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John Winston Lennon was born into a world at war with itself — a perfect symbol of the internal c...
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Thefirsttwostagesinthedevelopmentofcivilizedmanwereprobablytheinventionofprimitiveweaponsandthediscoveryoffirealthoughnobodyknowsexactlywhenpeopleacquiredtheuseof1. The2oflanguageisalsoobscure.Nodoubtitbeganverygradually.Animalshaveafewcriesthatserve3signals4eventhehighestapeshavenotbeenfoundabletopronouncewords5withthemostintensiveprofessionalinstruction.Thesuperiorbrainofmanisapparently6forthemasteringofspeech.Whenmanbecamesufficientlyintelligentwemustsupposethathe7thenumberofcriesfordifferentpurposes.Itwasagreatclay8hediscoveredthatspeedcouldbeusedfornarrative.Therearethosewhothinkthat9picturelanguageprecededorallanguage.Aman10apictureonthewallofhiscavetoshow11directionhehadgoneor12preyhehopedtocatch.Probablypicturelanguageandorallanguagedevelopedsidebyside.Iaminclinedtothinkthatlanguage13themostimportantsinglefactorinthedevelopmentofman. Twoimportantstagescamenot14beforethedawnofwrittenhistory.Thefirstwasthedomesticationofanimals;thesecondwasagriculture.Agriculturewas15inhumanprogresstowhichsubsequentlytherewasnothingcomparable16ourownmachineage.Agriculturemadepossible17immenseincreaseinthenumberofthehumanspeciesintheregionswhereitcouldbesuccessfullypractised.18wereatfirstonlythoseinwhichnaturefertilizedthesoil19eachharvest.Agriculturemetwithviolentresistancefromthepastoralnomadsbuttheagriculturalwayoflifeprevailedintheend20thephysicalcomfortsitprovided. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.11
Generallyasavinginenergyconsumptionisinsufficientincentivefortheconsumertopurchasenewcookingequipmentunlessotherimprovementse.g.shortercookingperiodsfewercleaningdifficultiesandimprovedappearanceareavailableaswell.Fortheindividualthereisanaturalreticencetoincurrapidchangesbecauseofthevalideconomicdesiretoexploitexistingcapitalinvestmenttothemaximum:thisisthemajorproblemwithmanyproposedenergy-thriftmeasures.Howevercaterersshould’appreciatethatbyreducingenergywastages;theywillnotonlybesavingmoneybutalsoimprovingtheworkingenvironmentwithintheirkitchens.Retro-fittingexistingcookerswithenergy-conservationimprovementsinordertoraiseachievableefficiencieswilloccuronlyrarely.Forthemostimmediatesignificantimpactnationallywithrespecttoreducingtheenergyexpendeduponcookingbettermanagementisrecommended.Lawsonsuggestedthatabout16PJperyearcouldbesavedintheBritishcateringsectorbyadoptingimprovedoperationalpractices.Ifonly10%oftheenergyusedforcateringpurposesinthedomesticsectorcouldalsobesavedoverallnationalsavingswouldamounttoapproximately44PJperannum.Toachievethisaimacomprehensiveandstraight-forwardprogramofenergy-thrifteducationforhousewivescooksandkitchenmanagersisneeded.Thiswillrequireallconcernedtoexerciseconsiderablepersonaldiscipline.Thepresentapproachwherebyindividualsmakepurchasingdecisionsmainlyonvisualandfirst-costgrounds-partlybecausethecookingapplianceandfoodmanufacturingindustriesrarelyprovideadequatescientificdatatosupporttheirclaims-shouldbesupplementedbyotherconsiderations.Foodistoofundamentaltohumanlifehealthandhappinesstobeconsideredanunworthysubjectbyintellectuals.ForexampleeventhetypicalBritonwhotendstobecasualabouteatingcomparedwithmostofhisforeigncounterpartsspendsbetween5%and13%ofhiswakinghourspreparingcookingand/orcleaningaway’aftermeals.Neverthelessenergywastageprevailsbothonanationalscalee.g.storingvastquantitiesoffoodatsub-ambienttemperaturesinso-calledfoodmountains;andonanindividualscalee.g.performinghoboperationswithoutplacinglidsonthepansemployed.Foodissofundamentaltohumanlifethat_______.
Centuriesagomandiscoveredthatremovingmoisturefromfoodhelpstopreserveitandthattheeasiestwaytodothisistoexposethefoodtosunandwind.InthiswaytheNorthAmericanIndiansproducepemmicantheScandinaviansmakestockfishandtheArabsdrydatesandapricotleather.Allfoodscontainwater-cabbageandotherleafvegetablescontainasmuchas93%waterpotatoesandotherrootvegetables80%leanmeat75%andfishanythingfrom80%to60%dependingonhowfattyitis.Ifthiswaterisremovedtheactivityofthebacteriathatcausefoodtodeteriorateischecked.Fruitissun-driedinAsiaMinorGreeceSpainandotherMediterraneancountriesandalsoinCaliforniaSouthAfricaandAustralia.Themethodsusedvarybutingeneralthefruitisspreadoutontraysindryingyardsinthehotsun.Inordertopreventdarkeningpearspeachesandapricotsareexposedtothefumesofburningsulfurbeforedrying.Plumsformakingprunesandcertainvarietiesofgrapesformakingraisinsandcurrantsaredippedinanalkalinesolutioninordertocracktheskinsofthefruitslightlyandremovetheirwaxcoatingsoincreasingtherateofdrying.Nowadaysmostfoodsaredriedmechanically.Theconventionalmethodofsuchdehydrationistoputfoodinchambersthroughwhichhotairisblownattemperaturesofabout110℃atentrytoabout43℃atexit.Thisistheusualmethodfordryingsuchthingsasvegetablesmincedmeatandfish.Liquidssuchasmilkcoffeeteasoupsandeggsmaybedriedbypouringthemoveraheatedhorizontalsteelcylinderorbysprayingthemintoachamberthroughwhichacurrentofhotairpasses.Inthefirstcasethedriedmaterialisscrapedofftherollerasathinfilmwhichisthenbrokenupintosmallthoughstillrelativelycoarseflakes;inthesecondprocessitfallstothebottomofthechamberasafinepowder.Whererecognizablepiecesofmeatandvegetablesarerequiredasinsouptheingredientsaredriedseparatelyandthenmixed.Driedfoodstakeuplessroomandweighlessthanthesamefoodpackedincansorfrozenandtheydonotneedtobestoredinspecialconditions.Forthesereasonstheyareinvaluabletoclimbersexplorersandsoldiersinbattlewhohavelittlestoragespace.Theyarealsopopularwithhousewivesbecauseittakessolittletimetocookthem.Usuallyitisjustacaseofreplacingthedried-outmoisturewithboilingwater.Howisthefruitsun-driedinSouthAfrica
A.Humanbehavior B.Cultureattributes C.PhysiologyofHomosapiens D.ClassificationofHomosapiens E.Humansociety F.StructureofHomosapiens HumancommonnamegiventoanyindividualofthespeciesHomosapiensandbyextensiontotheentirespecies.ThetermisalsoappliedtocertainspeciesthatweretheevolutionaryforerunnersofHomosapiens.Scientistsconsideralllivingpeoplemembersofasinglespecies. 41.__________ Homosapiensisidentifiedforpurposesofclassificationasananimalwithabackboneandsegmentedspinalcordthatsucklesitsyoung;thatgestatesitsyoungwiththeaidofaplacenta;thatisequippedwithfive-digitedextremitiesacollarboneandasinglepairofmammaryglandsonthechest;andthathaseyesatthefrontoftheheadstereoscopicvisionandaproportionatelylargebrain.ThespeciesbelongstothefamilyHominidaethegeneralcharacteristicsofwhicharediscussedbelow. 42.__________ ThedetailsofskeletalstructuredistinguishingHomosapiensfromthenearestprimaterelatives-thegorillachimpanzeeandorangutan-stemlargelyfromaveryearlyadaptationtoacompletelyerectpostureandatwo-footedstridingwalk.TheuniquelyS-shapedspinalcolumnplacesthecenterofgravityofthehumanbodydirectlyovertheareaofsupportprovidedbythefeetthusgivingstabilityandbalanceintheuptightposition. Completebipedalisminthehumanfreedthehandtobecomeasupremelysensitiveinstrumentforprecisemanipulationandgrasping.Themostimportantstructuraldetailinthisrefinementistheelongatedhumanthumbwhichcanrotatefreelyandisfullyopposabletotheotherfingers.Thephysiologicalrequirementsforspeechweresecondarilyestablishedbyerectposturewhichpositionsthevocalcordsforcontrolledbreathingandbytheskilleduseofthehands.Thelatterdevelopmentoccursinassociationwiththeenlargementandspecializationofabrainareathatisaprerequisiteforrefinedcontrolofthelipsandtongue. 43.__________ ThelargebrainofHomosapiensisapproximatelydoublethatofearlyhumantoolmakers.Thisgreatincreaseinsizeinonly2millionyearswasachievedbyaprocesscalledneotenywhichistheprolongationofretentionofimmaturecharacteristics.Thejuvenilestageofbrainandskulldevelopmentisprolongedsothattheygrowforalongerperiodoftimeinrelationtothetimerequiredtoreachsexualmaturity.Unliketheearlyhumanadultskullwithitsslopingforeheadandprominentjawthemodemhumanskull-withbiologicallyinsignificantvariations-retainsintomaturityaproportionatelylargesizeinrelationtotherestofthebodyahigh-roundeddomestraight-planedfaceandreducedjawsizeallcloselyresemblingthecharacteristicsoftheskullinthejuvenilechimpanzee.Itsenlargeddimensionsrequiredadaptationsforpassagethroughthebirthcanal;consequentlythehumanfemalepelviswidensatmaturityandthehumaninfantisbornprematurely. 44.__________ Thephysiologicaladaptationsthatmadehumansmoreflexiblethanotherprimatesallowedforthedevelopmentofawiderangeofabilitiesandanunparalleledversatilityinbehavior.Thebrain’sgreatsizecomplexityandslowmaturationwithneuralconnectionsbeingaddedthoughatleastthefirst12yearsoflifemeantthatlearnedbehaviorcouldlargelymodifystereotypedinstinctiveresponses.Newenvironmentaldemandscouldbemetbyrapidadjustmentsratherthanbyslowgeneticselection;thussurvivalinawiderangeofhabitatsandunderextremeconditionseventuallybecamepossiblewithoutfurtherspeciesdifferentiation.Eachnewinfanthoweverwithrelativelyfewinnatetraitsyetwithavastnumberofpotentialbehaviorsmustbetaughttoachieveitsbiologicalpotentialasahuman. 45.__________ Thehumanspecieshasauniquecapabilityforcultureinthesenseofconsciousthinkingandplanningtransmissionofskillsandsystemsofsocialrelationshipsandcreativemodificationoftheenvironment.Theintegratedpatternsofbehaviorrequiredforplanningandfashioningtoolswereaccomplishedatleast2.5millionyearsagoandsomeformofadvancedcodeforvocalcommunicationmayalsohaveexistedatthistime.By350000yearsagoplannedhuntingfiremakingandthewearingofclothingwerewellestablishedaswaspossiblyritualizeddisposalofthedead.Evidenceofreligionrecordedeventsandartdatefrom30000to40000yearsagoandimplyadvancedlanguageandethicsforthecomplexorderingofsocialgroupsrequiredforsuchactivities.FromaboutthattimethegenusHomobegantostabilizeintotheonegeneralizedspeciesofHomosapiens. 41
Sciencedevelopsthroughobjectiveanalysisinsteadofthroughpersonalbelief.Knowledgegainedinscienceaccumulatesastimegoesbybuildingonworkperformedearlier.Someofthisknowledge-suchasourunderstandingofnumbers-stretchesback’tothetimeofancientcivilizationswhenscientificthoughtfirstbegan.Otherscientificknowledgesuchasourunderstandingofgenesthatcausecancerorofquarksthesmallestknownbuildingblockofmatter-datesbacklessthan50years.Howeverinallfieldsofscienceoldornewresearchersusethesamesystematicapproachknownasthescientificmethodtoaddtowhatisknown. 41__________.Forexamplein1676theEnglishphysicistRobertHookediscoveredthatelasticobjectssuchasmetalspringsstretchinproportiontotheforcethatactsonthem.Despitealltheadvancesthathavebeenmadeinphysicssince1676thissimplelawStillholdstrue. 42__________.Sometimesscientificpredictionsgomuchfurtherbydescribingobjectsoreventsthatarenotyetknown.Anoutstandinginstanceoccurredin1869whentheRussianchemistDmitryMendeleyevdrewupaperiodictableoftheelementsarrangedtoillustratepatternsofrecurringchemicalandphysicalproperties. 43__________.AtthetimemostgeologistsdiscountedWegener’sideasbecausetheEarth’scrustseemedtobefixed.Butfollowingthediscoveryofplatetectonicsinthe1960sinwhichscientistsfoundthattheEarth’scrustisactuallymadeofmovingplatescontinentaldriftbecameanimportantpartofgeology. Throughadvanceslikethesescientificknowledgeisconstantlyaddedtoandrefined.Asaresultsciencegivesusanevermoredetailedinsightintothewaytheworldaroundusworks. 44__________.HoweverwiththedawnoftheIndustrialRevolutioninthe18thcenturythisrapidlychanged.Todaysciencehasaprofoundeffectonthewaywelivelargelythroughtechnology--theuse.ofscientificknowledgeforpractical 45__________.Therefrigeratorforexampleowesitsexistencetoadiscoverythatliquidstakeinenergywhentheyevaporateaphenomenonknownaslatentheat. A.Scientistsutilizeexistingknowledgeinnewscientificinvestigationstopredicthowthingswillbehave.Forexampleascientistwhoknowstheexactdimensionsofalenscanpredicthowthelenswillfocusabeamoflight.Inthesamewaybyknowingtheexactmakeupandpropertiesoftwochemicalsaresearchercanpredictwhatwillhappenwhentheycombine. B.Foralargepartofrecordedhistorysciencehadlittlebearingonpeople’severydaylives.Scientificknowledgewasgatheredforitsownsakeandithadfewpracticalapplications. C.Duringscientificinvestigationsscientistsputtogetherandcomparenewdiscoveriesandexistingknowledge.Inmostcasesnewdiscoveriesextendwhatiscurrentlyacceptedprovidingfurtherevidencethatexistingideasarecorrect. D.Tileprincipleoflatentheatwasfirstexploitedinapracticalwayin1876andtherefrigeratorhasplayedamajorroleinmaintainingpublichealtheversince.Tilefirstautomobiledatingfromthe1880smadeuseofmanyadvancesinphysicsandengineeringincludingreliablewaysofgeneratinghigh-voltagesparkswhilethefirstcomputersemergedinthe1940sfromsimultaneousadvancesinelectronicsandmathematics. E.Someformsoftechnologyhavebecomesowellestablishedthatitiseasytoforgetthegreatscientificachievementsthattheyrepresent. F.Inscienceimportantadvancescanalsobemadewhencurrentideasareshowntobewrong.Aclassiccaseofthisoccurredearlyinthe20thcenturywhentheGermangeologistAlfredWegenersuggestedthatthecontinentswereatonetimeconnectedatheoryknownascontinentaldrift. G.Otherfieldsofsciencealsoplayanimportantroleinthethingsweuseorconsumeeveryday.Researchinfoodtechnologyhascreatednewwaysofpreservingandflavoringwhatweeat. 41
Thefirsttwostagesinthedevelopmentofcivilizedmanwereprobablytheinventionofprimitiveweaponsandthediscoveryoffirealthoughnobodyknowsexactlywhenpeopleacquiredtheuseof1. The2oflanguageisalsoobscure.Nodoubtitbeganverygradually.Animalshaveafewcriesthatserve3signals4eventhehighestapeshavenotbeenfoundabletopronouncewords5withthemostintensiveprofessionalinstruction.Thesuperiorbrainofmanisapparently6forthemasteringofspeech.Whenmanbecamesufficientlyintelligentwemustsupposethathe7thenumberofcriesfordifferentpurposes.Itwasagreatclay8hediscoveredthatspeedcouldbeusedfornarrative.Therearethosewhothinkthat9picturelanguageprecededorallanguage.Aman10apictureonthewallofhiscavetoshow11directionhehadgoneor12preyhehopedtocatch.Probablypicturelanguageandorallanguagedevelopedsidebyside.Iaminclinedtothinkthatlanguage13themostimportantsinglefactorinthedevelopmentofman. Twoimportantstagescamenot14beforethedawnofwrittenhistory.Thefirstwasthedomesticationofanimals;thesecondwasagriculture.Agriculturewas15inhumanprogresstowhichsubsequentlytherewasnothingcomparable16ourownmachineage.Agriculturemadepossible17immenseincreaseinthenumberofthehumanspeciesintheregionswhereitcouldbesuccessfullypractised.18wereatfirstonlythoseinwhichnaturefertilizedthesoil19eachharvest.Agriculturemetwithviolentresistancefromthepastoralnomadsbuttheagriculturalwayoflifeprevailedintheend20thephysicalcomfortsitprovided. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.1
Directions:YouareaseniorstudentatBeijingUnionUniversitymajoringincomputerscience.Youarepreparingtotakethenationalexaminationforthepostgraduatesnextyear.WritealettertoProfWangexpressingyourhopetoattendhisEnglishWritingclass.Youshouldwriteabout100wordsonANSWERSHEET2.Donotsignyourownnameattheendoftheletter.UseLiMinginsteadYoudonotneedtowritetheaddress.
Thefirsttwostagesinthedevelopmentofcivilizedmanwereprobablytheinventionofprimitiveweaponsandthediscoveryoffirealthoughnobodyknowsexactlywhenpeopleacquiredtheuseof1. The2oflanguageisalsoobscure.Nodoubtitbeganverygradually.Animalshaveafewcriesthatserve3signals4eventhehighestapeshavenotbeenfoundabletopronouncewords5withthemostintensiveprofessionalinstruction.Thesuperiorbrainofmanisapparently6forthemasteringofspeech.Whenmanbecamesufficientlyintelligentwemustsupposethathe7thenumberofcriesfordifferentpurposes.Itwasagreatclay8hediscoveredthatspeedcouldbeusedfornarrative.Therearethosewhothinkthat9picturelanguageprecededorallanguage.Aman10apictureonthewallofhiscavetoshow11directionhehadgoneor12preyhehopedtocatch.Probablypicturelanguageandorallanguagedevelopedsidebyside.Iaminclinedtothinkthatlanguage13themostimportantsinglefactorinthedevelopmentofman. Twoimportantstagescamenot14beforethedawnofwrittenhistory.Thefirstwasthedomesticationofanimals;thesecondwasagriculture.Agriculturewas15inhumanprogresstowhichsubsequentlytherewasnothingcomparable16ourownmachineage.Agriculturemadepossible17immenseincreaseinthenumberofthehumanspeciesintheregionswhereitcouldbesuccessfullypractised.18wereatfirstonlythoseinwhichnaturefertilizedthesoil19eachharvest.Agriculturemetwithviolentresistancefromthepastoralnomadsbuttheagriculturalwayoflifeprevailedintheend20thephysicalcomfortsitprovided. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.7
A.Humanbehavior B.Cultureattributes C.PhysiologyofHomosapiens D.ClassificationofHomosapiens E.Humansociety F.StructureofHomosapiens HumancommonnamegiventoanyindividualofthespeciesHomosapiensandbyextensiontotheentirespecies.ThetermisalsoappliedtocertainspeciesthatweretheevolutionaryforerunnersofHomosapiens.Scientistsconsideralllivingpeoplemembersofasinglespecies. 41.__________ Homosapiensisidentifiedforpurposesofclassificationasananimalwithabackboneandsegmentedspinalcordthatsucklesitsyoung;thatgestatesitsyoungwiththeaidofaplacenta;thatisequippedwithfive-digitedextremitiesacollarboneandasinglepairofmammaryglandsonthechest;andthathaseyesatthefrontoftheheadstereoscopicvisionandaproportionatelylargebrain.ThespeciesbelongstothefamilyHominidaethegeneralcharacteristicsofwhicharediscussedbelow. 42.__________ ThedetailsofskeletalstructuredistinguishingHomosapiensfromthenearestprimaterelatives-thegorillachimpanzeeandorangutan-stemlargelyfromaveryearlyadaptationtoacompletelyerectpostureandatwo-footedstridingwalk.TheuniquelyS-shapedspinalcolumnplacesthecenterofgravityofthehumanbodydirectlyovertheareaofsupportprovidedbythefeetthusgivingstabilityandbalanceintheuptightposition. Completebipedalisminthehumanfreedthehandtobecomeasupremelysensitiveinstrumentforprecisemanipulationandgrasping.Themostimportantstructuraldetailinthisrefinementistheelongatedhumanthumbwhichcanrotatefreelyandisfullyopposabletotheotherfingers.Thephysiologicalrequirementsforspeechweresecondarilyestablishedbyerectposturewhichpositionsthevocalcordsforcontrolledbreathingandbytheskilleduseofthehands.Thelatterdevelopmentoccursinassociationwiththeenlargementandspecializationofabrainareathatisaprerequisiteforrefinedcontrolofthelipsandtongue. 43.__________ ThelargebrainofHomosapiensisapproximatelydoublethatofearlyhumantoolmakers.Thisgreatincreaseinsizeinonly2millionyearswasachievedbyaprocesscalledneotenywhichistheprolongationofretentionofimmaturecharacteristics.Thejuvenilestageofbrainandskulldevelopmentisprolongedsothattheygrowforalongerperiodoftimeinrelationtothetimerequiredtoreachsexualmaturity.Unliketheearlyhumanadultskullwithitsslopingforeheadandprominentjawthemodemhumanskull-withbiologicallyinsignificantvariations-retainsintomaturityaproportionatelylargesizeinrelationtotherestofthebodyahigh-roundeddomestraight-planedfaceandreducedjawsizeallcloselyresemblingthecharacteristicsoftheskullinthejuvenilechimpanzee.Itsenlargeddimensionsrequiredadaptationsforpassagethroughthebirthcanal;consequentlythehumanfemalepelviswidensatmaturityandthehumaninfantisbornprematurely. 44.__________ Thephysiologicaladaptationsthatmadehumansmoreflexiblethanotherprimatesallowedforthedevelopmentofawiderangeofabilitiesandanunparalleledversatilityinbehavior.Thebrain’sgreatsizecomplexityandslowmaturationwithneuralconnectionsbeingaddedthoughatleastthefirst12yearsoflifemeantthatlearnedbehaviorcouldlargelymodifystereotypedinstinctiveresponses.Newenvironmentaldemandscouldbemetbyrapidadjustmentsratherthanbyslowgeneticselection;thussurvivalinawiderangeofhabitatsandunderextremeconditionseventuallybecamepossiblewithoutfurtherspeciesdifferentiation.Eachnewinfanthoweverwithrelativelyfewinnatetraitsyetwithavastnumberofpotentialbehaviorsmustbetaughttoachieveitsbiologicalpotentialasahuman. 45.__________ Thehumanspecieshasauniquecapabilityforcultureinthesenseofconsciousthinkingandplanningtransmissionofskillsandsystemsofsocialrelationshipsandcreativemodificationoftheenvironment.Theintegratedpatternsofbehaviorrequiredforplanningandfashioningtoolswereaccomplishedatleast2.5millionyearsagoandsomeformofadvancedcodeforvocalcommunicationmayalsohaveexistedatthistime.By350000yearsagoplannedhuntingfiremakingandthewearingofclothingwerewellestablishedaswaspossiblyritualizeddisposalofthedead.Evidenceofreligionrecordedeventsandartdatefrom30000to40000yearsagoandimplyadvancedlanguageandethicsforthecomplexorderingofsocialgroupsrequiredforsuchactivities.FromaboutthattimethegenusHomobegantostabilizeintotheonegeneralizedspeciesofHomosapiens. 43
Thefirsttwostagesinthedevelopmentofcivilizedmanwereprobablytheinventionofprimitiveweaponsandthediscoveryoffirealthoughnobodyknowsexactlywhenpeopleacquiredtheuseof1. The2oflanguageisalsoobscure.Nodoubtitbeganverygradually.Animalshaveafewcriesthatserve3signals4eventhehighestapeshavenotbeenfoundabletopronouncewords5withthemostintensiveprofessionalinstruction.Thesuperiorbrainofmanisapparently6forthemasteringofspeech.Whenmanbecamesufficientlyintelligentwemustsupposethathe7thenumberofcriesfordifferentpurposes.Itwasagreatclay8hediscoveredthatspeedcouldbeusedfornarrative.Therearethosewhothinkthat9picturelanguageprecededorallanguage.Aman10apictureonthewallofhiscavetoshow11directionhehadgoneor12preyhehopedtocatch.Probablypicturelanguageandorallanguagedevelopedsidebyside.Iaminclinedtothinkthatlanguage13themostimportantsinglefactorinthedevelopmentofman. Twoimportantstagescamenot14beforethedawnofwrittenhistory.Thefirstwasthedomesticationofanimals;thesecondwasagriculture.Agriculturewas15inhumanprogresstowhichsubsequentlytherewasnothingcomparable16ourownmachineage.Agriculturemadepossible17immenseincreaseinthenumberofthehumanspeciesintheregionswhereitcouldbesuccessfullypractised.18wereatfirstonlythoseinwhichnaturefertilizedthesoil19eachharvest.Agriculturemetwithviolentresistancefromthepastoralnomadsbuttheagriculturalwayoflifeprevailedintheend20thephysicalcomfortsitprovided. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.3
Thefirsttwostagesinthedevelopmentofcivilizedmanwereprobablytheinventionofprimitiveweaponsandthediscoveryoffirealthoughnobodyknowsexactlywhenpeopleacquiredtheuseof1. The2oflanguageisalsoobscure.Nodoubtitbeganverygradually.Animalshaveafewcriesthatserve3signals4eventhehighestapeshavenotbeenfoundabletopronouncewords5withthemostintensiveprofessionalinstruction.Thesuperiorbrainofmanisapparently6forthemasteringofspeech.Whenmanbecamesufficientlyintelligentwemustsupposethathe7thenumberofcriesfordifferentpurposes.Itwasagreatclay8hediscoveredthatspeedcouldbeusedfornarrative.Therearethosewhothinkthat9picturelanguageprecededorallanguage.Aman10apictureonthewallofhiscavetoshow11directionhehadgoneor12preyhehopedtocatch.Probablypicturelanguageandorallanguagedevelopedsidebyside.Iaminclinedtothinkthatlanguage13themostimportantsinglefactorinthedevelopmentofman. Twoimportantstagescamenot14beforethedawnofwrittenhistory.Thefirstwasthedomesticationofanimals;thesecondwasagriculture.Agriculturewas15inhumanprogresstowhichsubsequentlytherewasnothingcomparable16ourownmachineage.Agriculturemadepossible17immenseincreaseinthenumberofthehumanspeciesintheregionswhereitcouldbesuccessfullypractised.18wereatfirstonlythoseinwhichnaturefertilizedthesoil19eachharvest.Agriculturemetwithviolentresistancefromthepastoralnomadsbuttheagriculturalwayoflifeprevailedintheend20thephysicalcomfortsitprovided. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.15
Sciencedevelopsthroughobjectiveanalysisinsteadofthroughpersonalbelief.Knowledgegainedinscienceaccumulatesastimegoesbybuildingonworkperformedearlier.Someofthisknowledge-suchasourunderstandingofnumbers-stretchesback’tothetimeofancientcivilizationswhenscientificthoughtfirstbegan.Otherscientificknowledgesuchasourunderstandingofgenesthatcausecancerorofquarksthesmallestknownbuildingblockofmatter-datesbacklessthan50years.Howeverinallfieldsofscienceoldornewresearchersusethesamesystematicapproachknownasthescientificmethodtoaddtowhatisknown. 41__________.Forexamplein1676theEnglishphysicistRobertHookediscoveredthatelasticobjectssuchasmetalspringsstretchinproportiontotheforcethatactsonthem.Despitealltheadvancesthathavebeenmadeinphysicssince1676thissimplelawStillholdstrue. 42__________.Sometimesscientificpredictionsgomuchfurtherbydescribingobjectsoreventsthatarenotyetknown.Anoutstandinginstanceoccurredin1869whentheRussianchemistDmitryMendeleyevdrewupaperiodictableoftheelementsarrangedtoillustratepatternsofrecurringchemicalandphysicalproperties. 43__________.AtthetimemostgeologistsdiscountedWegener’sideasbecausetheEarth’scrustseemedtobefixed.Butfollowingthediscoveryofplatetectonicsinthe1960sinwhichscientistsfoundthattheEarth’scrustisactuallymadeofmovingplatescontinentaldriftbecameanimportantpartofgeology. Throughadvanceslikethesescientificknowledgeisconstantlyaddedtoandrefined.Asaresultsciencegivesusanevermoredetailedinsightintothewaytheworldaroundusworks. 44__________.HoweverwiththedawnoftheIndustrialRevolutioninthe18thcenturythisrapidlychanged.Todaysciencehasaprofoundeffectonthewaywelivelargelythroughtechnology--theuse.ofscientificknowledgeforpractical 45__________.Therefrigeratorforexampleowesitsexistencetoadiscoverythatliquidstakeinenergywhentheyevaporateaphenomenonknownaslatentheat. A.Scientistsutilizeexistingknowledgeinnewscientificinvestigationstopredicthowthingswillbehave.Forexampleascientistwhoknowstheexactdimensionsofalenscanpredicthowthelenswillfocusabeamoflight.Inthesamewaybyknowingtheexactmakeupandpropertiesoftwochemicalsaresearchercanpredictwhatwillhappenwhentheycombine. B.Foralargepartofrecordedhistorysciencehadlittlebearingonpeople’severydaylives.Scientificknowledgewasgatheredforitsownsakeandithadfewpracticalapplications. C.Duringscientificinvestigationsscientistsputtogetherandcomparenewdiscoveriesandexistingknowledge.Inmostcasesnewdiscoveriesextendwhatiscurrentlyacceptedprovidingfurtherevidencethatexistingideasarecorrect. D.Tileprincipleoflatentheatwasfirstexploitedinapracticalwayin1876andtherefrigeratorhasplayedamajorroleinmaintainingpublichealtheversince.Tilefirstautomobiledatingfromthe1880smadeuseofmanyadvancesinphysicsandengineeringincludingreliablewaysofgeneratinghigh-voltagesparkswhilethefirstcomputersemergedinthe1940sfromsimultaneousadvancesinelectronicsandmathematics. E.Someformsoftechnologyhavebecomesowellestablishedthatitiseasytoforgetthegreatscientificachievementsthattheyrepresent. F.Inscienceimportantadvancescanalsobemadewhencurrentideasareshowntobewrong.Aclassiccaseofthisoccurredearlyinthe20thcenturywhentheGermangeologistAlfredWegenersuggestedthatthecontinentswereatonetimeconnectedatheoryknownascontinentaldrift. G.Otherfieldsofsciencealsoplayanimportantroleinthethingsweuseorconsumeeveryday.Researchinfoodtechnologyhascreatednewwaysofpreservingandflavoringwhatweeat. 43
Sciencedevelopsthroughobjectiveanalysisinsteadofthroughpersonalbelief.Knowledgegainedinscienceaccumulatesastimegoesbybuildingonworkperformedearlier.Someofthisknowledge-suchasourunderstandingofnumbers-stretchesback’tothetimeofancientcivilizationswhenscientificthoughtfirstbegan.Otherscientificknowledgesuchasourunderstandingofgenesthatcausecancerorofquarksthesmallestknownbuildingblockofmatter-datesbacklessthan50years.Howeverinallfieldsofscienceoldornewresearchersusethesamesystematicapproachknownasthescientificmethodtoaddtowhatisknown. 41__________.Forexamplein1676theEnglishphysicistRobertHookediscoveredthatelasticobjectssuchasmetalspringsstretchinproportiontotheforcethatactsonthem.Despitealltheadvancesthathavebeenmadeinphysicssince1676thissimplelawStillholdstrue. 42__________.Sometimesscientificpredictionsgomuchfurtherbydescribingobjectsoreventsthatarenotyetknown.Anoutstandinginstanceoccurredin1869whentheRussianchemistDmitryMendeleyevdrewupaperiodictableoftheelementsarrangedtoillustratepatternsofrecurringchemicalandphysicalproperties. 43__________.AtthetimemostgeologistsdiscountedWegener’sideasbecausetheEarth’scrustseemedtobefixed.Butfollowingthediscoveryofplatetectonicsinthe1960sinwhichscientistsfoundthattheEarth’scrustisactuallymadeofmovingplatescontinentaldriftbecameanimportantpartofgeology. Throughadvanceslikethesescientificknowledgeisconstantlyaddedtoandrefined.Asaresultsciencegivesusanevermoredetailedinsightintothewaytheworldaroundusworks. 44__________.HoweverwiththedawnoftheIndustrialRevolutioninthe18thcenturythisrapidlychanged.Todaysciencehasaprofoundeffectonthewaywelivelargelythroughtechnology--theuse.ofscientificknowledgeforpractical 45__________.Therefrigeratorforexampleowesitsexistencetoadiscoverythatliquidstakeinenergywhentheyevaporateaphenomenonknownaslatentheat. A.Scientistsutilizeexistingknowledgeinnewscientificinvestigationstopredicthowthingswillbehave.Forexampleascientistwhoknowstheexactdimensionsofalenscanpredicthowthelenswillfocusabeamoflight.Inthesamewaybyknowingtheexactmakeupandpropertiesoftwochemicalsaresearchercanpredictwhatwillhappenwhentheycombine. B.Foralargepartofrecordedhistorysciencehadlittlebearingonpeople’severydaylives.Scientificknowledgewasgatheredforitsownsakeandithadfewpracticalapplications. C.Duringscientificinvestigationsscientistsputtogetherandcomparenewdiscoveriesandexistingknowledge.Inmostcasesnewdiscoveriesextendwhatiscurrentlyacceptedprovidingfurtherevidencethatexistingideasarecorrect. D.Tileprincipleoflatentheatwasfirstexploitedinapracticalwayin1876andtherefrigeratorhasplayedamajorroleinmaintainingpublichealtheversince.Tilefirstautomobiledatingfromthe1880smadeuseofmanyadvancesinphysicsandengineeringincludingreliablewaysofgeneratinghigh-voltagesparkswhilethefirstcomputersemergedinthe1940sfromsimultaneousadvancesinelectronicsandmathematics. E.Someformsoftechnologyhavebecomesowellestablishedthatitiseasytoforgetthegreatscientificachievementsthattheyrepresent. F.Inscienceimportantadvancescanalsobemadewhencurrentideasareshowntobewrong.Aclassiccaseofthisoccurredearlyinthe20thcenturywhentheGermangeologistAlfredWegenersuggestedthatthecontinentswereatonetimeconnectedatheoryknownascontinentaldrift. G.Otherfieldsofsciencealsoplayanimportantroleinthethingsweuseorconsumeeveryday.Researchinfoodtechnologyhascreatednewwaysofpreservingandflavoringwhatweeat. 45
Thefirsttwostagesinthedevelopmentofcivilizedmanwereprobablytheinventionofprimitiveweaponsandthediscoveryoffirealthoughnobodyknowsexactlywhenpeopleacquiredtheuseof1. The2oflanguageisalsoobscure.Nodoubtitbeganverygradually.Animalshaveafewcriesthatserve3signals4eventhehighestapeshavenotbeenfoundabletopronouncewords5withthemostintensiveprofessionalinstruction.Thesuperiorbrainofmanisapparently6forthemasteringofspeech.Whenmanbecamesufficientlyintelligentwemustsupposethathe7thenumberofcriesfordifferentpurposes.Itwasagreatclay8hediscoveredthatspeedcouldbeusedfornarrative.Therearethosewhothinkthat9picturelanguageprecededorallanguage.Aman10apictureonthewallofhiscavetoshow11directionhehadgoneor12preyhehopedtocatch.Probablypicturelanguageandorallanguagedevelopedsidebyside.Iaminclinedtothinkthatlanguage13themostimportantsinglefactorinthedevelopmentofman. Twoimportantstagescamenot14beforethedawnofwrittenhistory.Thefirstwasthedomesticationofanimals;thesecondwasagriculture.Agriculturewas15inhumanprogresstowhichsubsequentlytherewasnothingcomparable16ourownmachineage.Agriculturemadepossible17immenseincreaseinthenumberofthehumanspeciesintheregionswhereitcouldbesuccessfullypractised.18wereatfirstonlythoseinwhichnaturefertilizedthesoil19eachharvest.Agriculturemetwithviolentresistancefromthepastoralnomadsbuttheagriculturalwayoflifeprevailedintheend20thephysicalcomfortsitprovided. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.19
Asmorepeopleliveclosertogetherandastheyusemachinestoproduceleisuretheyfindthattheirleisureandeventheirworkinghoursbecomespoiltbyaby-productoftheirmachines--namelynoise.Noiseisnowadaysinthenews;ithasacquiredpoliticalstatusandpublicopinionsaredemandingmoreandmoreinsistentlythatsomethingmustbedoneaboutit. 46Tocontrolnoiseistodemandmuchself-disciplineannoyancearisesoftenfromlackofcommoncourtesyasenseofproportionthereisusuallyaconflictofinterestifanoiseistobestoppedtheexpenditureofmoneyanditisfarmoreeconomicaltodothisearlyratherthanlateandfinallytechnicalknowledge. Technicaldifficultiesoftenarisefromthesubjective-objectivenatureoftheproblem.Youcandefinetheexcessivespeedofamotor-carintermsofapointerreadingonaspeedometer.Butcanyoudefineexcessivenoiseinthesameway47Youfindthatwithanyexistingsimple"noise-meter"vehicleswhicharejudgedtobeequallynoisymayshowconsiderabledifferenceonthemeter. Thoughtheidealcurefornoiseistostopitatitssourcethismayinmanycasesbeimpossible.Thenextremedyistoabsorbitonthewaytotheear. 48Domesticnoisesmayperhapsbecontrolledbyforethoughtandcourtesyandindustrialnoisesbygoodplanningandtechnicalimprovement.Butifwearegoingtoallowfastmotor-cyclesandheavydiesellorriestopasscontinuouslythroughresidentialandbusinessdistrictsthecommunitymustdecideonthecontrolitneedstoexerciseforinthelongrunithasgottopayforit.49Andifanationistotakepartinmodernairtransportitmustenterintointernationalagreementsonthenoisecontrolmeasuresitwillimposeatitsairports-andherethecostofanyrealcontrolistobemeasuredinmillionsofdollars.Jetenginesmaybemodifiedtoreducetheirnoiselevelorinsulationfromairtrafficnoisemaybeprovidedbythepurchaseoflandaroundairportsortheinsulationofbuildings.50Oneestimateisthat$5.7billionwouldberequiredtoequipallexistingjetengineswithnoisecontroldevices;howeverconsideringthecurrentstateofthearteventakingthisstepwillnotreducenoiselevelsatallpointstoacceptablevalues.Somecombinationofmethodsisprobablynecessary. Youfindthatwithanyexistingsimplenoise-metervehicleswhicharejudgedtobeequallynoisymayshowconsiderabledifferenceonthemeter.
Thefirsttwostagesinthedevelopmentofcivilizedmanwereprobablytheinventionofprimitiveweaponsandthediscoveryoffirealthoughnobodyknowsexactlywhenpeopleacquiredtheuseof1. The2oflanguageisalsoobscure.Nodoubtitbeganverygradually.Animalshaveafewcriesthatserve3signals4eventhehighestapeshavenotbeenfoundabletopronouncewords5withthemostintensiveprofessionalinstruction.Thesuperiorbrainofmanisapparently6forthemasteringofspeech.Whenmanbecamesufficientlyintelligentwemustsupposethathe7thenumberofcriesfordifferentpurposes.Itwasagreatclay8hediscoveredthatspeedcouldbeusedfornarrative.Therearethosewhothinkthat9picturelanguageprecededorallanguage.Aman10apictureonthewallofhiscavetoshow11directionhehadgoneor12preyhehopedtocatch.Probablypicturelanguageandorallanguagedevelopedsidebyside.Iaminclinedtothinkthatlanguage13themostimportantsinglefactorinthedevelopmentofman. Twoimportantstagescamenot14beforethedawnofwrittenhistory.Thefirstwasthedomesticationofanimals;thesecondwasagriculture.Agriculturewas15inhumanprogresstowhichsubsequentlytherewasnothingcomparable16ourownmachineage.Agriculturemadepossible17immenseincreaseinthenumberofthehumanspeciesintheregionswhereitcouldbesuccessfullypractised.18wereatfirstonlythoseinwhichnaturefertilizedthesoil19eachharvest.Agriculturemetwithviolentresistancefromthepastoralnomadsbuttheagriculturalwayoflifeprevailedintheend20thephysicalcomfortsitprovided. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.17
A.Humanbehavior B.Cultureattributes C.PhysiologyofHomosapiens D.ClassificationofHomosapiens E.Humansociety F.StructureofHomosapiens HumancommonnamegiventoanyindividualofthespeciesHomosapiensandbyextensiontotheentirespecies.ThetermisalsoappliedtocertainspeciesthatweretheevolutionaryforerunnersofHomosapiens.Scientistsconsideralllivingpeoplemembersofasinglespecies. 41.__________ Homosapiensisidentifiedforpurposesofclassificationasananimalwithabackboneandsegmentedspinalcordthatsucklesitsyoung;thatgestatesitsyoungwiththeaidofaplacenta;thatisequippedwithfive-digitedextremitiesacollarboneandasinglepairofmammaryglandsonthechest;andthathaseyesatthefrontoftheheadstereoscopicvisionandaproportionatelylargebrain.ThespeciesbelongstothefamilyHominidaethegeneralcharacteristicsofwhicharediscussedbelow. 42.__________ ThedetailsofskeletalstructuredistinguishingHomosapiensfromthenearestprimaterelatives-thegorillachimpanzeeandorangutan-stemlargelyfromaveryearlyadaptationtoacompletelyerectpostureandatwo-footedstridingwalk.TheuniquelyS-shapedspinalcolumnplacesthecenterofgravityofthehumanbodydirectlyovertheareaofsupportprovidedbythefeetthusgivingstabilityandbalanceintheuptightposition. Completebipedalisminthehumanfreedthehandtobecomeasupremelysensitiveinstrumentforprecisemanipulationandgrasping.Themostimportantstructuraldetailinthisrefinementistheelongatedhumanthumbwhichcanrotatefreelyandisfullyopposabletotheotherfingers.Thephysiologicalrequirementsforspeechweresecondarilyestablishedbyerectposturewhichpositionsthevocalcordsforcontrolledbreathingandbytheskilleduseofthehands.Thelatterdevelopmentoccursinassociationwiththeenlargementandspecializationofabrainareathatisaprerequisiteforrefinedcontrolofthelipsandtongue. 43.__________ ThelargebrainofHomosapiensisapproximatelydoublethatofearlyhumantoolmakers.Thisgreatincreaseinsizeinonly2millionyearswasachievedbyaprocesscalledneotenywhichistheprolongationofretentionofimmaturecharacteristics.Thejuvenilestageofbrainandskulldevelopmentisprolongedsothattheygrowforalongerperiodoftimeinrelationtothetimerequiredtoreachsexualmaturity.Unliketheearlyhumanadultskullwithitsslopingforeheadandprominentjawthemodemhumanskull-withbiologicallyinsignificantvariations-retainsintomaturityaproportionatelylargesizeinrelationtotherestofthebodyahigh-roundeddomestraight-planedfaceandreducedjawsizeallcloselyresemblingthecharacteristicsoftheskullinthejuvenilechimpanzee.Itsenlargeddimensionsrequiredadaptationsforpassagethroughthebirthcanal;consequentlythehumanfemalepelviswidensatmaturityandthehumaninfantisbornprematurely. 44.__________ Thephysiologicaladaptationsthatmadehumansmoreflexiblethanotherprimatesallowedforthedevelopmentofawiderangeofabilitiesandanunparalleledversatilityinbehavior.Thebrain’sgreatsizecomplexityandslowmaturationwithneuralconnectionsbeingaddedthoughatleastthefirst12yearsoflifemeantthatlearnedbehaviorcouldlargelymodifystereotypedinstinctiveresponses.Newenvironmentaldemandscouldbemetbyrapidadjustmentsratherthanbyslowgeneticselection;thussurvivalinawiderangeofhabitatsandunderextremeconditionseventuallybecamepossiblewithoutfurtherspeciesdifferentiation.Eachnewinfanthoweverwithrelativelyfewinnatetraitsyetwithavastnumberofpotentialbehaviorsmustbetaughttoachieveitsbiologicalpotentialasahuman. 45.__________ Thehumanspecieshasauniquecapabilityforcultureinthesenseofconsciousthinkingandplanningtransmissionofskillsandsystemsofsocialrelationshipsandcreativemodificationoftheenvironment.Theintegratedpatternsofbehaviorrequiredforplanningandfashioningtoolswereaccomplishedatleast2.5millionyearsagoandsomeformofadvancedcodeforvocalcommunicationmayalsohaveexistedatthistime.By350000yearsagoplannedhuntingfiremakingandthewearingofclothingwerewellestablishedaswaspossiblyritualizeddisposalofthedead.Evidenceofreligionrecordedeventsandartdatefrom30000to40000yearsagoandimplyadvancedlanguageandethicsforthecomplexorderingofsocialgroupsrequiredforsuchactivities.FromaboutthattimethegenusHomobegantostabilizeintotheonegeneralizedspeciesofHomosapiens. 45
Everyyear100millionholiday-makersaredrawntotheMediterranean.Withonethirdoftheworld’stouristtradeitisthemostpopularofalltheholidaydestinations:itisalsothemostpolluted. Ithasonly1percentoftheworld’sseasurfacebutcarriesmorethanhalftheoilandtarfloatingonthewaters.ThousandsoffactoriespourtheirpoisonintotheMediterraneanandalmosteverycitytownandvillageonthecoastsluicesitssewageuntreatedintothesea. TheresultisthattheMediterraneanwhichnurturedsomanycivilizationsisgravelyill-thefirstoftheseastofallvictimtotheabilitiesandattitudesthatevolvedaroundit.Andthepopulationdoesnotmerelystiflethelifeofthesea-itthreatensthepeoplewhoinhabitandvisititsshores. Typhoidparatyphoiddysenterypolioviralhepatitisandfoodpoisoningareendemicintheareaandthereareperiodicoutbreaksofcholera. Themournfullitanyofdiseaseiscausedbysewage.Eight-fivepercentofthewastefromtheMediterranean’s120coastalcitiesispushedoutintothewaterswheretheirpeopleandvisitorsbatheandfish.Whatismoremostcitiesjustdropitinstraightoffthebeach;rareindeedaretheplaceslikeCannesandTelAvivwhichpipeitevenhalfamileoffshore. Lessthan100000ofGreece’sfourmillioncoastalpeoplehavetheirsewageproperlytreated-andGreeceisoneofthecleanercountriesofthenorthernshore. TheworstpartsoftheseaareIsraeli/LebanoncoastandbetweenBarcelonaandGenoawhichflushesoutover200tonsofsewageeachyearforeverymileofitslength. Notsurprisinglyvastareasoftheshallowsareawashwithbacteriaanditdoesn’ttakelongforthesetoreachpeople.ProfessorWilliamBrumfitoftheRoyalFreeHospitaloncecalculatedthatanyonewhogoesforaswimintheMediterraneanhasaoneinsevenchanceofgettingsomesortofdisease.Otherscientistssaythisisanoverestimate;butalmostallofthemagreethatbathersareatrisk. Anevengreaterdangerlurksintheseductiveseafooddishesthataddsomuchinteresttoholidaymenu.Shellfishareprimecarriersofmanyofthemostviciousdiseasesofthearea.Theyoftengrowamidpollution.Andeveniftheydon’ttheyarefrequentlyinfectedbythepopularpracticeof"fresheningthemup"-throwingfilthywaterovertheminmarkets. Industryaddsitsownpoisons.Factoriesclusterroundthecoastlineandeventhemostmodernrarelyhasproperwaste-treatmentplant.Theydoasmuchdamagetotheseaassewage.FifteenthousandfactoriesfoultheItalianLihurianRiviera.SixtythousandpollutetheTyrrhenianSeabetweenSardiniaSicilyandthewestItaliancoast!ThelagoonofVenicealonereceivestheeffluentsof76factories. Thousandsoftonsofpesticidesareblownoffthefieldsintotheseadetergentsfrommillionsofsinkskillfishandfertilizersflushedouttoseanourishexplosionsofplanktonwhichcoverbatherswithitchyslime. Thenthereistheoil-130000tonspouringeachyearfromships115000tonsmorefromindustriesroundtheshore.RecentstudiesshowthattheMediterraneanisfourtimesaspollutedasthenorthAtlantic20timesasbadasthenorth-eastPacific. Apartfromthenine-mile-wideStraitofGibraltartheMediterraneanislandlockedvirtuallyunabletocleanseitself.Ittakes80yearsforthewatertoberenewedthroughthenarrowshallowstraitsfartooslowaprocesstocopewiththeremorselessrushofpollution. JudgingfromthecontextthewordlurkLine1ParA.9probablymeans
Everyyear100millionholiday-makersaredrawntotheMediterranean.Withonethirdoftheworld’stouristtradeitisthemostpopularofalltheholidaydestinations:itisalsothemostpolluted.Ithasonly1percentoftheworld’sseasurfacebutcarriesmorethanhalftheoilandtarfloatingonthewaters.ThousandsoffactoriespourtheirpoisonintotheMediterraneanandalmosteverycitytownandvillageonthecoastsluicesitssewageuntreatedintothesea.TheresultisthattheMediterraneanwhichnurturedsomanycivilizationsisgravelyill-thefirstoftheseastofallvictimtotheabilitiesandattitudesthatevolvedaroundit.Andthepopulationdoesnotmerelystiflethelifeofthesea-itthreatensthepeoplewhoinhabitandvisititsshores.Typhoidparatyphoiddysenterypolioviralhepatitisandfoodpoisoningareendemicintheareaandthereareperiodicoutbreaksofcholera.Themournfullitanyofdiseaseiscausedbysewage.Eight-fivepercentofthewastefromtheMediterranean’s120coastalcitiesispushedoutintothewaterswheretheirpeopleandvisitorsbatheandfish.Whatismoremostcitiesjustdropitinstraightoffthebeach;rareindeedaretheplaceslikeCannesandTelAvivwhichpipeitevenhalfamileoffshore.Lessthan100000ofGreece’sfourmillioncoastalpeoplehavetheirsewageproperlytreated-andGreeceisoneofthecleanercountriesofthenorthernshore.TheworstpartsoftheseaareIsraeli/LebanoncoastandbetweenBarcelonaandGenoawhichflushesoutover200tonsofsewageeachyearforeverymileofitslength.Notsurprisinglyvastareasoftheshallowsareawashwithbacteriaanditdoesn’ttakelongforthesetoreachpeople.ProfessorWilliamBrumfitoftheRoyalFreeHospitaloncecalculatedthatanyonewhogoesforaswimintheMediterraneanhasaoneinsevenchanceofgettingsomesortofdisease.Otherscientistssaythisisanoverestimate;butalmostallofthemagreethatbathersareatrisk.Anevengreaterdangerlurksintheseductiveseafooddishesthataddsomuchinteresttoholidaymenu.Shellfishareprimecarriersofmanyofthemostviciousdiseasesofthearea.Theyoftengrowamidpollution.Andeveniftheydon’ttheyarefrequentlyinfectedbythepopularpracticeoffresheningthemup-throwingfilthywaterovertheminmarkets.Industryaddsitsownpoisons.Factoriesclusterroundthecoastlineandeventhemostmodernrarelyhasproperwaste-treatmentplant.Theydoasmuchdamagetotheseaassewage.FifteenthousandfactoriesfoultheItalianLihurianRiviera.SixtythousandpollutetheTyrrhenianSeabetweenSardiniaSicilyandthewestItaliancoast!ThelagoonofVenicealonereceivestheeffluentsof76factories.Thousandsoftonsofpesticidesareblownoffthefieldsintotheseadetergentsfrommillionsofsinkskillfishandfertilizersflushedouttoseanourishexplosionsofplanktonwhichcoverbatherswithitchyslime.Thenthereistheoil-130000tonspouringeachyearfromships115000tonsmorefromindustriesroundtheshore.RecentstudiesshowthattheMediterraneanisfourtimesaspollutedasthenorthAtlantic20timesasbadasthenorth-eastPacific.Apartfromthenine-mile-wideStraitofGibraltartheMediterraneanislandlockedvirtuallyunabletocleanseitself.Ittakes80yearsforthewatertoberenewedthroughthenarrowshallowstraitsfartooslowaprocesstocopewiththeremorselessrushofpollution.ItmaybeinferredthattheMediterraneanis______.
Thefirsttwostagesinthedevelopmentofcivilizedmanwereprobablytheinventionofprimitiveweaponsandthediscoveryoffirealthoughnobodyknowsexactlywhenpeopleacquiredtheuseof1. The2oflanguageisalsoobscure.Nodoubtitbeganverygradually.Animalshaveafewcriesthatserve3signals4eventhehighestapeshavenotbeenfoundabletopronouncewords5withthemostintensiveprofessionalinstruction.Thesuperiorbrainofmanisapparently6forthemasteringofspeech.Whenmanbecamesufficientlyintelligentwemustsupposethathe7thenumberofcriesfordifferentpurposes.Itwasagreatclay8hediscoveredthatspeedcouldbeusedfornarrative.Therearethosewhothinkthat9picturelanguageprecededorallanguage.Aman10apictureonthewallofhiscavetoshow11directionhehadgoneor12preyhehopedtocatch.Probablypicturelanguageandorallanguagedevelopedsidebyside.Iaminclinedtothinkthatlanguage13themostimportantsinglefactorinthedevelopmentofman. Twoimportantstagescamenot14beforethedawnofwrittenhistory.Thefirstwasthedomesticationofanimals;thesecondwasagriculture.Agriculturewas15inhumanprogresstowhichsubsequentlytherewasnothingcomparable16ourownmachineage.Agriculturemadepossible17immenseincreaseinthenumberofthehumanspeciesintheregionswhereitcouldbesuccessfullypractised.18wereatfirstonlythoseinwhichnaturefertilizedthesoil19eachharvest.Agriculturemetwithviolentresistancefromthepastoralnomadsbuttheagriculturalwayoflifeprevailedintheend20thephysicalcomfortsitprovided. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.13
Generallyasavinginenergyconsumptionisinsufficientincentivefortheconsumertopurchasenewcookingequipmentunlessotherimprovementse.g.shortercookingperiodsfewercleaningdifficultiesandimprovedappearanceareavailableaswell.Fortheindividualthereisanaturalreticencetoincurrapidchangesbecauseofthevalideconomicdesiretoexploitexistingcapitalinvestmenttothemaximum:thisisthemajorproblemwithmanyproposedenergy-thriftmeasures.Howevercaterersshould’appreciatethatbyreducingenergywastages;theywillnotonlybesavingmoneybutalsoimprovingtheworkingenvironmentwithintheirkitchens.Retro-fittingexistingcookerswithenergy-conservationimprovementsinordertoraiseachievableefficiencieswilloccuronlyrarely.Forthemostimmediatesignificantimpactnationallywithrespecttoreducingtheenergyexpendeduponcookingbettermanagementisrecommended.Lawsonsuggestedthatabout16PJperyearcouldbesavedintheBritishcateringsectorbyadoptingimprovedoperationalpractices.Ifonly10%oftheenergyusedforcateringpurposesinthedomesticsectorcouldalsobesavedoverallnationalsavingswouldamounttoapproximately44PJperannum.Toachievethisaimacomprehensiveandstraight-forwardprogramofenergy-thrifteducationforhousewivescooksandkitchenmanagersisneeded.Thiswillrequireallconcernedtoexerciseconsiderablepersonaldiscipline.Thepresentapproachwherebyindividualsmakepurchasingdecisionsmainlyonvisualandfirst-costgrounds-partlybecausethecookingapplianceandfoodmanufacturingindustriesrarelyprovideadequatescientificdatatosupporttheirclaims-shouldbesupplementedbyotherconsiderations.Foodistoofundamentaltohumanlifehealthandhappinesstobeconsideredanunworthysubjectbyintellectuals.ForexampleeventhetypicalBritonwhotendstobecasualabouteatingcomparedwithmostofhisforeigncounterpartsspendsbetween5%and13%ofhiswakinghourspreparingcookingand/orcleaningaway’aftermeals.Neverthelessenergywastageprevailsbothonanationalscalee.g.storingvastquantitiesoffoodatsub-ambienttemperaturesinso-calledfoodmountains;andonanindividualscalee.g.performinghoboperationswithoutplacinglidsonthepansemployed.Ifenergywastagesaretobereducedcooks______.
ItishardtogetanyagreementontheprecisemeaningofthetermsocialclassIneverydaylifepeopletendtohaveadifferentapproachtothosetheyconsidertheirequalsfromthatwhichtheyassumewithpeopletheyconsiderhigherorlowerthanthemselvesinthesocialscale.Thecriteriaweusetoplaceanewacquaintancehoweverareacomplexmixtureoffactors.Dresswayofspeakingareaofresidenceinagivencityorprovinceeducationandmannersallplayapart.Intheeighteenth-centuryoneofthefirstmoderneconomistsAdamSmiththoughtthatthewholeannualproduceofthelandandlaborofeverycountry’providedrevenuetothreedifferentordersofpeople:Thosewholivebyrentthosewholivebywagesthosewholivebyprofit.Eachsuccessivestageoftheindustrialrevolutionhowevermadethesocialstructuremorecomplicated.Manyintermediategroupsgrewupduringthenineteenth-centurybetweentheuppermiddleclassandtheworkingclass.Thereweresmall-scaleindustrialistsaswellaslargeonessmallshopkeepersandtradesmenofficialsandsalariedemployeesskilledandunskilledworkersandprofessionalmensuchasdoctorsandteachers.Farmersandpeasantscontinuedinallcountriesasindependentgroups.Duringthenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturiesthepossessionofwealthinevitablyaffectedaperson’ssocialposition.Intelligentindustrialistswithinitiativemadefortunesbytheirwitswhichliftedthemintoaneconomicgroupfarhigherthantheirworking-classparents.Buttheylackedthesocialtrainingoftheupperclasswhodespisedthemasthenewrich.Theyoftensenttheirsonsanddaughterstospecialschoolstoacquiresocialtraining.Heretheirchildrenmixedwiththechildrenoftheupperclasseswereacceptedbythemandveryoftenfoundmarriagepartnersfromamongthem.Inthesamewayathriftyhardworkinglabourerthoughnotcleverenoughhimselfmightsaveforhissonenoughtopayforanextendedsecondaryschooleducationinthehopethathewouldmoveintoawhite-collar’occupationcarryingwithitahighersalaryandmoveupinthesocialscale.Inthetwentiethcenturytheincreasedtaxationofhigherincomesthegrowthofthesocialservicesandthewiderdevelopmentofeducationalopportunityhaveconsiderablyalteredthesocialoutlook.Theupperclassesnolongerarethesoleoreventhemainpossessorsofwealthpowerandeducationthoughinheritedsocialpositionstillcarriesconsiderableprestige.Manypeopletodayarehostiletowardsclassdistinctionsandprivilegesandhopetoachieveaclasslesssociety.Thetroubleisthatasoneinequalityisremovedanothertendstotakeitsplaceandthebestthathasasfarbeenattemptedisasocietyinwhichdistinctionsareelasticandinwhicheverymemberhasfairopportunitiesformakingthebestofhisabilities.WhichofthefollowingstatementsdoesNOTtrulydescribethenewrich
ItishardtogetanyagreementontheprecisemeaningofthetermsocialclassIneverydaylifepeopletendtohaveadifferentapproachtothosetheyconsidertheirequalsfromthatwhichtheyassumewithpeopletheyconsiderhigherorlowerthanthemselvesinthesocialscale.Thecriteriaweusetoplaceanewacquaintancehoweverareacomplexmixtureoffactors.Dresswayofspeakingareaofresidenceinagivencityorprovinceeducationandmannersallplayapart.Intheeighteenth-centuryoneofthefirstmoderneconomistsAdamSmiththoughtthatthewholeannualproduceofthelandandlaborofeverycountry’providedrevenuetothreedifferentordersofpeople:Thosewholivebyrentthosewholivebywagesthosewholivebyprofit.Eachsuccessivestageoftheindustrialrevolutionhowevermadethesocialstructuremorecomplicated.Manyintermediategroupsgrewupduringthenineteenth-centurybetweentheuppermiddleclassandtheworkingclass.Thereweresmall-scaleindustrialistsaswellaslargeonessmallshopkeepersandtradesmenofficialsandsalariedemployeesskilledandunskilledworkersandprofessionalmensuchasdoctorsandteachers.Farmersandpeasantscontinuedinallcountriesasindependentgroups.Duringthenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturiesthepossessionofwealthinevitablyaffectedaperson’ssocialposition.Intelligentindustrialistswithinitiativemadefortunesbytheirwitswhichliftedthemintoaneconomicgroupfarhigherthantheirworking-classparents.Buttheylackedthesocialtrainingoftheupperclasswhodespisedthemasthenewrich.Theyoftensenttheirsonsanddaughterstospecialschoolstoacquiresocialtraining.Heretheirchildrenmixedwiththechildrenoftheupperclasseswereacceptedbythemandveryoftenfoundmarriagepartnersfromamongthem.Inthesamewayathriftyhardworkinglabourerthoughnotcleverenoughhimselfmightsaveforhissonenoughtopayforanextendedsecondaryschooleducationinthehopethathewouldmoveintoawhite-collar’occupationcarryingwithitahighersalaryandmoveupinthesocialscale.Inthetwentiethcenturytheincreasedtaxationofhigherincomesthegrowthofthesocialservicesandthewiderdevelopmentofeducationalopportunityhaveconsiderablyalteredthesocialoutlook.Theupperclassesnolongerarethesoleoreventhemainpossessorsofwealthpowerandeducationthoughinheritedsocialpositionstillcarriesconsiderableprestige.Manypeopletodayarehostiletowardsclassdistinctionsandprivilegesandhopetoachieveaclasslesssociety.Thetroubleisthatasoneinequalityisremovedanothertendstotakeitsplaceandthebestthathasasfarbeenattemptedisasocietyinwhichdistinctionsareelasticandinwhicheverymemberhasfairopportunitiesformakingthebestofhisabilities.AdamSmith’ssocialmake-upwasinvalidatedby______.
Everyyear100millionholiday-makersaredrawntotheMediterranean.Withonethirdoftheworld’stouristtradeitisthemostpopularofalltheholidaydestinations:itisalsothemostpolluted.Ithasonly1percentoftheworld’sseasurfacebutcarriesmorethanhalftheoilandtarfloatingonthewaters.ThousandsoffactoriespourtheirpoisonintotheMediterraneanandalmosteverycitytownandvillageonthecoastsluicesitssewageuntreatedintothesea.TheresultisthattheMediterraneanwhichnurturedsomanycivilizationsisgravelyill-thefirstoftheseastofallvictimtotheabilitiesandattitudesthatevolvedaroundit.Andthepopulationdoesnotmerelystiflethelifeofthesea-itthreatensthepeoplewhoinhabitandvisititsshores.Typhoidparatyphoiddysenterypolioviralhepatitisandfoodpoisoningareendemicintheareaandthereareperiodicoutbreaksofcholera.Themournfullitanyofdiseaseiscausedbysewage.Eight-fivepercentofthewastefromtheMediterranean’s120coastalcitiesispushedoutintothewaterswheretheirpeopleandvisitorsbatheandfish.Whatismoremostcitiesjustdropitinstraightoffthebeach;rareindeedaretheplaceslikeCannesandTelAvivwhichpipeitevenhalfamileoffshore.Lessthan100000ofGreece’sfourmillioncoastalpeoplehavetheirsewageproperlytreated-andGreeceisoneofthecleanercountriesofthenorthernshore.TheworstpartsoftheseaareIsraeli/LebanoncoastandbetweenBarcelonaandGenoawhichflushesoutover200tonsofsewageeachyearforeverymileofitslength.Notsurprisinglyvastareasoftheshallowsareawashwithbacteriaanditdoesn’ttakelongforthesetoreachpeople.ProfessorWilliamBrumfitoftheRoyalFreeHospitaloncecalculatedthatanyonewhogoesforaswimintheMediterraneanhasaoneinsevenchanceofgettingsomesortofdisease.Otherscientistssaythisisanoverestimate;butalmostallofthemagreethatbathersareatrisk.Anevengreaterdangerlurksintheseductiveseafooddishesthataddsomuchinteresttoholidaymenu.Shellfishareprimecarriersofmanyofthemostviciousdiseasesofthearea.Theyoftengrowamidpollution.Andeveniftheydon’ttheyarefrequentlyinfectedbythepopularpracticeoffresheningthemup-throwingfilthywaterovertheminmarkets.Industryaddsitsownpoisons.Factoriesclusterroundthecoastlineandeventhemostmodernrarelyhasproperwaste-treatmentplant.Theydoasmuchdamagetotheseaassewage.FifteenthousandfactoriesfoultheItalianLihurianRiviera.SixtythousandpollutetheTyrrhenianSeabetweenSardiniaSicilyandthewestItaliancoast!ThelagoonofVenicealonereceivestheeffluentsof76factories.Thousandsoftonsofpesticidesareblownoffthefieldsintotheseadetergentsfrommillionsofsinkskillfishandfertilizersflushedouttoseanourishexplosionsofplanktonwhichcoverbatherswithitchyslime.Thenthereistheoil-130000tonspouringeachyearfromships115000tonsmorefromindustriesroundtheshore.RecentstudiesshowthattheMediterraneanisfourtimesaspollutedasthenorthAtlantic20timesasbadasthenorth-eastPacific.Apartfromthenine-mile-wideStraitofGibraltartheMediterraneanislandlockedvirtuallyunabletocleanseitself.Ittakes80yearsforthewatertoberenewedthroughthenarrowshallowstraitsfartooslowaprocesstocopewiththeremorselessrushofpollution.AccordingtothepassagetheMediterranean______.
Thefirsttwostagesinthedevelopmentofcivilizedmanwereprobablytheinventionofprimitiveweaponsandthediscoveryoffirealthoughnobodyknowsexactlywhenpeopleacquiredtheuseof1. The2oflanguageisalsoobscure.Nodoubtitbeganverygradually.Animalshaveafewcriesthatserve3signals4eventhehighestapeshavenotbeenfoundabletopronouncewords5withthemostintensiveprofessionalinstruction.Thesuperiorbrainofmanisapparently6forthemasteringofspeech.Whenmanbecamesufficientlyintelligentwemustsupposethathe7thenumberofcriesfordifferentpurposes.Itwasagreatclay8hediscoveredthatspeedcouldbeusedfornarrative.Therearethosewhothinkthat9picturelanguageprecededorallanguage.Aman10apictureonthewallofhiscavetoshow11directionhehadgoneor12preyhehopedtocatch.Probablypicturelanguageandorallanguagedevelopedsidebyside.Iaminclinedtothinkthatlanguage13themostimportantsinglefactorinthedevelopmentofman. Twoimportantstagescamenot14beforethedawnofwrittenhistory.Thefirstwasthedomesticationofanimals;thesecondwasagriculture.Agriculturewas15inhumanprogresstowhichsubsequentlytherewasnothingcomparable16ourownmachineage.Agriculturemadepossible17immenseincreaseinthenumberofthehumanspeciesintheregionswhereitcouldbesuccessfullypractised.18wereatfirstonlythoseinwhichnaturefertilizedthesoil19eachharvest.Agriculturemetwithviolentresistancefromthepastoralnomadsbuttheagriculturalwayoflifeprevailedintheend20thephysicalcomfortsitprovided. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.5
Centuriesagomandiscoveredthatremovingmoisturefromfoodhelpstopreserveitandthattheeasiestwaytodothisistoexposethefoodtosunandwind.InthiswaytheNorthAmericanIndiansproducepemmicantheScandinaviansmakestockfishandtheArabsdrydatesandapricotleather.Allfoodscontainwater-cabbageandotherleafvegetablescontainasmuchas93%waterpotatoesandotherrootvegetables80%leanmeat75%andfishanythingfrom80%to60%dependingonhowfattyitis.Ifthiswaterisremovedtheactivityofthebacteriathatcausefoodtodeteriorateischecked.Fruitissun-driedinAsiaMinorGreeceSpainandotherMediterraneancountriesandalsoinCaliforniaSouthAfricaandAustralia.Themethodsusedvarybutingeneralthefruitisspreadoutontraysindryingyardsinthehotsun.Inordertopreventdarkeningpearspeachesandapricotsareexposedtothefumesofburningsulfurbeforedrying.Plumsformakingprunesandcertainvarietiesofgrapesformakingraisinsandcurrantsaredippedinanalkalinesolutioninordertocracktheskinsofthefruitslightlyandremovetheirwaxcoatingsoincreasingtherateofdrying.Nowadaysmostfoodsaredriedmechanically.Theconventionalmethodofsuchdehydrationistoputfoodinchambersthroughwhichhotairisblownattemperaturesofabout110℃atentrytoabout43℃atexit.Thisistheusualmethodfordryingsuchthingsasvegetablesmincedmeatandfish.Liquidssuchasmilkcoffeeteasoupsandeggsmaybedriedbypouringthemoveraheatedhorizontalsteelcylinderorbysprayingthemintoachamberthroughwhichacurrentofhotairpasses.Inthefirstcasethedriedmaterialisscrapedofftherollerasathinfilmwhichisthenbrokenupintosmallthoughstillrelativelycoarseflakes;inthesecondprocessitfallstothebottomofthechamberasafinepowder.Whererecognizablepiecesofmeatandvegetablesarerequiredasinsouptheingredientsaredriedseparatelyandthenmixed.Driedfoodstakeuplessroomandweighlessthanthesamefoodpackedincansorfrozenandtheydonotneedtobestoredinspecialconditions.Forthesereasonstheyareinvaluabletoclimbersexplorersandsoldiersinbattlewhohavelittlestoragespace.Theyarealsopopularwithhousewivesbecauseittakessolittletimetocookthem.Usuallyitisjustacaseofreplacingthedried-outmoisturewithboilingwater.Howisthepowderedmilkmadeaccordingtothepassage
Thefirsttwostagesinthedevelopmentofcivilizedmanwereprobablytheinventionofprimitiveweaponsandthediscoveryoffirealthoughnobodyknowsexactlywhenpeopleacquiredtheuseof1. The2oflanguageisalsoobscure.Nodoubtitbeganverygradually.Animalshaveafewcriesthatserve3signals4eventhehighestapeshavenotbeenfoundabletopronouncewords5withthemostintensiveprofessionalinstruction.Thesuperiorbrainofmanisapparently6forthemasteringofspeech.Whenmanbecamesufficientlyintelligentwemustsupposethathe7thenumberofcriesfordifferentpurposes.Itwasagreatclay8hediscoveredthatspeedcouldbeusedfornarrative.Therearethosewhothinkthat9picturelanguageprecededorallanguage.Aman10apictureonthewallofhiscavetoshow11directionhehadgoneor12preyhehopedtocatch.Probablypicturelanguageandorallanguagedevelopedsidebyside.Iaminclinedtothinkthatlanguage13themostimportantsinglefactorinthedevelopmentofman. Twoimportantstagescamenot14beforethedawnofwrittenhistory.Thefirstwasthedomesticationofanimals;thesecondwasagriculture.Agriculturewas15inhumanprogresstowhichsubsequentlytherewasnothingcomparable16ourownmachineage.Agriculturemadepossible17immenseincreaseinthenumberofthehumanspeciesintheregionswhereitcouldbesuccessfullypractised.18wereatfirstonlythoseinwhichnaturefertilizedthesoil19eachharvest.Agriculturemetwithviolentresistancefromthepastoralnomadsbuttheagriculturalwayoflifeprevailedintheend20thephysicalcomfortsitprovided. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.9
Generallyasavinginenergyconsumptionisinsufficientincentivefortheconsumertopurchasenewcookingequipmentunlessotherimprovementse.g.shortercookingperiodsfewercleaningdifficultiesandimprovedappearanceareavailableaswell.Fortheindividualthereisanaturalreticencetoincurrapidchangesbecauseofthevalideconomicdesiretoexploitexistingcapitalinvestmenttothemaximum:thisisthemajorproblemwithmanyproposedenergy-thriftmeasures.Howevercaterersshould’appreciatethatbyreducingenergywastages;theywillnotonlybesavingmoneybutalsoimprovingtheworkingenvironmentwithintheirkitchens.Retro-fittingexistingcookerswithenergy-conservationimprovementsinordertoraiseachievableefficiencieswilloccuronlyrarely.Forthemostimmediatesignificantimpactnationallywithrespecttoreducingtheenergyexpendeduponcookingbettermanagementisrecommended.Lawsonsuggestedthatabout16PJperyearcouldbesavedintheBritishcateringsectorbyadoptingimprovedoperationalpractices.Ifonly10%oftheenergyusedforcateringpurposesinthedomesticsectorcouldalsobesavedoverallnationalsavingswouldamounttoapproximately44PJperannum.Toachievethisaimacomprehensiveandstraight-forwardprogramofenergy-thrifteducationforhousewivescooksandkitchenmanagersisneeded.Thiswillrequireallconcernedtoexerciseconsiderablepersonaldiscipline.Thepresentapproachwherebyindividualsmakepurchasingdecisionsmainlyonvisualandfirst-costgrounds-partlybecausethecookingapplianceandfoodmanufacturingindustriesrarelyprovideadequatescientificdatatosupporttheirclaims-shouldbesupplementedbyotherconsiderations.Foodistoofundamentaltohumanlifehealthandhappinesstobeconsideredanunworthysubjectbyintellectuals.ForexampleeventhetypicalBritonwhotendstobecasualabouteatingcomparedwithmostofhisforeigncounterpartsspendsbetween5%and13%ofhiswakinghourspreparingcookingand/orcleaningaway’aftermeals.Neverthelessenergywastageprevailsbothonanationalscalee.g.storingvastquantitiesoffoodatsub-ambienttemperaturesinso-calledfoodmountains;andonanindividualscalee.g.performinghoboperationswithoutplacinglidsonthepansemployed.WhichofthefollowingstatementsisNOTtrueaccordingtothetext
ImmediatelyaftertheCivilWarhoweverthedietbegantochange.46Railtransportationincreasedthesupplyandimprovedthequalityofthemilkthatreachedurbancenters;coldstorageandrefrigeratorcarsmadepossiblethegreaterconsumptionoffreshvegetablesfreshfruitsandfreshfish;andcommercialcanningextendedtherangeofappetizingandhealthfulfoods.Subsequentlyfoodstatisticsindicatedanincreasedconsumptionofdairyproductsfreshfruitfreshvegetablessugarandsyrupscoffeeteacocoaandspices.Decreasedconsumptionwasshownformeatspotatoesandgrainproducts.47ByandlargetheAmericandietcontinuedtoreflectaconsiderablerelianceuponanimalproducts:ratherthanongrains.whichmeantthatarelativelylargeacreagewasrequiredtofeedtheAmericanpublic.WhereasagrainandfishdietsuchasinJapanrequiresonlyaquarterofanacrehighyieldcroplandandnopasturepercapitatheAmericandietrequiresabouttwoandahalfacresofcroplandandtenacresofpasturepercapita-Alsoitindicatedashifttowardtheso-calledprotectivefoodstowardthosehighinvitaminsandproteins.48ThischangewasgreatlyfurtheredbygovernmentalfoodinspectionthePureFoodandDrugActwaspassedin1906bytheincreasinguseofmechanicalrefrigeratorsinthe1920’sand1910’sandoffreezersforfrozenfoodduringrecentdecades. IntheyearsafterWorldWarIafoodrevolutiontookplacethatwasreminiscentoftheonethatoccurredaftertheCivilWar.Theoutputofthefoodmanufacturingindustryquadrupledfrom1900to1920.49Inthatintervalaswehavementionedearlierhomecanninggavewaytocommercialcanningandthelaborofhousekeepingwaslightened. Fortunatelymostofthemajordietarychangesthathavetakenplacesincethemiddleofthenineteenthcenturyhaveresultedinbetternutritionforthepopulation.Inporttheseshiftshavetakenplacebecauseofapreferencefornewfoodsratherthanoldbutinparttheyhavebeenmadebecausethenewfoodswereadvocatedbynutritionists.ApparentlyAmericandietarycustomswerenotsodeeplyingrainedastopreventchangeintheinterestsofbetterhealth.50PossiblyonefactorthathascontributedtothereadinessofAmericanstoacceptnewfoodsorfoodpreparationsasthegeneralfamiliaritymosthavewithavarietyofregionaldishescomingfrommanydifferentlands.WithinasmallareainNewYorkCityorSanFranciscoonecanfindrestaurantsspecializinginFrenchItalianGermanTurkishArabianorChinesecuisine.AndataChineserestaurantintheUnitedStatesthechefandwaiterareaslikelyasnottoheOriental. Inthatintervalaswehavementionedearlierhomecanninggavewaytocommercialcanningandthelaborofhousekeepingwaslightened.
ImmediatelyaftertheCivilWarhoweverthedietbegantochange.46Railtransportationincreasedthesupplyandimprovedthequalityofthemilkthatreachedurbancenters;coldstorageandrefrigeratorcarsmadepossiblethegreaterconsumptionoffreshvegetablesfreshfruitsandfreshfish;andcommercialcanningextendedtherangeofappetizingandhealthfulfoods.Subsequentlyfoodstatisticsindicatedanincreasedconsumptionofdairyproductsfreshfruitfreshvegetablessugarandsyrupscoffeeteacocoaandspices.Decreasedconsumptionwasshownformeatspotatoesandgrainproducts.47ByandlargetheAmericandietcontinuedtoreflectaconsiderablerelianceuponanimalproducts:ratherthanongrains.whichmeantthatarelativelylargeacreagewasrequiredtofeedtheAmericanpublic.WhereasagrainandfishdietsuchasinJapanrequiresonlyaquarterofanacrehighyieldcroplandandnopasturepercapitatheAmericandietrequiresabouttwoandahalfacresofcroplandandtenacresofpasturepercapita-Alsoitindicatedashifttowardtheso-calledprotectivefoodstowardthosehighinvitaminsandproteins.48ThischangewasgreatlyfurtheredbygovernmentalfoodinspectionthePureFoodandDrugActwaspassedin1906bytheincreasinguseofmechanicalrefrigeratorsinthe1920’sand1910’sandoffreezersforfrozenfoodduringrecentdecades. IntheyearsafterWorldWarIafoodrevolutiontookplacethatwasreminiscentoftheonethatoccurredaftertheCivilWar.Theoutputofthefoodmanufacturingindustryquadrupledfrom1900to1920.49Inthatintervalaswehavementionedearlierhomecanninggavewaytocommercialcanningandthelaborofhousekeepingwaslightened. Fortunatelymostofthemajordietarychangesthathavetakenplacesincethemiddleofthenineteenthcenturyhaveresultedinbetternutritionforthepopulation.Inporttheseshiftshavetakenplacebecauseofapreferencefornewfoodsratherthanoldbutinparttheyhavebeenmadebecausethenewfoodswereadvocatedbynutritionists.ApparentlyAmericandietarycustomswerenotsodeeplyingrainedastopreventchangeintheinterestsofbetterhealth.50PossiblyonefactorthathascontributedtothereadinessofAmericanstoacceptnewfoodsorfoodpreparationsasthegeneralfamiliaritymosthavewithavarietyofregionaldishescomingfrommanydifferentlands.WithinasmallareainNewYorkCityorSanFranciscoonecanfindrestaurantsspecializinginFrenchItalianGermanTurkishArabianorChinesecuisine.AndataChineserestaurantintheUnitedStatesthechefandwaiterareaslikelyasnottoheOriental. ByandlargetheAmericandietcontinuedtoreflectaconsiderablerelianceuponanimalproducts:ratherthanongrains.whichmeantthatarelativelylargeacreagewasrequiredtofeedtheAmericanpublic.
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