ScientistsatJohnsHopkinshavediscovered"striking"differencesbetweenmenandwomeninapartofthebrainlinkedwithabilitytoestimatetimejudgespeedvisualizethingsthree-dimensionallyandsolvemathematicalproblems. 47Thedifferencestheresearcherssaymayunderliewell-knowntrendsthatvarybysexsuchasthefactthatmorementhanwomenarearchitectsmathematiciansandrace-cardrivers. InastudyreportedthisweekintheJournalCerebralCortextheresearchersshowthatabrainregioncalledtheinferiorparietallobuleissignificantlylargeroverallinmenthaninwomen.Theareaispartofthecerebralcortexandappearsonbothsidesofthebrainjustaboveear-level. Alsothere’sasymmetrydifferencewithmenhavingalargerleftIPLthanright.48Inwomeninthestudyit’stherightIPLthat’ssomewhatlargerthoughthedifferencebetweenthetwosidesofthebrainislessobviousthaninmensayspsychiatristGodfreyPearlsonM.D.whoheadedtheproject. ResearchersalsocomparedIPLvolumesontheleftandtherightsidesofthebrain.Afterallowancesformen’slargeroverallheadandbrainsizemenhadroughly6percentmoreIPLtissuethanwomen. "Theinferiorparietallobuleisfarmoredevelopedinpeoplethaninanimalsandhasevolvedrelativelyrecently"saysPearlson.49Itallowsthebraintoprocessinformationfromsensessuchasvisionandtouchandenablesthesortofthinkinginvolvedinselectiveattentionandperception. StudieslinktherightIPLwithaworkingmemoryofspatialrelationshipstheabilitytosenserelationshipsbetweenbodypartsandawarenessofaperson’sownaffectorfeelings.TheleftIPLPearlsonsaysismoreinvolvedinperceptionsuchasjudginghowfastsomethingismovingestimatingtimeandhavingtheabilitytomentallyrotate3-Dfigures. "Tosaythismeansmenareautomaticallybetteratsomethingsthanwomenisasimplification"saysPearlson."It’seasytofindwomenwhoarefantasticatmathandphysicsandmenwhoexcelinlanguageskills.Onlywhenwelookatverylargepopulationsandlookforslightbutsignificanttrendsdoweseethegeneralizations.50Thereareplentyofexceptionsbutthere’salsoagrainoftruthrevealedthroughthebrainstructurethatwethinkunderliessomeofthewayspeoplecharacterizethesexes." 48
IncomeinequalityintheUnitedStateremainedrelativelystableforaperiodofnearlyfortyyears.Beginninginthe1970’showeverthisperiodofstabilityendedasthefirstsignsofwideningincomeinequalitybecameapparent.Overthecourseofthe1970’sand1980’sanincreasinglycleartrendtowardgreaterincomeinequalityemerged.Bytheendofthe1980’sthetop20percentofworkerswerereceivingthelargestshareofincomeeverrecordedbygovernmentfiguresandthebottomthreefifthswerereceivingthelowestshareseverrecorded.Thistrendhascontinuedintothe1990’sandcurrentlyshowsnosignsofdecline.Whentheindicatorsofgrowinginequalitywerefirstobservedinthe1970’ssomeresearchersarguedthattheeffectsweremerelytemporaryartifactsofshort-termlabormarketdisturbances.Thenewoccupationalstructureappearstobeonewithanincreaseofwell-paidtechnicalscientificandprofessionaljobsatthetopaslidingmiddleclassandagrowingpoorly-paidserviceandretailjobsatthebottom.Severalimportantlabor-forcechangesappearedtobecontributingtotheshiftingoccupationalstructure. Asoccupationalreconstructingandgrowingincomeinequalityhavebecomeincreasinglyevidentaheateddebateastothecausesandmagnitudeofthesechangesarose.Twodominantbodiesofthoughtemergedaroundtheissue:thejob-skillmismatchthesisandthepolarizationthesis.Mismatchtheoristsarguethatthereisanincreasingdistancebetweenthehighskillrequirementsofpost-industrialjobsandtheinadequatetrainingandmediocrequalificationsofworkers.Theyseethepost-industrialeconomyleavingbehindunskilledworkersespeciallywomenandminorities.Forthemismatchtheoristthetrendtowardgreaterinequalityistemporaryaridwilldissipateoncethesupplyofworkersacquirestheskillsdemandedbyapost-industrialeconomy.Andtheypredictthattheworkerswillexperienceanupgradingintheirwagesoverthelongrun.Polarizationtheoristsontheotherhandbelievethattheriseininequalityispermanentaresultoftheshifttoaservice-basedeconomy.Thisvisionofthepostindustrialeconomyischaracteristicallypolarized.Theproblemaccordingtothesetheoristsisthetypeofjobsbeinggeneratedintheneweconomynotworkerattributes.Becausetheybelievethecausesarestructuralandpermanentpolarizationtheoristswoulddenytheefficacyofpublicpoliciesdesignedtoeducateandtrainunskilledworkers.Theypredictalong-termcontinuationofthetrendtowardsincreasingincomeinequality. Studiesshowthatthelong-runincreaseinincomeinequalityisalsorelatedtochangesintheNation’slabormarketanditshouseholdcomposition.Thewagedistributionhasbecomeconsiderablymoreunequalwithmorehighlyskilledtrainedandeducatedworkersatthetopexperiencingrealwagegainsandthoseatthebottomrealwagelosses.Onefactoristheshiftinemploymentfromthosegoods-producingindustriesthathavedisproportionatelyprovidedhigh-wageopportunitiesforlow-skilledworkerstowardsservicesthatdisproportionatelyemploycollegegraduatesandtowardslow-wagesectorssuchasretailtrade.Butwithinindustryshiftsinlabordemandawayfromless-educatedworkersareperhapsamoreimportantexplanationoferodingwagesthantheshiftoutofmanufacturing.Alsocitedasputtingdownwardpressureonthewagesofless-educatedworkersareintensifyingglobalcompetitionandimmigrationthedeclineoftheproportionofworkersbelongingtounionsthedeclineintherealvalueoftheminimumwagetheincreasingneedforcomputerskillsandtheincreasinguseoftemporaryworkers. Whichofthefollowingstatementsistrue
ThediscoverylastweekofpossibleevidenceoflifeonMarshaselectrifieddebateoverwhethertheuniverseisabarrenvoidoranurserypregnantwithlife.Scientistswhohavecomestunninglyclosetorepeatinggenesisortheoriginoflifeinatesttubesaythebuildingblocksforlifeexisteverywhere.Thechallengeisputtingthemtogether.46Theoriginoflifeisarelativelyeasyconceptandthere’sawidevarietyofconditionsunderwhichitwilltakeplacesaidlateStanleyMilleraprofessorattheUniversityofCaliforniaandapioneerinthefield.PerhapstheremarkablethingisthateventhoughMarsisnotafavorableenvironmenttheoriginoflifetookplace.Astronomershavefoundthatthesamegasespresentinoursolarsystemarepresentthroughouttheuniverse.47EffortstomakemicroscopiclifefromthesebasicelementsonEarthsuggeststhechanceoflifearisingundersimilarcircumstancesisthesameeverywheresaychemistsbiologistsandotherexperts.Itseemsfairlylikelythatlifesimilartooursifthereiswateravailable’wouldevolveinotherenvironmentsinourgalaxyorouruniversesaidJamesFerrisaleadingresearcherandeditorofthejournalOriginsofLifeandEvolutionoftheBiosphere.Underlyingmuchoftheresearchisthequestion..WasthedevelopmentoflifeonEarthuniqueordidtheuniverse’schemicalelementsnaturallyevolveintolife48Theanswerappearstobethatatleastthechemicalreactionsthatsetthestageforearlylifewouldbesimilareverywherebutresultantlivingorganismswoulddifferbecauseofthegeneticmutationsinevolution.Ifyou’vegotthesamestartingmaterialsandthesameconditionsyou’regoingtogettheamecompoundsthat’sforsureMillersaid.Therealquestioniswhetherornottherearechanceelementsintheformationoflife.49Ina1953experimentMillermixedbasicgasesapproximatingtheEarth’searlyatmospherewithanelectricchargeinsideaglasschamberandproducedaminoacidsaprimitivebuildingblockoflife.Hethensuggestedthatlifewasanaturalevolution.Itseemedthatsciencewasonthevergeofconjuringupcreationsinthelaboratorybutthenext43yearsweretopresentunexpectedchallenges.50Makingtheaminoacidsmadeitseemliketherestofthestepswouldbeveryeasy;it’sturnedouttobemoredifficultthanIthoughtitwouldbeMillersaidinaninterview.
Extraordinarycreativeactivityhasbeencharacterizedasrevolutionaryflyinginthefaceofwhatisestablishedandproducingnotwhatisacceptablebutwhatwillbecomeaccepted.Accordingtothisformulationhighlycreativeactivitytranscendsthelimitsofanexistingformandestablishesanewprincipleoforganization.Howevertheideathatextraordinarycreativitytranscendsestablishedlimitsismisleadingwhenitisappliedtotheartseventhoughitmaybevalidforthescience;Differencesbetweenhighlycreativeartandhighlycreativescienceariseinpartfromadifferenceintheirgoal.Forthesciencesanewtheoryisthegoalandendresultofthecreativeact.Innovativescienceproducesnewpropositionsintermsofwhichdiversephenomenacanberelatedtooneanotherinmorecoherentways.Suchphenomenaasabrilliantdiamondoranestingbirdarerelegatedtotheroleofdateservingasthemeansforformulatingortestinganewtheory.Thegoalofhighlycreativeartisdifferent:thephenomenonitselfbecomesthedirectproductofthecreativeact.Shakespeare’sHamletisnotatractaboutthebehaviorofindecisiveprincesortheusesofpoliticalpowernorisPicasso’spaintingGuernicaprimarilyaprepositionalstatementabouttheSpanishCivilWarortheevilsoffascism.What’highlycreativeactivityproducesisnotanewgeneralizationthat’transcendsestablishedlimitsbutratheranaestheticparticular.Aestheticparticularsproducedbythehighlycreativeartistextendorexploitratherthantranscendthatform. Thisisnottodenythatahighlycreativeartistsometimesestablishesanewprincipleoforganizationinthehistoryofanartisticfield;thecomposerMonteverdiwhocreatedmusicofthehighestaestheticvaluecomestomind.Moregenerallyhoweverwhetherornotacompositionestablishesanewprincipleinthehistoryofmusichasnobearingonitsaestheticworth.BecausetheyembodyanewprincipleoforganizationsomemusicalworkssuchastheoperasoftheFlorentineCamerataareofsignalhistoricalimportancebutfewlistenersormusicologistswouldincludetheseamongthegreatworksofmusic.OntheotherhandMozart’sTheMarriageofFigaro费加罗的婚礼issurelyamongthemasterpieceofmusiceventhoughitsmodestinnovationsareconfinedtoextendingexistingmeans.IthasbeensaidofBeethoventhathetoppledtherulesandfreedmusicfromthestiflingconfinesofconvention.ButaclosestudyofhiscompositionrevealsthatBeethovenoverturnednofundamentalrules.RatherhewasanincomparablestrategistwhoexploitedlimitsoftherulesformsandconventionsthatheinheritedfrompredecessorssuchasHaydnandMozartHandelandBach—instrikinglyoriginalways. Accordingtotheauthordistinctionsbetweenthoseengagedinthecreativeartsandinnaturalsciencescaninpartbeexplainedby
PeopleintheUnitedStatesinthenineteenthcenturywerehauntedbytheprospectthatunprecedentedchangeinthenation’seconomywouldbringsocialchaos.Intheyearsfollowing1820afterseveraldecadesofrelativestabilitytheeconomyenteredaperiodofsustainedandextremelyrapidgrowththatcontinuedtotheendofthenineteenthcentury.Accompanyingthatgrowthwasastructuralchangethatfeaturedincreasingeconomicdiversificationandagradualshiftinthenation’slaborforcefromagriculturetomanufacturingandothernonagriculturapursuits Althoughthebirthratecontinuedtodeclinefromitshighleveloftheeighteenthandearlynineteenthcenturiesthepopulationroughlydoubledeverygenerationduringtherestofthenineteenthcentury.Asthepopulationgrewitsmakeupalsochanged.Massivewavesofimmigrationbroughtnewethnicgroupsintothecountry.Geographicandsocialmobility--downwardaswellasupward--touchedalmosteveryone.Localstudiesindicatethatnearlythree-quartersofthepopulationintheNorthandSouthintheemergingcitiesoftheNortheastandintherestlessruralcountiesoftheWestchangedtheirresidenceeachdecade.AsaconsequencehistorianDavidDonaldhaswritten"Socialatomizationaffectedeverysegmentofsociety"anditseemedtomanypeoplethat"alltherecognizedvaluesoforderlycivilizationweregraduallybeingeroded." Rapidindustrializationandincreasedgeographicmobilityinthenineteenthcenturyhadspecialimplicationsforwomenbecausethesechangestendedtomagnifysocialdistinctions.Astherolesmenandwomenplayedinsocietybecamemorerigidlydefinedsodidtherolestheyplayedinthehome.Inthecontextofextremecompetitivenessanddizzyingsocialchangethehouseholdlostmanyofitsearlierfunctionsandthehomecametoserveasahavenoftranquillityandorder.Asthesizeoffamiliesdecreasedtherolesofhusbandandwifebecamemoreclearlydifferentiatedthaneverbefore.Inthemiddleclassespeciallymenparticipatedintheproductiveeconomywhilewomenruledthehomeandservedasthecustodiansofcivilityandculture.Theintimacyofmarriagethatwascommoninearlierperiodswasrentandagulfthatattimesseemedunbridgeablewascreatedbetweenhusbandsandwives. Withwhichofthefollowingopinionswouldtheauthorbelikelytoagree
JustunderayearagoasharpdropinequatorialPacificsea-surfacetemperatureindicatedtheendofthe1997~1998E1Nino.Calledbysomeone"theclimateeventofthecentury"itwasbyseveralmeasuresthestrongestonrecord.41______.Thisismorethansimplyanacademicquestion:the1997~1998E1NinoseverelydisruptedglobalweatherpatternsandPacificmarineecosystemsandbyoneestimatecaused＄033billionindamageandcost23000livesworldwide.42______.Clearlywehavemuchtolearnfromthisexperience. 43______.NowE1NinomoregenerallyreferstoawarmingofthetropicalPacificbasinthatoccursroughlyeverythreetosevenyearsinassociationwithaweakeningofthetradewinds.TheoppositesideofElNinoLaNinaischaracterizedbystronger-than-normaltradewindsandunusuallycoldsea-surfacetemperaturesinthetropicalPacific.BothE1NinoandLaNinaareaccompaniedbyswingsinatmosphericpressurebetweentheeasternandwesternPacific.TheseswingsareknownastheSouthernOscillation.ThesephenomenaarecollectivelyreferredtoasENSOorE1Nino/SouthernOscillation. ThegeneralmechanismsunderlyingtheENSOinvolvelarge-scaleocean-atmosphereinteractionsandequatorialoceandynamics.ButeachElNinoandLaNinaisuniqueinthecombinationofitsstrengthdurationandpatternofdevelopment.IrregularityintheENSOcyclecanbeseenbothintherecorddatingbacktothemiddleofthe19thcenturyandinothersupportingdatasuchaslakesedimentscoralgrowthringsandtreeringsgoingbackhundredsoreventhousandsofyears.44______. Nonethelessthe1997~1998E1Ninowasanunusualone.ItdevelopedsorapidlythateverymonthbetweenJuneandDecember1997setanewmonthlyrecordhighforsea-surfacetemperaturesintheeasternequatorialPacific.AnomaliesthatisdeviationsfromnormalinDecember1997werethehighesteverrecordedalongtheEquatorintheeasternPacific.Moreoverbefore1997~1998thepreviousrecord-settingE1Ninooccurredin1982~1983.45______. Severalfactorsmayhavecontributedtothestrengthofthe1997~1998E1Nino.OneischaoswhichsometheoriesinvoketoaccountfortheirregularityoftheENSOcycle.NonlinearresonancesinvolvingENSOandtheseasonalcyclehavereceivedspecialattentionbutotherchaoticinteractionsmayaffectENSOaswell.In1997~1998eventspossiblyactedtogethertoproduceanextraordinarilystrongE1Ninosimplyduetotheunderlyingtendencytowardschaosintheelimatesystem. [A]SoinprincipleitshouldnotbesurprisingthatanunusuallystrongE1Ninooccurseversooften. [B]IdentifyingwhyitwassostrongchallengesourunderstandingofthephysicalmechanismsresponsibleforE1Nino. [C]Fromthatperspectivethestrengthofthe1997~1998E1NinomaybebutonemanifestationofalinkagebetweeninterannualanddecadalclimatevariationsinthePacific. [D]Thesetwo"superE1Ninos"wereseparatedbyonly15yearscomparedwithatypical30~40yeargapbetweensucheventsearlierinthe20thcentury. [E]E1NinoSpanishfor"thechild"andspecificallytheChristchildisthenamePeruvianfishermangavetocoastalsea-temperaturewarningsthatfirstappearedaroundChristmastime. [F]TherewerewarningsofacomingE1Ninobeforeitoccurred.Butalthoughmanycomputerforecastmodelspredictedthat1997wouldbewarminthetropicalPacificuptothreeseasonsinadvancenonepredictedtherapiddevelopmentorultimateintensityoftheeventbeforeitbegan. [G]InassociationwiththePacificDecadalOscillationsea-surfacetemperatureshavegenerallybeenhigherinthetropicalPacificfromtheMid-1970s.SincethentherehavebeenmoreE1NinosthanLaNinas. 42
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