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HowmanyreallysufferasaresultoflabormarketproblemsThisisoneofthemostcriticalyetcontentioussocialpolicyquestions.Inmanywaysoursocialstatisticsexaggeratethedegreeofhardship.Unemploymentdoesnothavethesamedireconsequencestodayasitdidinthe1930’swhenmostoftheunemployedwereprimarybreadwinnerswhenincomeandearningswereusuallymuchclosertothemarginofsubsistenceandwhentherewerenocountervailingsocialprogramsforthosefailinginthelabormarket.Increasingaffluencetheriseoffamilieswithmorethanonewageearnerthegrowingpredominanceofsecondaryearnersamongtheunemployedandimprovedsocialwelfareprotectionhaveunquestionablymitigatedtheconsequencesofjoblessness.Earningsandincomedataalsooverstatethedimensionsofhardship.Amongthemillionswithhourlyearningsatorbelowtheminimumwageleveltheover-whelmingmajorityarefrommultipleearnerrelativelyafflunentfamilies.Mostofthosecountedbythepovertystatisticsareelderlyorhandicappedorhavefamilyresponsibilitieswhichkeepthemoutofthelaborforcesothepovertystatisticsarebynomeansanaccurateindicatoroflabormarketpathologies. Yettherearealsomanywaysoursocialstatisticsunderestimatethedegreeoflabor-market-relatedhardship.Theunemploymentcountsexcludethemillionsoffullyemployedworkerswhosewagesaresolowthattheirfamiliesremaininpoverty.Lowwagesandrepeatedorprolongedunemploymentfrequentlyinteracttounderminethecapacityforself-support.Sincethenumberexperiencingjoblessnessatsometimeduringtheyearisseveraltimesthenumberunemployedinanymonththosewhosufferasaresultofforcedidlenesscanequalorexceedaverageannualunemploymenteventhoughonlyaminorityofthejoblessinanymonthreallysuffer.Foreverypersoncountedinthemonthlyunemploymenttalliesthereisanotherworkingpart-timebecauseoftheinabilitytofindfulltimeworkorelseoutsidethelaborforcebutwantingajob.Finallyincometransfersinourcountryhavealwaysfocusedontheelderlydisabledanddependentneglectingtheneedsoftheworkingpoorsothatthedramaticexpansionofcashandinkindtransfersdoesnotnecessarilymeanthatthosefailinginthelabormarketareadequatelyprotected. Asaresultofsuchcontradictoryevidenceitisuncertainwhetherthosesufferingseriouslyasaresultofthousandsorthetensofmillionsandhencewhetherhighlevelsofjoblessnesscanbetoleratedormustbecounteredbyjobcreationandeconomicstimulus.Thereisonlyoneareaofagreementinthisdebate--thattheexistingpovertyemploymentandearningsstatisticsareinadequateforoneoftheirprimaryapplicationsmeasuringtheconsequencesoflabormarketproblems. Theauthorcontraststhe1930’swiththepresentinordertoshowthat
DuringthepastgenerationtheAmericanmiddle-classfamilythatoncecouldcountonhardworkandfairpaytokeepitselffinanciallysecurehasbeentransformedbyeconomicriskandnewrealities.Nowapinkslipabaddiagnosisoradisappearingspousecanreduceafamilyfromsolidlymiddleclasstonewlypoorinafewmonths. Injustonegenerationmillionsofmothershavegonetoworktransformingbasicfamilyeconomics.Scholarspolicymakersandcriticsofallstripeshavedebatedthesocialimplicationsofthesechangesbutfewhavelookedatthesideeffect:familyriskhasrisenaswell.Today’sfamilieshavebudgetedtothelimitsoftheirnewtwo-paycheckstatus.Asaresulttheyhavelosttheparachutetheyoncehasintimesoffinancialsetback--aback-upearnerusuallyMomwhocouldgointotheworkforceiftheprimaryearnergotlaidofforfellsick.This"added-workereffect"couldsupportthesafetynetofferedbyunemploymentinsuranceordisabilityinsurancetohelpfamiliesweatherbadtimes.Buttodayadisruptiontofamilyfortunescannolongerbemadeupwithextraincomefromanotherwise-stay-at-homepartner. Duringthesameperiodfamilieshavebeenaskedtoabsorbmuchmoreriskintheirretirementincome.Steelworkersairlineemployeesandnowthoseintheautoindustryarejoiningmillionsoffamilieswhomustworryaboutinterestratesstockmarketfluctuationandtheharshrealitythattheymayoutlivetheirretirementmoney.FormuchofthepastyearPresidentBushcampaignedtomoveSocialSecuritytoasavings-accountmodelwithretireestradingmuchoralloftheirguaranteedpaymentsforpaymentsdependingoninvestmentreturns.Foryoungerfamiliesthepictureisnotanybetter.Boththeabsolutecostofhealthcareandtheshareofitbornebyfamilieshaverisen--andnewlyfashionablehealth-savingsplansarespreadingfromlegislativehallstoWal-Martworkerswithmuchhigherdeductiblesandalargenewdoseofinvestmentriskforfamilies’futurehealthcare.Evendemographicsareworkingagainstthemiddleclassfamilyastheoddsofhavingaweakelderlyparent--andallheattendantneedforphysicalandfinancialassistance--havejumpedeightfoldinjustonegeneration. Fromthemiddle-classfamilyperspectivemuchofthisunderstandablylooksfarlesslikeanopportunitytoexercisemorefinancialresponsibilityandagooddealmorelikeafrighteningaccelerationofthewholesaleshiftoffinancialriskontotheiralreadyoverburdenedshoulders.Thefinancialfallouthasbegunandthepoliticalfalloutmaynotbefarbehind. AsaresultofPresidentBush’sreformretiredpeoplemayhave
Somecountriesaremorepopulous;somehavemorecrime.ButinnoothercountryarecrimefightersquitesoknowledgeableaboutcitizensasinBritain.OnJanuary4thaboastfulHomeOfficedetailedthetriumphsoftheworld’sbiggestforensicDNAdatabasewhichholdssamplesfrommorethan5%oftheentirepopulationofEnglandandWales.Recentchangestotherulesgoverningthedatabasemeanthatitmayeventuallyholdprofilesfrommorethanafifthofalladults.OnceacountrystartsstoringDNAsamplesfromcriminalsitishardtoresisttheurgetoexpandthecollection.WhentheNationalDNADatabaseNDNADwassetupin1995samplescouldonlybetakenfromthosechargedwithrecordableoffences.Ifasuspectwasnottriedorwasfreedthesamplehadtobedestroyedandtheprofileremovedfromthedatabase.Thatlawwasabandonedin2001aftertwomenwhohadbeenconvictedofmurderandrapehadtheircasesoverturnedonappeal-theDNAevidenceagainstthemrelatedtocrimestheyhadnotbeenconvictedofandsooughttohavebeenremovedfromthedatabase.Thechangehasledtotheretentionofaround200000samplesthatwouldpreviouslyhavebeendestroyed.Some7591oftheseweresubsequentlymatchedwithsamplesfromcrimescenesincludingthosefrom88murdersand116rapes.AndsinceApril2004policehavebeenabletotakeandkeepsamplesfromanyonearrestedforarecordableoffenceevenifchargesdonotensue.ThemainreasontheNDNADislargerthandatabasesinothercountriesisthatBritainwasfirsttostartusingDNAasaninvestigativetool.SonotonlyhasithadtimetocollectmoreDNAsamplesbutithasalsohadlongertoappreciatethesheerpowerofalargedatabase.EveryothercountrythatdoesdatabasingwillgettowhereBritainisnowsaysChrisAsplenaconsultanttolawenforcementagenciesandgovernmentsonDNAtechnology.TheincreaseduseofDNAevidencehasgivenrisetointriguingnewcourtroomdefences.DNAtestsarenowsosensitivethattheycandetectifapersonhassneezedorsweatednearanobject.JohnSwainabarristerwithabackgroundinbiochemistryrecentlydefendedamanchargedwitharmedrobbery.Thedefendant’sDNAwasonthegunthatwasusedbutthedefencesarguedthathemightjusthavebeennearitafterhehadbeentothegymandthatanerrantbeadofsweatcouldaccountforthepresenceofhisDNAonaweaponhehadneverhandled.Hewasdeclarednotguilty.Thecaseoftwomenwhohadbeenconvictedofmurderandrapeinparagraph3
The1990shavebeendesignatedtheDecadeAgainstDrugAbusebytheUnitedNations.But1lessthanthreeyearstogobeforetheendofthedecadegovernmentsandhealthorganizations2thattheyhavemade3progressinreducingdrugalcoholandtobaccoabuse.Todayconsumptionofallthesesubstancesisincreasinglysteadilyworldwide.4everycountrynowhasproblemswith5drugs.Andtheworldisproducingandconsumingmorealcoholandtobaccothanever.Between1970and1990beerproduction6rosebyover80percent.And7thenumberofsmokerskeepson8bythesecondorthird9ofthenextcenturytherecouldbe10milliondeathseachyear10smokingrelatedillnesses. Drugsarealsoahugeburden11theworldeconomy.IntheUnitedStatesforexampleit’sestimatedthatalcoholandillegaldrugusecoststhecountrytensofbillionsofdollarseachyearmainly12healthcare.Whenthecostoftobaccorelatedillnessesisadded13totalmorethandoubles. Drugsarealsoclosely14crime.Manypoliceforcesnolonger15betweenillegalandlegaldrugswhenfightingcrime.InAustraliaforexampleexperts16thatpoliceinsomepartsofthecountryspendbetween70and80percentoftheirtimedealingwithalcohol-relatedincidents. Oneexplanationfortheincreaseindrug17issimplythatpeoplehavemoremoneytospend.Tobaccoandalcoholcompaniesarenow18muchmoreondevelopingcountriestotake19ofgreaterwealththere.Andcriminalsinvolvedintheillegaldrugtradearefollowing20introducingdrugsintocountrieswheretheywerepreviouslyhardlyuse. 6
ItisnotjustIndiansoftwareand"business-processoutsourcing"firmsthatarebenefitingfromtheriseoftheinternet.IndianmodernartisalsoonanupwardspiraldrivenbytheaspirationsofnewlyrichIndiansespeciallythoselivingabroadwhousetheinternettospotpaintingsandtrackpricesathundredsofgalleryandauctionwebsites.Priceshaverisenaround20-foldsince2000.particularlyforprizednamessuchasTyebMehtaandF.N.Souza. Therewouldhavebeen"nochance"ofthathappeningsofastwithouttheinternetsaysArunVadehrawhorunsagalleryinDelhiandisanadvisertoChristie’saninternationalauctionhouse.HeexpectsworldwidesalesofIndianartworth$200millionlastyeartodoublein2006.Itisstillatinyfractionofthe$30billionglobalartmarketbutissizeableforanemergingmarket. Fornewlyrich--oftenveryrich--non-residentIndiansexpensiveartisabadgeofsuccessinaforeignland."Whoyouareandwhatyouhaveareonyourwalls"saysLaveshJagasiaanartdealerinMumbai.Indianartmayalsobeatotherformsofinvestment.ApaintingbyMr.Mehtathatfetched$1.58millionlastSeptemberwouldhavegoneforlittlemorethan$100000justfouryearsago.Anda$22millionart-investmentfundlaunchedinJulybyOsian’sabigIndianauctionhousehasgrownby4.1%initsfirsttwomonths. ScantattentionwaspaidtomodernIndianartuntiltheendofthe1990s.ThenwealthyIndiansparticularlythoselivingabroadbegantotakeaninterest.DineshVaziraniwhorunsSaffronartaleadingIndianauctionsitesays60%ofhissalesgotobuyersoverseas. Thefocusnowisonsixauctionsthismonth.TwotookplaceinIndialastweek;workbyyoungerartistssuchasSurendranNaifandShibuNatesanbeatestimatesbymorethan70%.Sotheby’sandChristie’shaveauctionsinNewYorknextweekeachwithaTyebMehtathatisexpectedtofetchmorethan$1million.TherealquestionisthefateofotherworksincludingsomebyMr.Souzawithestimatesofupto$600000.Iftheydowellitwilldemonstratethatthereisstrongdemandandwillpulluppricesacrosstheboard.Thislookslikeamarketwithalongwaytorun. ItcanbeinferredfromthesecondparagraphthattherecentrapiddevelopmentofIndianmodernartiscloselyassociatedwith
DuBoiswasasociologicalandeducationalpioneerwhochallengedtheestablishedsystemofeducationthattendedtorestrictratherthantoadvancetheprogressofblackAmericans.HechallengedwhatiscalledtheTuskegeemachineofBookerT.WashingtontheleadingeducationalspokespersonoftheblacksintheU.S..AsasociologistandhistorianDuBoiscalledforamoredeterminedandactivistleadershipthanWashingtonprovided.UnlikeWashingtonwhoserootswereinsouthernblackagricultureDuBois’scareerspannedbothsidesoftheMason-DixonLine.HewasanativeofMassachusettsreceivedhisundergraduateeducationfromFiskUniversityinNashvilledidhisgraduatestudyatHarvardUniversityanddirectedtheAtlantaUniversityStudiesofBlackAmericanLifeintheSouth.DuBoisapproachedtheproblemofracialrelationsintheUnitedStatesfromtwodimensions:asascholarlyresearcherandasanactivistforcivilrights.AmonghisworkswasthefamousempiricalsociologicalstudyThePhiladelphiaNegro:ASocialStudyinwhichheexaminedthatcity’sblackpopulationandmaderecommendationsfortheschoolsystem.DuBois’sPhiladelphiastudywasthepioneerworkonurbanblacksinAmerica.DuBoishadalongandactivecareerasaleaderinthecivilrightsmovement.HehelpedtoorganizetheNiagaraMovementin1905whichledtotheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeopleNAACPestablishedin1909.From1910until1934DuBoiseditedTheCrisisthemajorjournaloftheNAACP.IntermsofitseducationalpolicytheNAACPpositionwasthatallAmericanchildrenandyouthshouldhavegenuineequalityofeducationalopportunity.ThispolicywhichDuBoishelpedtoformulatestressedthefollowingthemes:1publicschoolingshouldbefreeandcompulsoryforallAmericanchildren;2secondaryschoolingshouldbeprovidedforallyouth;3highereducationshouldnotbemonopolizedbyanyspecialclassorrace.AsaleaderineducationDuBoischallengednotonlythetraditionofracialsegregationintheschoolsbutalsotheaccommodationistideologyofBookerT.Washington.ThemajordifferencebetweenthetwomenwasthatWashingtonsoughtchangethatwasevolutionaryinnatureanddidnotupsetthesocialorderwhereasDuBoisdemandedimmediatechange.DuBoisbelievedineducatedleadershipforblacksandhedevelopedaconceptreferredtoasthetalentedtenthaccordingtowhich10percentoftheblackpopulationwouldreceiveatraditionalcollegeeducationinpreparationforleadership.Itcanbeinferredfromthelastparagraphthat
The1990shavebeendesignatedtheDecadeAgainstDrugAbusebytheUnitedNations.But1lessthanthreeyearstogobeforetheendofthedecadegovernmentsandhealthorganizations2thattheyhavemade3progressinreducingdrugalcoholandtobaccoabuse.Todayconsumptionofallthesesubstancesisincreasinglysteadilyworldwide.4everycountrynowhasproblemswith5drugs.Andtheworldisproducingandconsumingmorealcoholandtobaccothanever.Between1970and1990beerproduction6rosebyover80percent.And7thenumberofsmokerskeepson8bythesecondorthird9ofthenextcenturytherecouldbe10milliondeathseachyear10smokingrelatedillnesses. Drugsarealsoahugeburden11theworldeconomy.IntheUnitedStatesforexampleit’sestimatedthatalcoholandillegaldrugusecoststhecountrytensofbillionsofdollarseachyearmainly12healthcare.Whenthecostoftobaccorelatedillnessesisadded13totalmorethandoubles. Drugsarealsoclosely14crime.Manypoliceforcesnolonger15betweenillegalandlegaldrugswhenfightingcrime.InAustraliaforexampleexperts16thatpoliceinsomepartsofthecountryspendbetween70and80percentoftheirtimedealingwithalcohol-relatedincidents. Oneexplanationfortheincreaseindrug17issimplythatpeoplehavemoremoneytospend.Tobaccoandalcoholcompaniesarenow18muchmoreondevelopingcountriestotake19ofgreaterwealththere.Andcriminalsinvolvedintheillegaldrugtradearefollowing20introducingdrugsintocountrieswheretheywerepreviouslyhardlyuse. 16
The1990shavebeendesignatedtheDecadeAgainstDrugAbusebytheUnitedNations.But1lessthanthreeyearstogobeforetheendofthedecadegovernmentsandhealthorganizations2thattheyhavemade3progressinreducingdrugalcoholandtobaccoabuse.Todayconsumptionofallthesesubstancesisincreasinglysteadilyworldwide.4everycountrynowhasproblemswith5drugs.Andtheworldisproducingandconsumingmorealcoholandtobaccothanever.Between1970and1990beerproduction6rosebyover80percent.And7thenumberofsmokerskeepson8bythesecondorthird9ofthenextcenturytherecouldbe10milliondeathseachyear10smokingrelatedillnesses. Drugsarealsoahugeburden11theworldeconomy.IntheUnitedStatesforexampleit’sestimatedthatalcoholandillegaldrugusecoststhecountrytensofbillionsofdollarseachyearmainly12healthcare.Whenthecostoftobaccorelatedillnessesisadded13totalmorethandoubles. Drugsarealsoclosely14crime.Manypoliceforcesnolonger15betweenillegalandlegaldrugswhenfightingcrime.InAustraliaforexampleexperts16thatpoliceinsomepartsofthecountryspendbetween70and80percentoftheirtimedealingwithalcohol-relatedincidents. Oneexplanationfortheincreaseindrug17issimplythatpeoplehavemoremoneytospend.Tobaccoandalcoholcompaniesarenow18muchmoreondevelopingcountriestotake19ofgreaterwealththere.Andcriminalsinvolvedintheillegaldrugtradearefollowing20introducingdrugsintocountrieswheretheywerepreviouslyhardlyuse. 10
HowmanyreallysufferasaresultoflabormarketproblemsThisisoneofthemostcriticalyetcontentioussocialpolicyquestions.Inmanywaysoursocialstatisticsexaggeratethedegreeofhardship.Unemploymentdoesnothavethesamedireconsequencestodayasitdidinthe1930’swhenmostoftheunemployedwereprimarybreadwinnerswhenincomeandearningswereusuallymuchclosertothemarginofsubsistenceandwhentherewerenocountervailingsocialprogramsforthosefailinginthelabormarket.Increasingaffluencetheriseoffamilieswithmorethanonewageearnerthegrowingpredominanceofsecondaryearnersamongtheunemployedandimprovedsocialwelfareprotectionhaveunquestionablymitigatedtheconsequencesofjoblessness.Earningsandincomedataalsooverstatethedimensionsofhardship.Amongthemillionswithhourlyearningsatorbelowtheminimumwageleveltheover-whelmingmajorityarefrommultipleearnerrelativelyafflunentfamilies.Mostofthosecountedbythepovertystatisticsareelderlyorhandicappedorhavefamilyresponsibilitieswhichkeepthemoutofthelaborforcesothepovertystatisticsarebynomeansanaccurateindicatoroflabormarketpathologies. Yettherearealsomanywaysoursocialstatisticsunderestimatethedegreeoflabor-market-relatedhardship.Theunemploymentcountsexcludethemillionsoffullyemployedworkerswhosewagesaresolowthattheirfamiliesremaininpoverty.Lowwagesandrepeatedorprolongedunemploymentfrequentlyinteracttounderminethecapacityforself-support.Sincethenumberexperiencingjoblessnessatsometimeduringtheyearisseveraltimesthenumberunemployedinanymonththosewhosufferasaresultofforcedidlenesscanequalorexceedaverageannualunemploymenteventhoughonlyaminorityofthejoblessinanymonthreallysuffer.Foreverypersoncountedinthemonthlyunemploymenttalliesthereisanotherworkingpart-timebecauseoftheinabilitytofindfulltimeworkorelseoutsidethelaborforcebutwantingajob.Finallyincometransfersinourcountryhavealwaysfocusedontheelderlydisabledanddependentneglectingtheneedsoftheworkingpoorsothatthedramaticexpansionofcashandinkindtransfersdoesnotnecessarilymeanthatthosefailinginthelabormarketareadequatelyprotected. Asaresultofsuchcontradictoryevidenceitisuncertainwhetherthosesufferingseriouslyasaresultofthousandsorthetensofmillionsandhencewhetherhighlevelsofjoblessnesscanbetoleratedormustbecounteredbyjobcreationandeconomicstimulus.Thereisonlyoneareaofagreementinthisdebate--thattheexistingpovertyemploymentandearningsstatisticsareinadequateforoneoftheirprimaryapplicationsmeasuringtheconsequencesoflabormarketproblems. Theauthor’spurposeincitingrepeated12-monthunemployedmentismostprobablytoshowthat
DostudentslearnfromprogrammedinstructionTheresearchleavesusinnodoubtofthis.Theydoindeedlearn.46.Manykindsofstudentslearn--collegehighschoolsecondaryprimarypreschooladultprofessionalskilledlaborclericalemployeesmilitarydeafretardedimprisoned-everykindofstudentsthatprogramshavebeentriedon.UsingprogramsthesestudentsareabletolearnmathematicsandscienceatdifferentlevelsforeignlanguagesEnglishlanguagecorrectnessspellingelectronicscomputersciencepsychologystatisticsbusinessskillsreadingskillsinstrumentflyingrulesandmanyothersubjects;thelimitsofthetopicswhichcanbestudiedefficientlybymeansofprogramsarenotyetknown.Foreachofthekindsofsubjectmatterandthekindsofstudentmentionedaboveexperimentshavedemonstratedthataconsiderableamountoflearningcanbederivedfromprograms;thislearninghasbeenmeasuredeitherbycomparingpre-andpost-testsorthetimeandtrialsneededtoreachasetcriterionofperformance.47.Butthequestionhowwelldostudentslearnfromprogramsascomparedtohowwelltheylearnfromotherkindsofinstructionwecannotanswerquiteconfidently.Experimentalpsychologiststypicallydonottakeveryseriouslytheevaluativeexperimentsinwhichlearningfromprogramsiscomparedwithlearningfromconventionalteaching.Suchexperimentsaredoubtlesslyusefultheysayforschooladministratorsorteacherstoprovetothemselvesortheirboardsofeducationthatprogramswork.48.ButwhereasonecandescribefairlywellthecharacteristicsofaprogramcanonedescribethecharacteristicsofaclassroomteachingsituationsothattheresultofthecomparisonwillhaveanygeneralityWhatkindofteacherisbeingcomparedtowhatkindofprogramFurthermoretheseearlyevaluativeexperimentswithprogramsarelikelytosufferfromtheHawthorneeffect;thatistosaystudentsareinthespotlightwhentestingsomethingnewandarechallengedtodowell.49.Itisveryhardtomakeallowanceforthiseffect;thereforetheevaluativetestsmaybeusefuladministrativelysaymanyoftheexperimentsbutdonotcontributemuchtoscienceandshouldproperlybekeptforprivateuse.Theseobjectionsarewelltaken.AndyetdotheyjustifyusinignoringtheevaluativestudiesThegreatstrengthofaprogramisthatitpermitsthestudenttolearnefficientlybyhimself.50.IsitnotthereforeimportanttoknowhowmuchandwhatkindofskillsconceptsinsightsorattitudeshecanlearnbyhimselffromaprogramascomparedtowhathecanlearnfromateacherAdmittedlythisisaverydifficultandcomplexresearchproblembutthatshouldnotkeepusfromtryingtosolveit.
DuBoiswasasociologicalandeducationalpioneerwhochallengedtheestablishedsystemofeducationthattendedtorestrictratherthantoadvancetheprogressofblackAmericans.HechallengedwhatiscalledtheTuskegeemachineofBookerT.WashingtontheleadingeducationalspokespersonoftheblacksintheU.S..AsasociologistandhistorianDuBoiscalledforamoredeterminedandactivistleadershipthanWashingtonprovided.UnlikeWashingtonwhoserootswereinsouthernblackagricultureDuBois’scareerspannedbothsidesoftheMason-DixonLine.HewasanativeofMassachusettsreceivedhisundergraduateeducationfromFiskUniversityinNashvilledidhisgraduatestudyatHarvardUniversityanddirectedtheAtlantaUniversityStudiesofBlackAmericanLifeintheSouth.DuBoisapproachedtheproblemofracialrelationsintheUnitedStatesfromtwodimensions:asascholarlyresearcherandasanactivistforcivilrights.AmonghisworkswasthefamousempiricalsociologicalstudyThePhiladelphiaNegro:ASocialStudyinwhichheexaminedthatcity’sblackpopulationandmaderecommendationsfortheschoolsystem.DuBois’sPhiladelphiastudywasthepioneerworkonurbanblacksinAmerica.DuBoishadalongandactivecareerasaleaderinthecivilrightsmovement.HehelpedtoorganizetheNiagaraMovementin1905whichledtotheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeopleNAACPestablishedin1909.From1910until1934DuBoiseditedTheCrisisthemajorjournaloftheNAACP.IntermsofitseducationalpolicytheNAACPpositionwasthatallAmericanchildrenandyouthshouldhavegenuineequalityofeducationalopportunity.ThispolicywhichDuBoishelpedtoformulatestressedthefollowingthemes:1publicschoolingshouldbefreeandcompulsoryforallAmericanchildren;2secondaryschoolingshouldbeprovidedforallyouth;3highereducationshouldnotbemonopolizedbyanyspecialclassorrace.AsaleaderineducationDuBoischallengednotonlythetraditionofracialsegregationintheschoolsbutalsotheaccommodationistideologyofBookerT.Washington.ThemajordifferencebetweenthetwomenwasthatWashingtonsoughtchangethatwasevolutionaryinnatureanddidnotupsetthesocialorderwhereasDuBoisdemandedimmediatechange.DuBoisbelievedineducatedleadershipforblacksandhedevelopedaconceptreferredtoasthetalentedtenthaccordingtowhich10percentoftheblackpopulationwouldreceiveatraditionalcollegeeducationinpreparationforleadership.ThephraseTuskegeemachineLine3Para.1mostprobablyrefersto
The1990shavebeendesignatedtheDecadeAgainstDrugAbusebytheUnitedNations.But1lessthanthreeyearstogobeforetheendofthedecadegovernmentsandhealthorganizations2thattheyhavemade3progressinreducingdrugalcoholandtobaccoabuse.Todayconsumptionofallthesesubstancesisincreasinglysteadilyworldwide.4everycountrynowhasproblemswith5drugs.Andtheworldisproducingandconsumingmorealcoholandtobaccothanever.Between1970and1990beerproduction6rosebyover80percent.And7thenumberofsmokerskeepson8bythesecondorthird9ofthenextcenturytherecouldbe10milliondeathseachyear10smokingrelatedillnesses. Drugsarealsoahugeburden11theworldeconomy.IntheUnitedStatesforexampleit’sestimatedthatalcoholandillegaldrugusecoststhecountrytensofbillionsofdollarseachyearmainly12healthcare.Whenthecostoftobaccorelatedillnessesisadded13totalmorethandoubles. Drugsarealsoclosely14crime.Manypoliceforcesnolonger15betweenillegalandlegaldrugswhenfightingcrime.InAustraliaforexampleexperts16thatpoliceinsomepartsofthecountryspendbetween70and80percentoftheirtimedealingwithalcohol-relatedincidents. Oneexplanationfortheincreaseindrug17issimplythatpeoplehavemoremoneytospend.Tobaccoandalcoholcompaniesarenow18muchmoreondevelopingcountriestotake19ofgreaterwealththere.Andcriminalsinvolvedintheillegaldrugtradearefollowing20introducingdrugsintocountrieswheretheywerepreviouslyhardlyuse. 12
ItisnotjustIndiansoftwareandbusiness-processoutsourcingfirmsthatarebenefitingfromtheriseoftheinternet.IndianmodernartisalsoonanupwardspiraldrivenbytheaspirationsofnewlyrichIndiansespeciallythoselivingabroadwhousetheinternettospotpaintingsandtrackpricesathundredsofgalleryandauctionwebsites.Priceshaverisenaround20-foldsince2000.particularlyforprizednamessuchasTyebMehtaandF.N.Souza.TherewouldhavebeennochanceofthathappeningsofastwithouttheinternetsaysArunVadehrawhorunsagalleryinDelhiandisanadvisertoChristie’saninternationalauctionhouse.HeexpectsworldwidesalesofIndianartworth$200millionlastyeartodoublein2006.Itisstillatinyfractionofthe$30billionglobalartmarketbutissizeableforanemergingmarket.Fornewlyrich--oftenveryrich--non-residentIndiansexpensiveartisabadgeofsuccessinaforeignland.WhoyouareandwhatyouhaveareonyourwallssaysLaveshJagasiaanartdealerinMumbai.Indianartmayalsobeatotherformsofinvestment.ApaintingbyMr.Mehtathatfetched$1.58millionlastSeptemberwouldhavegoneforlittlemorethan$100000justfouryearsago.Anda$22millionart-investmentfundlaunchedinJulybyOsian’sabigIndianauctionhousehasgrownby4.1%initsfirsttwomonths.ScantattentionwaspaidtomodernIndianartuntiltheendofthe1990s.ThenwealthyIndiansparticularlythoselivingabroadbegantotakeaninterest.DineshVaziraniwhorunsSaffronartaleadingIndianauctionsitesays60%ofhissalesgotobuyersoverseas.Thefocusnowisonsixauctionsthismonth.TwotookplaceinIndialastweek;workbyyoungerartistssuchasSurendranNaifandShibuNatesanbeatestimatesbymorethan70%.Sotheby’sandChristie’shaveauctionsinNewYorknextweekeachwithaTyebMehtathatisexpectedtofetchmorethan$1million.TherealquestionisthefateofotherworksincludingsomebyMr.Souzawithestimatesofupto$600000.Iftheydowellitwilldemonstratethatthereisstrongdemandandwillpulluppricesacrosstheboard.Thislookslikeamarketwithalongwaytorun.Whichofthefollowingistrueaccordingtothetext
The1990shavebeendesignatedtheDecadeAgainstDrugAbusebytheUnitedNations.But1lessthanthreeyearstogobeforetheendofthedecadegovernmentsandhealthorganizations2thattheyhavemade3progressinreducingdrugalcoholandtobaccoabuse.Todayconsumptionofallthesesubstancesisincreasinglysteadilyworldwide.4everycountrynowhasproblemswith5drugs.Andtheworldisproducingandconsumingmorealcoholandtobaccothanever.Between1970and1990beerproduction6rosebyover80percent.And7thenumberofsmokerskeepson8bythesecondorthird9ofthenextcenturytherecouldbe10milliondeathseachyear10smokingrelatedillnesses. Drugsarealsoahugeburden11theworldeconomy.IntheUnitedStatesforexampleit’sestimatedthatalcoholandillegaldrugusecoststhecountrytensofbillionsofdollarseachyearmainly12healthcare.Whenthecostoftobaccorelatedillnessesisadded13totalmorethandoubles. Drugsarealsoclosely14crime.Manypoliceforcesnolonger15betweenillegalandlegaldrugswhenfightingcrime.InAustraliaforexampleexperts16thatpoliceinsomepartsofthecountryspendbetween70and80percentoftheirtimedealingwithalcohol-relatedincidents. Oneexplanationfortheincreaseindrug17issimplythatpeoplehavemoremoneytospend.Tobaccoandalcoholcompaniesarenow18muchmoreondevelopingcountriestotake19ofgreaterwealththere.Andcriminalsinvolvedintheillegaldrugtradearefollowing20introducingdrugsintocountrieswheretheywerepreviouslyhardlyuse. 18
DostudentslearnfromprogrammedinstructionTheresearchleavesusinnodoubtofthis.Theydoindeedlearn.46.Manykindsofstudentslearn--collegehighschoolsecondaryprimarypreschooladultprofessionalskilledlaborclericalemployeesmilitarydeafretardedimprisoned-everykindofstudentsthatprogramshavebeentriedon.UsingprogramsthesestudentsareabletolearnmathematicsandscienceatdifferentlevelsforeignlanguagesEnglishlanguagecorrectnessspellingelectronicscomputersciencepsychologystatisticsbusinessskillsreadingskillsinstrumentflyingrulesandmanyothersubjects;thelimitsofthetopicswhichcanbestudiedefficientlybymeansofprogramsarenotyetknown.Foreachofthekindsofsubjectmatterandthekindsofstudentmentionedaboveexperimentshavedemonstratedthataconsiderableamountoflearningcanbederivedfromprograms;thislearninghasbeenmeasuredeitherbycomparingpre-andpost-testsorthetimeandtrialsneededtoreachasetcriterionofperformance.47.Butthequestionhowwelldostudentslearnfromprogramsascomparedtohowwelltheylearnfromotherkindsofinstructionwecannotanswerquiteconfidently.Experimentalpsychologiststypicallydonottakeveryseriouslytheevaluativeexperimentsinwhichlearningfromprogramsiscomparedwithlearningfromconventionalteaching.Suchexperimentsaredoubtlesslyusefultheysayforschooladministratorsorteacherstoprovetothemselvesortheirboardsofeducationthatprogramswork.48.ButwhereasonecandescribefairlywellthecharacteristicsofaprogramcanonedescribethecharacteristicsofaclassroomteachingsituationsothattheresultofthecomparisonwillhaveanygeneralityWhatkindofteacherisbeingcomparedtowhatkindofprogramFurthermoretheseearlyevaluativeexperimentswithprogramsarelikelytosufferfromtheHawthorneeffect;thatistosaystudentsareinthespotlightwhentestingsomethingnewandarechallengedtodowell.49.Itisveryhardtomakeallowanceforthiseffect;thereforetheevaluativetestsmaybeusefuladministrativelysaymanyoftheexperimentsbutdonotcontributemuchtoscienceandshouldproperlybekeptforprivateuse.Theseobjectionsarewelltaken.AndyetdotheyjustifyusinignoringtheevaluativestudiesThegreatstrengthofaprogramisthatitpermitsthestudenttolearnefficientlybyhimself.50.IsitnotthereforeimportanttoknowhowmuchandwhatkindofskillsconceptsinsightsorattitudeshecanlearnbyhimselffromaprogramascomparedtowhathecanlearnfromateacherAdmittedlythisisaverydifficultandcomplexresearchproblembutthatshouldnotkeepusfromtryingtosolveit.
A.PeriodicalsininitialstageB.ThefunctionofperiodicalsC.NewspapersandotherperiodicalsonlineD.TheintroductionofreviewsE.FeaturesofperiodicalsF.TheemergenceofmodernperiodicalsPeriodicalsrefertopublicationsreleasedonaregularbasisthatmayincludenewsfeaturearticlespoemsfictionalstoriesorothertypesofwriting.Manyperiodicalsalsoincludephotographsanddrawings.Periodicalsthatareaimedatageneralaudiencesuchasweeklynewsroundupsormonthlyspecial-interestpublicationsarealsocalledmagazines.Thosewithamorenarrowaudiencesuchaspublicationsofscholarlyorganizationscanbetermedjournals.Whilenewspapersareperiodicalsthetermgenerallyhascometorefertopublicationsotherthandailies.41.__________Historicallymustperiodicalshavedifferedfromnewspapersintheirformatpublicationscheduleandcontent.Mostnewspapersdealwiththenewsofthedayandareissuedonpulppaperwithrelativelylargeunboundpages.Bycontrastothertypesofperiodicalsfocusonmorespecializedmaterialandwhentheydealwithnewstheytendtodosointheformofsummariesorcommentaries.Forcenturiestheseperiodicalsgenerallyhavebeenprintedonfinerpaperthannewspaperswithsmallerboundpagesandissuedatintervalslongerthanadayweeklyeverytwoweeksmonthlyquarterlyorevenannually.42.__________Inthe1990swiththegrowthoftheInternetpublishersbegantoreleasenewspapersandotherperiodicalsonline.Thisdevelopmentblurredthelinebetweenthetwoformsbecausethegeneralformatanddesignofonlinenewspapersandperiodicalsaresimilarandthepublicationschedulesofbothformsbecamemoreflexible.Forexamplemanynewspaperpublishersupdatetheironlineversionsthroughoutthedayandsomeonlineperiodicalsdothesame.Despitethesetechnologicalchangesthetwoformsdifferingemphasisinchoiceofcontentremainsadistinguishingfactor.43.__________TheearliestperiodicalsincludetheGermanErbaulicheMonaths-UnterredungenEdifyingMonthlyDiscussions1663-1668theFrenchJournaldesScavans1665;subsequentlytitledJournaldesSavantsandtheEnglishPhilosophicalTransactions1665oftheRoyalSocietyofLondon.Thesewereessentiallycollectionsofsummarieslateressaysondevelopmentsinartliteraturephilosophyandscience.44.__________ThefirstperiodicalofthemoderngeneraltypedevotedtoamiscellanyofreadingentertainmentwastheEnglishpublicationTheGentleman’sMagazine1731—1907-thefirstinstanceoftheuseofthewordmagazinetodenoteaforumforentertainingreading.Itcontainedreportsofpoliticaldebatesessaysstoriesandpoemsandwaswidelyinfluential.ItservedasthemodelforthefirsttrueAmericanperiodicalsGeneralMagazineandHistoricalChronicleandAmericanMagazine.BothoftheseperiodicalsfirstappearedinPhiladelphiaPennsylvaniainJanuary1741asrivalpublications;neitherlastedmorethanafewmonthshowever.TheformerwasfoundedbytheAmericanstatesmanandscientistBenjaminFranklinandthelatterbytheAmericanprinterAndrewBradford.MonthlyorquarterlyreviewsusuallypartisaninpoliticsandwitharticlescontributedbyeminentauthorsandpoliticianswereintroducedinBritainearlyinthe19thcentury.Ofthesetwobecameoutstanding.TheEdinburghReview1802-1929foundedinsupportoftheWhigPartywasoneofthemostinfluentialcriticaljournalsofitsdayandnumberedamongitscontributors-theEnglishwritersSirWalterScottThomasCarlyleMatthewArnoldandWilliamHazlitt.Blackwood’sEdinburghMagazine1817-1981aTorypublicationwasearlyinitscareernotedforitsserializationofScottishfictionanditssatiricalcommentariesonScottishaffairs.OneofthemostimportantseriousperiodicalsintheUnitedStatesinthe19thcenturywastheNorthAmericanReview1815-1940;revivedin1964.EditorsduringitskongandillustriouscareerincludedsuchliteraryfiguresasJamesRussellLowellCharlesEliotNortonandHenryAdams;contributorsincludedHenryJamesH.G.WellsandMarkTwain.AmongtheEuropeanequivalentsofsuchperiodicalsweretheFrenchRevuedesDeuxMondesandtheGermanLiterarischesWochenblatt.
DuBoiswasasociologicalandeducationalpioneerwhochallengedtheestablishedsystemofeducationthattendedtorestrictratherthantoadvancetheprogressofblackAmericans.HechallengedwhatiscalledtheTuskegeemachineofBookerT.WashingtontheleadingeducationalspokespersonoftheblacksintheU.S..AsasociologistandhistorianDuBoiscalledforamoredeterminedandactivistleadershipthanWashingtonprovided.UnlikeWashingtonwhoserootswereinsouthernblackagricultureDuBois’scareerspannedbothsidesoftheMason-DixonLine.HewasanativeofMassachusettsreceivedhisundergraduateeducationfromFiskUniversityinNashvilledidhisgraduatestudyatHarvardUniversityanddirectedtheAtlantaUniversityStudiesofBlackAmericanLifeintheSouth.DuBoisapproachedtheproblemofracialrelationsintheUnitedStatesfromtwodimensions:asascholarlyresearcherandasanactivistforcivilrights.AmonghisworkswasthefamousempiricalsociologicalstudyThePhiladelphiaNegro:ASocialStudyinwhichheexaminedthatcity’sblackpopulationandmaderecommendationsfortheschoolsystem.DuBois’sPhiladelphiastudywasthepioneerworkonurbanblacksinAmerica.DuBoishadalongandactivecareerasaleaderinthecivilrightsmovement.HehelpedtoorganizetheNiagaraMovementin1905whichledtotheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeopleNAACPestablishedin1909.From1910until1934DuBoiseditedTheCrisisthemajorjournaloftheNAACP.IntermsofitseducationalpolicytheNAACPpositionwasthatallAmericanchildrenandyouthshouldhavegenuineequalityofeducationalopportunity.ThispolicywhichDuBoishelpedtoformulatestressedthefollowingthemes:1publicschoolingshouldbefreeandcompulsoryforallAmericanchildren;2secondaryschoolingshouldbeprovidedforallyouth;3highereducationshouldnotbemonopolizedbyanyspecialclassorrace.AsaleaderineducationDuBoischallengednotonlythetraditionofracialsegregationintheschoolsbutalsotheaccommodationistideologyofBookerT.Washington.ThemajordifferencebetweenthetwomenwasthatWashingtonsoughtchangethatwasevolutionaryinnatureanddidnotupsetthesocialorderwhereasDuBoisdemandedimmediatechange.DuBoisbelievedineducatedleadershipforblacksandhedevelopedaconceptreferredtoasthetalentedtenthaccordingtowhich10percentoftheblackpopulationwouldreceiveatraditionalcollegeeducationinpreparationforleadership.Whichofthefollowingstatementsistrueaccordingtothetext
The1990shavebeendesignatedtheDecadeAgainstDrugAbusebytheUnitedNations.But1lessthanthreeyearstogobeforetheendofthedecadegovernmentsandhealthorganizations2thattheyhavemade3progressinreducingdrugalcoholandtobaccoabuse.Todayconsumptionofallthesesubstancesisincreasinglysteadilyworldwide.4everycountrynowhasproblemswith5drugs.Andtheworldisproducingandconsumingmorealcoholandtobaccothanever.Between1970and1990beerproduction6rosebyover80percent.And7thenumberofsmokerskeepson8bythesecondorthird9ofthenextcenturytherecouldbe10milliondeathseachyear10smokingrelatedillnesses. Drugsarealsoahugeburden11theworldeconomy.IntheUnitedStatesforexampleit’sestimatedthatalcoholandillegaldrugusecoststhecountrytensofbillionsofdollarseachyearmainly12healthcare.Whenthecostoftobaccorelatedillnessesisadded13totalmorethandoubles. Drugsarealsoclosely14crime.Manypoliceforcesnolonger15betweenillegalandlegaldrugswhenfightingcrime.InAustraliaforexampleexperts16thatpoliceinsomepartsofthecountryspendbetween70and80percentoftheirtimedealingwithalcohol-relatedincidents. Oneexplanationfortheincreaseindrug17issimplythatpeoplehavemoremoneytospend.Tobaccoandalcoholcompaniesarenow18muchmoreondevelopingcountriestotake19ofgreaterwealththere.Andcriminalsinvolvedintheillegaldrugtradearefollowing20introducingdrugsintocountrieswheretheywerepreviouslyhardlyuse. 20
Directions: Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwriteanessayentitled"OntheInterpersonalRelationshipintheModemWorld".Intheessayyoushould1describethepicture;2interpretitsmeaning;3giveyouropinionaboutthephenomenon. Youshouldwriteabout200wordsneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.
The1990shavebeendesignatedtheDecadeAgainstDrugAbusebytheUnitedNations.But1lessthanthreeyearstogobeforetheendofthedecadegovernmentsandhealthorganizations2thattheyhavemade3progressinreducingdrugalcoholandtobaccoabuse.Todayconsumptionofallthesesubstancesisincreasinglysteadilyworldwide.4everycountrynowhasproblemswith5drugs.Andtheworldisproducingandconsumingmorealcoholandtobaccothanever.Between1970and1990beerproduction6rosebyover80percent.And7thenumberofsmokerskeepson8bythesecondorthird9ofthenextcenturytherecouldbe10milliondeathseachyear10smokingrelatedillnesses. Drugsarealsoahugeburden11theworldeconomy.IntheUnitedStatesforexampleit’sestimatedthatalcoholandillegaldrugusecoststhecountrytensofbillionsofdollarseachyearmainly12healthcare.Whenthecostoftobaccorelatedillnessesisadded13totalmorethandoubles. Drugsarealsoclosely14crime.Manypoliceforcesnolonger15betweenillegalandlegaldrugswhenfightingcrime.InAustraliaforexampleexperts16thatpoliceinsomepartsofthecountryspendbetween70and80percentoftheirtimedealingwithalcohol-relatedincidents. Oneexplanationfortheincreaseindrug17issimplythatpeoplehavemoremoneytospend.Tobaccoandalcoholcompaniesarenow18muchmoreondevelopingcountriestotake19ofgreaterwealththere.Andcriminalsinvolvedintheillegaldrugtradearefollowing20introducingdrugsintocountrieswheretheywerepreviouslyhardlyuse. 14
Somecountriesaremorepopulous;somehavemorecrime.ButinnoothercountryarecrimefightersquitesoknowledgeableaboutcitizensasinBritain.OnJanuary4thaboastfulHomeOfficedetailedthetriumphsoftheworld’sbiggestforensicDNAdatabasewhichholdssamplesfrommorethan5%oftheentirepopulationofEnglandandWales.Recentchangestotherulesgoverningthedatabasemeanthatitmayeventuallyholdprofilesfrommorethanafifthofalladults.OnceacountrystartsstoringDNAsamplesfromcriminalsitishardtoresisttheurgetoexpandthecollection.WhentheNationalDNADatabaseNDNADwassetupin1995samplescouldonlybetakenfromthosechargedwithrecordableoffences.Ifasuspectwasnottriedorwasfreedthesamplehadtobedestroyedandtheprofileremovedfromthedatabase.Thatlawwasabandonedin2001aftertwomenwhohadbeenconvictedofmurderandrapehadtheircasesoverturnedonappeal-theDNAevidenceagainstthemrelatedtocrimestheyhadnotbeenconvictedofandsooughttohavebeenremovedfromthedatabase.Thechangehasledtotheretentionofaround200000samplesthatwouldpreviouslyhavebeendestroyed.Some7591oftheseweresubsequentlymatchedwithsamplesfromcrimescenesincludingthosefrom88murdersand116rapes.AndsinceApril2004policehavebeenabletotakeandkeepsamplesfromanyonearrestedforarecordableoffenceevenifchargesdonotensue.ThemainreasontheNDNADislargerthandatabasesinothercountriesisthatBritainwasfirsttostartusingDNAasaninvestigativetool.SonotonlyhasithadtimetocollectmoreDNAsamplesbutithasalsohadlongertoappreciatethesheerpowerofalargedatabase.EveryothercountrythatdoesdatabasingwillgettowhereBritainisnowsaysChrisAsplenaconsultanttolawenforcementagenciesandgovernmentsonDNAtechnology.TheincreaseduseofDNAevidencehasgivenrisetointriguingnewcourtroomdefences.DNAtestsarenowsosensitivethattheycandetectifapersonhassneezedorsweatednearanobject.JohnSwainabarristerwithabackgroundinbiochemistryrecentlydefendedamanchargedwitharmedrobbery.Thedefendant’sDNAwasonthegunthatwasusedbutthedefencesarguedthathemightjusthavebeennearitafterhehadbeentothegymandthatanerrantbeadofsweatcouldaccountforthepresenceofhisDNAonaweaponhehadneverhandled.Hewasdeclarednotguilty.Thetextmainlytellsusthat
The1990shavebeendesignatedtheDecadeAgainstDrugAbusebytheUnitedNations.But1lessthanthreeyearstogobeforetheendofthedecadegovernmentsandhealthorganizations2thattheyhavemade3progressinreducingdrugalcoholandtobaccoabuse.Todayconsumptionofallthesesubstancesisincreasinglysteadilyworldwide.4everycountrynowhasproblemswith5drugs.Andtheworldisproducingandconsumingmorealcoholandtobaccothanever.Between1970and1990beerproduction6rosebyover80percent.And7thenumberofsmokerskeepson8bythesecondorthird9ofthenextcenturytherecouldbe10milliondeathseachyear10smokingrelatedillnesses. Drugsarealsoahugeburden11theworldeconomy.IntheUnitedStatesforexampleit’sestimatedthatalcoholandillegaldrugusecoststhecountrytensofbillionsofdollarseachyearmainly12healthcare.Whenthecostoftobaccorelatedillnessesisadded13totalmorethandoubles. Drugsarealsoclosely14crime.Manypoliceforcesnolonger15betweenillegalandlegaldrugswhenfightingcrime.InAustraliaforexampleexperts16thatpoliceinsomepartsofthecountryspendbetween70and80percentoftheirtimedealingwithalcohol-relatedincidents. Oneexplanationfortheincreaseindrug17issimplythatpeoplehavemoremoneytospend.Tobaccoandalcoholcompaniesarenow18muchmoreondevelopingcountriestotake19ofgreaterwealththere.Andcriminalsinvolvedintheillegaldrugtradearefollowing20introducingdrugsintocountrieswheretheywerepreviouslyhardlyuse. 8
WhenRupertMurdochseesbeamsoflightintheAmericanadvertisingmarketitisnotnecessarilytimetoreachforthesunglasses.LastOctoberwhentheimpactofSeptember11thwasonlybeginningtotellthebossofNASCARamediagrouphadalreadyidentifiedstrongraysofsunshine.WithadsalesstilllanguishingMr.MurdochdeclaredlastmonththattherearesomehintsofamodestupswingintileUSadvertisingmarket.Hisearlyoptimismturnedouttobemisplaced.Nowhoweverotherindustryobserversarebeginningtoagreewithhim.Advertisingusuallyexaggeratestheeconomiccyclefallingsharplyandearlyinadownturnandreboundingstronglyoncetheeconomyhasbeguntorecover.Thisisbecausemostmanagersprefertotrimtheiradbudgetsratherthantheirpayrollsandrestoresuchspendingonlyoncetheyfeelsurethatthingsarelookingup.LastyearAmerica’sadmarketshrankby9.8%accordingtoCMIRaresearchfirm.Althoughadspendinghasnotyetrecoveredacrossallmediasomeanalystsnowexpectoveralladspendingtostarttogrowinthethirdquarter.Thesignsofimprovementarepatchyhowever.Adspendingonradioandtelevisionseemstobeinchingup—advertisingonAmericanNationalRadiowasup2%inJanuaryonthesameperiodlastyearaccordingtoAegis—whilespendingonmagazinesandnewspapersisstillweak.Evenwithinanyonemarkettherearehugedifferences;justpickupacopyofoneofthenow-slimlinehigh-teehmagazinesthatoncebulgedwithadsandcompareitwiththeheftycelebrityorwomen’stitles.Advertisersinsomecategoriessuchasthetravelindustryarestillreluctanttobuyspaceorairtimewhileotherssuchasthecarandmoviebusinesseshavebeenbolder.ThewinterOlympicsheldlastmonthinSaltLakeCityhasalsodistortedthespendingonbroadcastadvertisinginthefirstquarter.Nonethelessthereisanunderlyingpattern.Onemeasureisthebookingofadspotsfornationalbrandsonlocaltelevision.ByearlyMarchaccordingtoMr.Westerfield’sanalysissuchbookingsweregrowingfastacrosseightoutofthetoptenadvertisingsectorsledbythefinancialandmotorindustries.UBSWarburgnowexpectstheupfrontmarketwhichstartsinMaywhenadvertisersbookadvanceadspotsontheTVnetworksforthenewseasoninSeptembertobeup4%onlastyear.Onsomeestimatesevenonlineadvertisingcouldpickupbytheendoftheyear.Signsofimprovementarevisibleintheadvertisingof______.
A.PeriodicalsininitialstageB.ThefunctionofperiodicalsC.NewspapersandotherperiodicalsonlineD.TheintroductionofreviewsE.FeaturesofperiodicalsF.TheemergenceofmodernperiodicalsPeriodicalsrefertopublicationsreleasedonaregularbasisthatmayincludenewsfeaturearticlespoemsfictionalstoriesorothertypesofwriting.Manyperiodicalsalsoincludephotographsanddrawings.Periodicalsthatareaimedatageneralaudiencesuchasweeklynewsroundupsormonthlyspecial-interestpublicationsarealsocalledmagazines.Thosewithamorenarrowaudiencesuchaspublicationsofscholarlyorganizationscanbetermedjournals.Whilenewspapersareperiodicalsthetermgenerallyhascometorefertopublicationsotherthandailies.41.__________Historicallymustperiodicalshavedifferedfromnewspapersintheirformatpublicationscheduleandcontent.Mostnewspapersdealwiththenewsofthedayandareissuedonpulppaperwithrelativelylargeunboundpages.Bycontrastothertypesofperiodicalsfocusonmorespecializedmaterialandwhentheydealwithnewstheytendtodosointheformofsummariesorcommentaries.Forcenturiestheseperiodicalsgenerallyhavebeenprintedonfinerpaperthannewspaperswithsmallerboundpagesandissuedatintervalslongerthanadayweeklyeverytwoweeksmonthlyquarterlyorevenannually.42.__________Inthe1990swiththegrowthoftheInternetpublishersbegantoreleasenewspapersandotherperiodicalsonline.Thisdevelopmentblurredthelinebetweenthetwoformsbecausethegeneralformatanddesignofonlinenewspapersandperiodicalsaresimilarandthepublicationschedulesofbothformsbecamemoreflexible.Forexamplemanynewspaperpublishersupdatetheironlineversionsthroughoutthedayandsomeonlineperiodicalsdothesame.Despitethesetechnologicalchangesthetwoformsdifferingemphasisinchoiceofcontentremainsadistinguishingfactor.43.__________TheearliestperiodicalsincludetheGermanErbaulicheMonaths-UnterredungenEdifyingMonthlyDiscussions1663-1668theFrenchJournaldesScavans1665;subsequentlytitledJournaldesSavantsandtheEnglishPhilosophicalTransactions1665oftheRoyalSocietyofLondon.Thesewereessentiallycollectionsofsummarieslateressaysondevelopmentsinartliteraturephilosophyandscience.44.__________ThefirstperiodicalofthemoderngeneraltypedevotedtoamiscellanyofreadingentertainmentwastheEnglishpublicationTheGentleman’sMagazine1731—1907-thefirstinstanceoftheuseofthewordmagazinetodenoteaforumforentertainingreading.Itcontainedreportsofpoliticaldebatesessaysstoriesandpoemsandwaswidelyinfluential.ItservedasthemodelforthefirsttrueAmericanperiodicalsGeneralMagazineandHistoricalChronicleandAmericanMagazine.BothoftheseperiodicalsfirstappearedinPhiladelphiaPennsylvaniainJanuary1741asrivalpublications;neitherlastedmorethanafewmonthshowever.TheformerwasfoundedbytheAmericanstatesmanandscientistBenjaminFranklinandthelatterbytheAmericanprinterAndrewBradford.MonthlyorquarterlyreviewsusuallypartisaninpoliticsandwitharticlescontributedbyeminentauthorsandpoliticianswereintroducedinBritainearlyinthe19thcentury.Ofthesetwobecameoutstanding.TheEdinburghReview1802-1929foundedinsupportoftheWhigPartywasoneofthemostinfluentialcriticaljournalsofitsdayandnumberedamongitscontributors-theEnglishwritersSirWalterScottThomasCarlyleMatthewArnoldandWilliamHazlitt.Blackwood’sEdinburghMagazine1817-1981aTorypublicationwasearlyinitscareernotedforitsserializationofScottishfictionanditssatiricalcommentariesonScottishaffairs.OneofthemostimportantseriousperiodicalsintheUnitedStatesinthe19thcenturywastheNorthAmericanReview1815-1940;revivedin1964.EditorsduringitskongandillustriouscareerincludedsuchliteraryfiguresasJamesRussellLowellCharlesEliotNortonandHenryAdams;contributorsincludedHenryJamesH.G.WellsandMarkTwain.AmongtheEuropeanequivalentsofsuchperiodicalsweretheFrenchRevuedesDeuxMondesandtheGermanLiterarischesWochenblatt.
WhenRupertMurdochseesbeamsoflightintheAmericanadvertisingmarketitisnotnecessarilytimetoreachforthesunglasses.LastOctoberwhentheimpactofSeptember11thwasonlybeginningtotellthebossofNASCARamediagrouphadalreadyidentifiedstrongraysofsunshine.WithadsalesstilllanguishingMr.MurdochdeclaredlastmonththattherearesomehintsofamodestupswingintileUSadvertisingmarket.Hisearlyoptimismturnedouttobemisplaced.Nowhoweverotherindustryobserversarebeginningtoagreewithhim.Advertisingusuallyexaggeratestheeconomiccyclefallingsharplyandearlyinadownturnandreboundingstronglyoncetheeconomyhasbeguntorecover.Thisisbecausemostmanagersprefertotrimtheiradbudgetsratherthantheirpayrollsandrestoresuchspendingonlyoncetheyfeelsurethatthingsarelookingup.LastyearAmerica’sadmarketshrankby9.8%accordingtoCMIRaresearchfirm.Althoughadspendinghasnotyetrecoveredacrossallmediasomeanalystsnowexpectoveralladspendingtostarttogrowinthethirdquarter.Thesignsofimprovementarepatchyhowever.Adspendingonradioandtelevisionseemstobeinchingup—advertisingonAmericanNationalRadiowasup2%inJanuaryonthesameperiodlastyearaccordingtoAegis—whilespendingonmagazinesandnewspapersisstillweak.Evenwithinanyonemarkettherearehugedifferences;justpickupacopyofoneofthenow-slimlinehigh-teehmagazinesthatoncebulgedwithadsandcompareitwiththeheftycelebrityorwomen’stitles.Advertisersinsomecategoriessuchasthetravelindustryarestillreluctanttobuyspaceorairtimewhileotherssuchasthecarandmoviebusinesseshavebeenbolder.ThewinterOlympicsheldlastmonthinSaltLakeCityhasalsodistortedthespendingonbroadcastadvertisinginthefirstquarter.Nonethelessthereisanunderlyingpattern.Onemeasureisthebookingofadspotsfornationalbrandsonlocaltelevision.ByearlyMarchaccordingtoMr.Westerfield’sanalysissuchbookingsweregrowingfastacrosseightoutofthetoptenadvertisingsectorsledbythefinancialandmotorindustries.UBSWarburgnowexpectstheupfrontmarketwhichstartsinMaywhenadvertisersbookadvanceadspotsontheTVnetworksforthenewseasoninSeptembertobeup4%onlastyear.Onsomeestimatesevenonlineadvertisingcouldpickupbytheendoftheyear.Mr.Murdoch’searlymarketestimationwas______.
DuringthepastgenerationtheAmericanmiddle-classfamilythatoncecouldcountonhardworkandfairpaytokeepitselffinanciallysecurehasbeentransformedbyeconomicriskandnewrealities.Nowapinkslipabaddiagnosisoradisappearingspousecanreduceafamilyfromsolidlymiddleclasstonewlypoorinafewmonths.Injustonegenerationmillionsofmothershavegonetoworktransformingbasicfamilyeconomics.Scholarspolicymakersandcriticsofallstripeshavedebatedthesocialimplicationsofthesechangesbutfewhavelookedatthesideeffect:familyriskhasrisenaswell.Today’sfamilieshavebudgetedtothelimitsoftheirnewtwo-paycheckstatus.Asaresulttheyhavelosttheparachutetheyoncehasintimesoffinancialsetback--aback-upearnerusuallyMomwhocouldgointotheworkforceiftheprimaryearnergotlaidofforfellsick.Thisadded-workereffectcouldsupportthesafetynetofferedbyunemploymentinsuranceordisabilityinsurancetohelpfamiliesweatherbadtimes.Buttodayadisruptiontofamilyfortunescannolongerbemadeupwithextraincomefromanotherwise-stay-at-homepartner.Duringthesameperiodfamilieshavebeenaskedtoabsorbmuchmoreriskintheirretirementincome.Steelworkersairlineemployeesandnowthoseintheautoindustryarejoiningmillionsoffamilieswhomustworryaboutinterestratesstockmarketfluctuationandtheharshrealitythattheymayoutlivetheirretirementmoney.FormuchofthepastyearPresidentBushcampaignedtomoveSocialSecuritytoasavings-accountmodelwithretireestradingmuchoralloftheirguaranteedpaymentsforpaymentsdependingoninvestmentreturns.Foryoungerfamiliesthepictureisnotanybetter.Boththeabsolutecostofhealthcareandtheshareofitbornebyfamilieshaverisen--andnewlyfashionablehealth-savingsplansarespreadingfromlegislativehallstoWal-Martworkerswithmuchhigherdeductiblesandalargenewdoseofinvestmentriskforfamilies’futurehealthcare.Evendemographicsareworkingagainstthemiddleclassfamilyastheoddsofhavingaweakelderlyparent--andallheattendantneedforphysicalandfinancialassistance--havejumpedeightfoldinjustonegeneration.Fromthemiddle-classfamilyperspectivemuchofthisunderstandablylooksfarlesslikeanopportunitytoexercisemorefinancialresponsibilityandagooddealmorelikeafrighteningaccelerationofthewholesaleshiftoffinancialriskontotheiralreadyoverburdenedshoulders.Thefinancialfallouthasbegunandthepoliticalfalloutmaynotbefarbehind.Itcanbeinferredfromthelastparagraphthat______.
The1990shavebeendesignatedtheDecadeAgainstDrugAbusebytheUnitedNations.But1lessthanthreeyearstogobeforetheendofthedecadegovernmentsandhealthorganizations2thattheyhavemade3progressinreducingdrugalcoholandtobaccoabuse.Todayconsumptionofallthesesubstancesisincreasinglysteadilyworldwide.4everycountrynowhasproblemswith5drugs.Andtheworldisproducingandconsumingmorealcoholandtobaccothanever.Between1970and1990beerproduction6rosebyover80percent.And7thenumberofsmokerskeepson8bythesecondorthird9ofthenextcenturytherecouldbe10milliondeathseachyear10smokingrelatedillnesses. Drugsarealsoahugeburden11theworldeconomy.IntheUnitedStatesforexampleit’sestimatedthatalcoholandillegaldrugusecoststhecountrytensofbillionsofdollarseachyearmainly12healthcare.Whenthecostoftobaccorelatedillnessesisadded13totalmorethandoubles. Drugsarealsoclosely14crime.Manypoliceforcesnolonger15betweenillegalandlegaldrugswhenfightingcrime.InAustraliaforexampleexperts16thatpoliceinsomepartsofthecountryspendbetween70and80percentoftheirtimedealingwithalcohol-relatedincidents. Oneexplanationfortheincreaseindrug17issimplythatpeoplehavemoremoneytospend.Tobaccoandalcoholcompaniesarenow18muchmoreondevelopingcountriestotake19ofgreaterwealththere.Andcriminalsinvolvedintheillegaldrugtradearefollowing20introducingdrugsintocountrieswheretheywerepreviouslyhardlyuse. 4
The1990shavebeendesignatedtheDecadeAgainstDrugAbusebytheUnitedNations.But1lessthanthreeyearstogobeforetheendofthedecadegovernmentsandhealthorganizations2thattheyhavemade3progressinreducingdrugalcoholandtobaccoabuse.Todayconsumptionofallthesesubstancesisincreasinglysteadilyworldwide.4everycountrynowhasproblemswith5drugs.Andtheworldisproducingandconsumingmorealcoholandtobaccothanever.Between1970and1990beerproduction6rosebyover80percent.And7thenumberofsmokerskeepson8bythesecondorthird9ofthenextcenturytherecouldbe10milliondeathseachyear10smokingrelatedillnesses. Drugsarealsoahugeburden11theworldeconomy.IntheUnitedStatesforexampleit’sestimatedthatalcoholandillegaldrugusecoststhecountrytensofbillionsofdollarseachyearmainly12healthcare.Whenthecostoftobaccorelatedillnessesisadded13totalmorethandoubles. Drugsarealsoclosely14crime.Manypoliceforcesnolonger15betweenillegalandlegaldrugswhenfightingcrime.InAustraliaforexampleexperts16thatpoliceinsomepartsofthecountryspendbetween70and80percentoftheirtimedealingwithalcohol-relatedincidents. Oneexplanationfortheincreaseindrug17issimplythatpeoplehavemoremoneytospend.Tobaccoandalcoholcompaniesarenow18muchmoreondevelopingcountriestotake19ofgreaterwealththere.Andcriminalsinvolvedintheillegaldrugtradearefollowing20introducingdrugsintocountrieswheretheywerepreviouslyhardlyuse. 2
Somecountriesaremorepopulous;somehavemorecrime.ButinnoothercountryarecrimefightersquitesoknowledgeableaboutcitizensasinBritain.OnJanuary4thaboastfulHomeOfficedetailedthetriumphsoftheworld’sbiggestforensicDNAdatabasewhichholdssamplesfrommorethan5%oftheentirepopulationofEnglandandWales.Recentchangestotherulesgoverningthedatabasemeanthatitmayeventuallyholdprofilesfrommorethanafifthofalladults.OnceacountrystartsstoringDNAsamplesfromcriminalsitishardtoresisttheurgetoexpandthecollection.WhentheNationalDNADatabaseNDNADwassetupin1995samplescouldonlybetakenfromthosechargedwithrecordableoffences.Ifasuspectwasnottriedorwasfreedthesamplehadtobedestroyedandtheprofileremovedfromthedatabase.Thatlawwasabandonedin2001aftertwomenwhohadbeenconvictedofmurderandrapehadtheircasesoverturnedonappeal-theDNAevidenceagainstthemrelatedtocrimestheyhadnotbeenconvictedofandsooughttohavebeenremovedfromthedatabase.Thechangehasledtotheretentionofaround200000samplesthatwouldpreviouslyhavebeendestroyed.Some7591oftheseweresubsequentlymatchedwithsamplesfromcrimescenesincludingthosefrom88murdersand116rapes.AndsinceApril2004policehavebeenabletotakeandkeepsamplesfromanyonearrestedforarecordableoffenceevenifchargesdonotensue.ThemainreasontheNDNADislargerthandatabasesinothercountriesisthatBritainwasfirsttostartusingDNAasaninvestigativetool.SonotonlyhasithadtimetocollectmoreDNAsamplesbutithasalsohadlongertoappreciatethesheerpowerofalargedatabase.EveryothercountrythatdoesdatabasingwillgettowhereBritainisnowsaysChrisAsplenaconsultanttolawenforcementagenciesandgovernmentsonDNAtechnology.TheincreaseduseofDNAevidencehasgivenrisetointriguingnewcourtroomdefences.DNAtestsarenowsosensitivethattheycandetectifapersonhassneezedorsweatednearanobject.JohnSwainabarristerwithabackgroundinbiochemistryrecentlydefendedamanchargedwitharmedrobbery.Thedefendant’sDNAwasonthegunthatwasusedbutthedefencesarguedthathemightjusthavebeennearitafterhehadbeentothegymandthatanerrantbeadofsweatcouldaccountforthepresenceofhisDNAonaweaponhehadneverhandled.Hewasdeclarednotguilty.Whatcanweinferfromthelastparagraph
DostudentslearnfromprogrammedinstructionTheresearchleavesusinnodoubtofthis.Theydoindeedlearn.46.Manykindsofstudentslearn--collegehighschoolsecondaryprimarypreschooladultprofessionalskilledlaborclericalemployeesmilitarydeafretardedimprisoned-everykindofstudentsthatprogramshavebeentriedon.UsingprogramsthesestudentsareabletolearnmathematicsandscienceatdifferentlevelsforeignlanguagesEnglishlanguagecorrectnessspellingelectronicscomputersciencepsychologystatisticsbusinessskillsreadingskillsinstrumentflyingrulesandmanyothersubjects;thelimitsofthetopicswhichcanbestudiedefficientlybymeansofprogramsarenotyetknown.Foreachofthekindsofsubjectmatterandthekindsofstudentmentionedaboveexperimentshavedemonstratedthataconsiderableamountoflearningcanbederivedfromprograms;thislearninghasbeenmeasuredeitherbycomparingpre-andpost-testsorthetimeandtrialsneededtoreachasetcriterionofperformance.47.Butthequestionhowwelldostudentslearnfromprogramsascomparedtohowwelltheylearnfromotherkindsofinstructionwecannotanswerquiteconfidently.Experimentalpsychologiststypicallydonottakeveryseriouslytheevaluativeexperimentsinwhichlearningfromprogramsiscomparedwithlearningfromconventionalteaching.Suchexperimentsaredoubtlesslyusefultheysayforschooladministratorsorteacherstoprovetothemselvesortheirboardsofeducationthatprogramswork.48.ButwhereasonecandescribefairlywellthecharacteristicsofaprogramcanonedescribethecharacteristicsofaclassroomteachingsituationsothattheresultofthecomparisonwillhaveanygeneralityWhatkindofteacherisbeingcomparedtowhatkindofprogramFurthermoretheseearlyevaluativeexperimentswithprogramsarelikelytosufferfromtheHawthorneeffect;thatistosaystudentsareinthespotlightwhentestingsomethingnewandarechallengedtodowell.49.Itisveryhardtomakeallowanceforthiseffect;thereforetheevaluativetestsmaybeusefuladministrativelysaymanyoftheexperimentsbutdonotcontributemuchtoscienceandshouldproperlybekeptforprivateuse.Theseobjectionsarewelltaken.AndyetdotheyjustifyusinignoringtheevaluativestudiesThegreatstrengthofaprogramisthatitpermitsthestudenttolearnefficientlybyhimself.50.IsitnotthereforeimportanttoknowhowmuchandwhatkindofskillsconceptsinsightsorattitudeshecanlearnbyhimselffromaprogramascomparedtowhathecanlearnfromateacherAdmittedlythisisaverydifficultandcomplexresearchproblembutthatshouldnotkeepusfromtryingtosolveit.
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