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Don’tlooknowbutthey’reallaroundyou.They’restandingbythecopymachinehoveringbytheprinteransweringthephone.Yesthey’retheoverworkedunderappreciatedinterns:youngeagerandnotalwayspaid.Andwithjust20%ofthegraduatingclassof2009gainfullyemployedaccordingtotheNationalAssociationofCollegesandEmployerstherearemoreandmoreofthemeachday.Itseemstheimportanceofinternshipsforsecuringfull-timeworkhasdramaticallyincreasedovertheyears.InternpreviouslyusedinthemedicalprofessiontodefineapersonwithadegreebutwithoutalicensetopracticebecameatermforaphysicianintrainingfollowingWorldWarIwhenmedicalschoolwasnolongerseenaspreparationenoughforpractice.Laterthewordmigratedtopoliticsasanalternativetothetermapprenticeasareferencetothoseinterestedinlearningaboutcareersingovernment.Meanwhileco-opprogramsinwhichstudentswouldworkatacompanyforanextendedperiodduringcollegeemerged.From1970to1983thenumberofcollegesanduniversitiesofferingtheprogramsincreasedfrom200to1000.SureittookanextrayeartoearnaB.A.butforthreemonthseachschoolyearstudentsworkedforcompaniestheywereinterestedintriedoutcareerstheyweren’tsureaboutandearnedmoneytohelpcovertuition.Internshipprogramshaveproducedseveralsuccesses:BillGateswasonceacongressionalpageandOprahWinfreyworkedataCBSaffiliateduringhercollegeyearsjusttonameafew.OfcourseMonicaLewinskywasa22-year-oldWhiteHouseinternwhensheengagedinanintimaterelationshipwithPresidentClintonascandalthatstilltaintsbothoffices.Today’sinternsarenotlimitedtosummerjobsattheirlocalbusinesses.SomeprogramsprovidedormhousingincitieslikeNewYorkandWashingtonallowingstudentsfromaroundthecountrytoworkforthenation’sbiggestcompanies.ManypopularcitiesevenhaveFacebookgroupsdevotedtoprovidingsocialoutingsandnetworkingopportunitiesforthethousandsofinternswhodescendeachsummer.Thoughinternshipswereformerlytoutedasanopportunityforstudentstoexplorecareeroptionsdoingsonowcomeswithaprice.Someexpertsarguethatinternshipspunishthosewhomightdecidelaterthanage18whattheywanttodowiththeirlife.Moreimportanttheycanfavorwealthierstudentswhocanaffordtonotmakeanymoneyduringthesummeroverthelessprivileged.Stillwithpressureincreasingonstudentstofindworktheclamorforinternshipsisonlygrowing.Tolandthatfirstjobcareeradvisersnowsayapplicantsshouldhavetwoormoreinternshipsundertheirbelt.Anyonewhotakesasummertosimplyexploremightbetoolate.Welearnfromthefirstparagraphthatinterns
Likethefluaperson’semotionalstatecanbecontagious.Watchsomeonecryandyou’lllikelyfeelsad;thinkabouttheelderlyandyou’lltendtowallslower.Nowastudysuggeststhatwecanalsocatchsomeoneelse’sirrationalthoughtprocesses.Anyonewho’slostmoneyonahouseinneedofrepairmayhavesuccumbedtoaclassiceconomicfallacyknownassunkcosts.Youmakeabadinvestmentinahomethat’snevergoingtosellformorethanyouputintoityetyouwanttojustifyyourinvestmentbycontinuingtothrowmoneyintorenovations.Onewaytoavoidthisholeistogetadvicefromsomeonewhohasnoself-interestintheproject.ButistheoutsiderstillsomehowsusceptibletoyourmindsetTofindoutsocialpsychologistAdamGalinskyofNorthwesternUniversityandcolleaguesaskedcollegestudentstotakeoverdecision-makingforapersontheyhadnevermet--andwhotheydidn’tknowwasfake.Thevolunteersweresplitintotwogroups:onethatfeltsomeconnectionwiththedecision-makerandanotherthatdidn’t.Inoneexperimentthevolunteerswatchedthefollowingscenarioplayoutviatextonacomputerscreen:thefakedecision-makertriedtooutbidanotherpersonforaprizeof356pointswhichequaled$4.45inrealmoney.Thedecision-makerstartedoutwith360pointsandeverytimetheotherbidderraisedthestakesby40pointsthedecision-makerfollowedsuit.Volunteersweretoldthatoncethedecision-makerbidover356pointsheorshewouldbegintolosesomeofthe$12paymentforparticipatinginthestudy.Whenthedecision-makernearedthisthresholdthevolunteerswereaskedtotakeoverbidding.Objectivelythevolunteersshouldhaverealizedthat--likethepersonwhomakesabadinvestmentinahouse--thedecisionmakerwouldkeepthrowinggoodmoneyafterbad.Butthevolunteerswhofeltidentificationwiththefakeplayermadealmost60%morebidsandweremorelikelytolosemoneythanthosewhodidn’tfeelaconnection.Galinskybelievesthattheresultssuggestthatcompaniestryingtoreverseresultsofbaddecisionsshouldfindtrueoutsiders.HepointstotroubledautomakerFordasanexample.Insteadofhiringfromwithin--asGeneralMotorsGMrecentlydid--FordmadeAlanMulallyfromBoeinganaerospacecompanytheirchiefexecu-tiveofficer.ManyexpertsbelievethatFordisnowrecoveringquickerthanGM.It’struethatinsidershavemoreknowledgeGalinskysays.Butwhenyouarealreadydowntheroadofafailedcourseofactionyoureallyneed..atrueoutsider./InthelastparagraphGalinskysuggeststhat
DuringuncertaintimespeopletendtolookbackandwonderHowdiditgettothisTheyfeelmorekeenlytheirmissedopportunitiesandfailuresinjudgment.Regret-thesensethatthingscouldhaveturnedoutbetterifonlyadifferentchoicehadbeenmade--becomespervasive.Howeverregretneedn’tbeagarmentrendingself-whippingemotion.Insteaditcanbesomethingtovalueanduse.AccordingtoarecentstudybyColleenSaffreyattheUniversityofVictoriainCanadaandcolleaguesattheUniversityofIllinoismostpeopleholdregretinhighregard.Ofallthenegativeemotionsregretwasidentifiedasthemostvaluedinthatithelpedpeoplemakesenseoflifeeventsandremedywhatwentwrong.Regretishardwiredintohumanbiologyunderscoringitsimportanceinbehavior.Advancesinneuro-imagingshowthatwhenapersonexperiencesregretapartofthebraininvolvedinbothreasoningandemotionbe-comesactive.Neurosciencealsotellsusthatlearningprobablyworksbestwhenthereisanintenseemotionalcomponenttoitsoitcouldbethatregretbolstersourabilitytolearnfromexperience.Suggestionslistedbelowmayhelpyoumanagethisemotionandturnitintoatoolforgrowth.Bewareofhindsightbias.Whatyoushouldhavedonealwaysseemsclearerinretrospectthanitwasatthetime.AstheDanishphilosopherSφrenKierkegaardputitLifecanonlybeunderstoodbackwardsbutitmustbelivedforwards.HemighthavesaidSodon’tbesohardonyourself.Useregretstoimprovedecisionmakingandclarifyvalues.Insteadofthinkingoverwhatmighthavebeenletwhathappenedpointtheway.Theregretmighthelpyouprioritizeyourinvestmentsinrelationshipsservicetothecommunityhealthandtimeaswellashelpyousetreasonablefinancialgoals.Balanceregretandrisk.Insteadofchoosingalessriskyoptionthatyouareleastlikelytoregretchoosetheonethatwillmaximizeyourchanceofreachingrealisticgoals.Infactpastexperiencesofregretmayhavegivenyouabetterappreciationofriskwhichisasignofgrowth.Don’tworryaloneespeciallyifyouaredrowninginregretffmiserylovescompanyit’sbecauseperspectivehelps.It’sgoodtoknowyou’renottheonlyidiotintheneighborhood.Onsomelevelwe’reallidiots.Theymostsuccessfulpeoplearethosewhohavebeenresoluteinthefaceoffailure.Ifyourthoughtsturnmor-bidgetprofessionalhelpsoyoucangobacktostrivingtowardyourpersonalandcareergoals.ColleenSafffeywouldmostprobablyagreethat
Ourabilitytothinkhaslongbeenconsideredcentraltowhatmakesushuman.Nowresearchsuggeststhatourbodiesandtheirrelationshipwiththeenvironment1evenourmostabstractthoughts.Thisincludesthinkinguprandomnumbersordeciding2toreviewpositiveornegativeexperiences. "Advocatesoftraditional3ofcognitionwouldbesurprised"saysTobiasLoetscherattheUniversityofMelbourneinParkvilleAustralia."They4considerhumanreasoningtoinvolveabstractcognitiveprocesseswithoutanyconnectiontobodyorspace." Untilrecentlythe5hasbeenthatourbodies6onlytoourmostbasicinteractionswiththeenvironment7sensoryandmotorprocesses.Thenewresultssuggestthatourbodiesarealso8toproduceabstractthoughtandthatevenseemingly9activitieshavethepowertoinfluenceourthinking.10thatourbodiesmayplayaroleinthoughtcanbefoundinthemetaphorsweusetodescribesituations11"Iwasgiventhecoldshoulder"or"shehasanexcellentgraspofrelativity". Thirtyyearsagosuch12ledthelinguistandphilosopherGeorgeLakoffattheUniversityofCalifor-niaBerkeleytogetherwithphilosopherMarkJohnsonattheUniversityofOregoninEugeneto13"conceptualmetaphortheory"thenotionthatwethinkofabstractconcepts14howourbodiesfunction.Now15forthetheoryhasstartedto16in.In200817researchersfoundthatpeoplemadetofeelsocially18reportedfeelingphysicallycolder.NowLoetscherandhiscolleagueshave19ourabilitytothinkofrandomnumbers--anexampleofabstractthought--tobodily20 5
Ourabilitytothinkhaslongbeenconsideredcentraltowhatmakesushuman.Nowresearchsuggeststhatourbodiesandtheirrelationshipwiththeenvironment1evenourmostabstractthoughts.Thisincludesthinkinguprandomnumbersordeciding2toreviewpositiveornegativeexperiences. "Advocatesoftraditional3ofcognitionwouldbesurprised"saysTobiasLoetscherattheUniversityofMelbourneinParkvilleAustralia."They4considerhumanreasoningtoinvolveabstractcognitiveprocesseswithoutanyconnectiontobodyorspace." Untilrecentlythe5hasbeenthatourbodies6onlytoourmostbasicinteractionswiththeenvironment7sensoryandmotorprocesses.Thenewresultssuggestthatourbodiesarealso8toproduceabstractthoughtandthatevenseemingly9activitieshavethepowertoinfluenceourthinking.10thatourbodiesmayplayaroleinthoughtcanbefoundinthemetaphorsweusetodescribesituations11"Iwasgiventhecoldshoulder"or"shehasanexcellentgraspofrelativity". Thirtyyearsagosuch12ledthelinguistandphilosopherGeorgeLakoffattheUniversityofCalifor-niaBerkeleytogetherwithphilosopherMarkJohnsonattheUniversityofOregoninEugeneto13"conceptualmetaphortheory"thenotionthatwethinkofabstractconcepts14howourbodiesfunction.Now15forthetheoryhasstartedto16in.In200817researchersfoundthatpeoplemadetofeelsocially18reportedfeelingphysicallycolder.NowLoetscherandhiscolleagueshave19ourabilitytothinkofrandomnumbers--anexampleofabstractthought--tobodily20 11
A.Astheresearchershypothesizedparticipantswhowerefeelingblueweremorelikelytorespondtoandexpressapreferenceforfamiliarpatternswhereasmorecheerfulparticipantsdisplayednopreferenceforfamiliaroverpreviouslyunseenpatterns.Thatishappyparticipantsstillappreciatedthefamiliar--insomeinstancesevenmorepassionatelythanthoseinabadmood--buttheirmoodalsoboostedpositivereactionstonewthings.Astheauthorsputitifdesireforthefamiliarcanbeexpressedasa"warmglowoffamiliarity"thenperhapsgoodmoodcastsasimilarrayofsunshineonthenewcreatinga"warmglowofnovelty." B.Othertheoristshavesuggestedthatthevalueoffamiliarityismorerelativeandcontextual.Thatisafamiliarfaceismoreappearinginsituationsofdangerordisorientation--runningintoahometownneighborwhilewanderingaroundanunknowncitymightevokea"warmglow"whilebumpingintothatsamepersoninlineatthedelicounterbackhomeislesslikelytoelicitsuchpositiveemotions. C.Whenyou’reinabadmoodthecomfortofyourhomepajamasandcouchisoftenmostappealing.Yetwhenyou’refeelingabitsunnieryoumightbemorelikelytoventureoutandexploretheworldaroundyou.NewresearchpublishedinthejournalPsychologicalScienceshedslightonwhatisitaboutfeelingirritablethatmightmakeuslesslikelytotrynewthingswhileagoodmoodbringsoutoursenseofadventure. D.Previousresearchhasfoundthatexposuretothefamiliar--surroundingsobjectsfaces--isassociatedwithhappinesswithresearchersassumingthatthisrelationshipisasaresultofeitherconditioningthroughrepeatedexposureortheideathatwehaveatendencytowardkoinophiliathepreferenceforthefamiliarbecauseitcanhelpusdistinguishgoodpotentialmatesthenotionthat"familiarityisintrinsicallyrewardingbecauseitisconnectedwitheasyefficientandconflict-freeprocessing". E.Totestthattheoryresearchersconductedanexperimentinwhichparticipantsviewedaseriesofrandomdotpatterns.Inthefirstroundtheyviewedseveralpatterns;inthesecondtheyagainsawseveralpatterns--includingamixtureofthoseviewedduringthefirstroundandnewpreviouslyunseendesigns.Inoneexperimentpriortoviewingthepatternsstudyparticipants--sixteenundergraduatesfromtheUniversityofCaliforniaSanDiego--werefilledwitheithergoodorbadmoodbybeingaskedtorecallahappyorsadpersonalexperience.ThenastheyviewedthepatternstheirresponsesweremeasuredusingbothfacialelectromyographywhichbasicallytracksfacialresponseintermsofsmilesandfrownsandskinconductanceresponseSCRwhichmeasures"sympatheticarousal."Participantsalsoreportedhowtheyfelt. F.Inkeepingwiththispreviousstudyhasrepeatedlyfoundthatnewbornsaremorelikelytoshowsignsofneophobiathefearofnewthingsinunknownorperceivedunsafeenvironmentscomparedwithsafecomfortablesettings.Inkeepingwiththatpreviousstudyhasalsofoundthatbadmoodisoftenaresponsetoperceiveddangerordiscomfortwhilegoodmoodindicatesthat"anenvironmentisniceandfriendly."Itstandstoreasonthenthestudyauthorsarguethatthecausalrelationshipshouldgobothways.Thatisontheonehandmoodcanbearesponsetoenvironmentbutontheothermoodcanalsochangethewayweperceivetheworldaroundus.G .Whilemanystudiesshowthatpeoplebecomemorewillingtotrynovelethnicfoodsastheygetolderpeopleseemtobecomemorereluctanttoeattheotherkindsofnovelfoodsastheygetolder.Giventhesedifferencesitmightbeexpectedthatdifferentkindsofnovelfoodsmightbedifferentiallysusceptibletotheeffectsofdifferentsituationalvariables;howevertherearenodataavailable. 41
Thepursuitofinformationhasbeenahumanpreoccupationsinceknowledgewasfirstrecorded.Inthe3rdcenturyBCPtolemystoleevery1scrollfrompassingtravellersto2hisgreatlibraryinAlexandria.After2001America3aprogramtocompileasmanydataaspossibleaboutjustabouteverything.Since1996BrewsterKahlehasbeen4allthecontentonthewebasanot-for-profit5calledthe"InternetArchive".Ithas6expandedtosoftwarefilmsaudiorecordingsandscanningbooks. Therehasalwaysbeenmoreinformationthanpeoplecanmentallyprocess.Thedisparitybetweentheamountofinformationandman’sabilitytodealwithitmaybe7butthatneednotbeacausefor8Oursensoryandattentionalsystemsaretunedtobe9Peoplefindpatternstocompressinformationandmakeitmanageable.10CommanderSchmorrowdoesnotthinkthatmanwillbe11byrobots."Theflexibilityofthehumantoconsideras-yet-unforeseen12duringcriticaldecision-makinggo13thegutwhenproblem-solvingunderuncertaintyandothersuch14reasoningbehaviourswillnotbereadilyreplacedbyacomputer"hesays. The15ofdatanowavailableisaresourcesimilartootherresourcesandeventotechnologyitself.16resourcesandtechnologiesareneithergoodnorbad;itdependsonhowtheyare17.Intheageofbigdatacomputerswillbemonitoringmorethingsmakingmoredecisionsandeven18improvingtheirownprocesses--andmanwillbeleftwiththesame19hehasalwaysfaced.20T.S.Eliotasked:"WhereisthewisdomwehavelostinknowledgeWhereistheknowledgewehavelostininformation/ Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.10points17
EuropehaslongprideditselfonthenotionthatevenifitscousinacrosstheAt-lantichadsurpasseditinmattersgeopoliticalandmilitaryitsculturalcachetremainedunrivaled.Europewasthecapitalofgreatliteraturehautecouturethenouvellevague.Americanculturemayhavespreadtoeventhemostremotereachesoftheglobebutitwaslowbrow.SupermanandHollywoodblockbustersversusPicassoandCannes.ButasitturnsoutAmericaisactuallywinningthecultureraceforglobalaudiencesandleavingEuropeinthedustsaysFrenchjournalistFrtdtricMartelinhisbookMainstream.Martelspentfiveyearstravelingto30countriestoconducthisresearchandhisconclusionsarestrikingespeciallycomingfromaFrenchman.AmericanbusinessesarefarsmarterthantheirEuropeancounterpartsatusingnewdigitalmaterialstodistributemoviesmusictelevisionshowsandbooksallaroundtheglobe.MostofalltheyexcelinproducingaculturethateveryonelikessaysMartel.Butmainstreamdoesn’tonlymeanAmericanized.ThestrengthoftheU.S.istobeabletocreateuniversalcontentthatcaterstodifferentinterests.YettheU.S.isnowgettingsomestiffcompetitionfromothercountriesthatthriveinexportingtheirownculturalcontent.IndiaBrazilChinaandSouthKoreaarefastbecomingregionalculturalpowerssymbolizedbytherisingfameofBollywoodtelenovelasandK-pop.InLatinAmericainparticularBrazilismuchmoreofathreatintheregionalmarketplacethantheU.S.AndintheArabworldbigmultimediagroupsaretryingtounifyaverydiversepopulationbyofferinganalternativetotheWesternmodel.Thisdeveloping-worldsurgemeansEuropelagsbehindevenmore.Inpartit’sbecauseEurope’sdefaultdefinitionofhighculturefindsfewfansabroad.Europeanfilmsandliteratureareincreasinglyseenastooob-scurearrogantandself-referentialtoappealtomassaudiences.Inpartit’sbecauseeachnationhasitsownculturalindustryandlittleifanycohesionacrossEUborders.AndEuropecouldlearnafewthingsfromtheU.S.ForexampleAmericanproducershavefiguredouthowtogoforthemarginsaswellasthemiddle--whichistosaytodiversifyandmarkettoawholerangeoftastesandgroups.Theresult:eventhoughtheU.S.maybelosingfinancialandpoliticalcloutit’sgainingsoftpowerthroughitsculturalmediaandtechnologicalexports.Europecanregainthissoft-poweredgeonlyifitembracessomenewnotions:thatmasscultureisnotnecessarilybadcultureandthatdiversityincludingcontributionsfromimmigrantsandnewarrivalscouldmakeitsfilmsbooksandartmoreaccessibletoaudiencesabroad.ThatisifEuropereallywantstobepartofthemainstream.AccordingtoMartelAmericanculturewinsbecause
Youshouldwriteabout100wordsonANSWERSHEET2.Donotsignyourownnameattheendoftheletter.UseLiMinginstead.Donotwritetheaddress.10points
Ourabilitytothinkhaslongbeenconsideredcentraltowhatmakesushuman.Nowresearchsuggeststhatourbodiesandtheirrelationshipwiththeenvironment1evenourmostabstractthoughts.Thisincludesthinkinguprandomnumbersordeciding2toreviewpositiveornegativeexperiences. "Advocatesoftraditional3ofcognitionwouldbesurprised"saysTobiasLoetscherattheUniversityofMelbourneinParkvilleAustralia."They4considerhumanreasoningtoinvolveabstractcognitiveprocesseswithoutanyconnectiontobodyorspace." Untilrecentlythe5hasbeenthatourbodies6onlytoourmostbasicinteractionswiththeenvironment7sensoryandmotorprocesses.Thenewresultssuggestthatourbodiesarealso8toproduceabstractthoughtandthatevenseemingly9activitieshavethepowertoinfluenceourthinking.10thatourbodiesmayplayaroleinthoughtcanbefoundinthemetaphorsweusetodescribesituations11"Iwasgiventhecoldshoulder"or"shehasanexcellentgraspofrelativity". Thirtyyearsagosuch12ledthelinguistandphilosopherGeorgeLakoffattheUniversityofCalifor-niaBerkeleytogetherwithphilosopherMarkJohnsonattheUniversityofOregoninEugeneto13"conceptualmetaphortheory"thenotionthatwethinkofabstractconcepts14howourbodiesfunction.Now15forthetheoryhasstartedto16in.In200817researchersfoundthatpeoplemadetofeelsocially18reportedfeelingphysicallycolder.NowLoetscherandhiscolleagueshave19ourabilitytothinkofrandomnumbers--anexampleofabstractthought--tobodily20 9
DuringuncertaintimespeopletendtolookbackandwonderHowdiditgettothisTheyfeelmorekeenlytheirmissedopportunitiesandfailuresinjudgment.Regret-thesensethatthingscouldhaveturnedoutbetterifonlyadifferentchoicehadbeenmade--becomespervasive.Howeverregretneedn’tbeagarmentrendingself-whippingemotion.Insteaditcanbesomethingtovalueanduse.AccordingtoarecentstudybyColleenSaffreyattheUniversityofVictoriainCanadaandcolleaguesattheUniversityofIllinoismostpeopleholdregretinhighregard.Ofallthenegativeemotionsregretwasidentifiedasthemostvaluedinthatithelpedpeoplemakesenseoflifeeventsandremedywhatwentwrong.Regretishardwiredintohumanbiologyunderscoringitsimportanceinbehavior.Advancesinneuro-imagingshowthatwhenapersonexperiencesregretapartofthebraininvolvedinbothreasoningandemotionbe-comesactive.Neurosciencealsotellsusthatlearningprobablyworksbestwhenthereisanintenseemotionalcomponenttoitsoitcouldbethatregretbolstersourabilitytolearnfromexperience.Suggestionslistedbelowmayhelpyoumanagethisemotionandturnitintoatoolforgrowth.Bewareofhindsightbias.Whatyoushouldhavedonealwaysseemsclearerinretrospectthanitwasatthetime.AstheDanishphilosopherSφrenKierkegaardputitLifecanonlybeunderstoodbackwardsbutitmustbelivedforwards.HemighthavesaidSodon’tbesohardonyourself.Useregretstoimprovedecisionmakingandclarifyvalues.Insteadofthinkingoverwhatmighthavebeenletwhathappenedpointtheway.Theregretmighthelpyouprioritizeyourinvestmentsinrelationshipsservicetothecommunityhealthandtimeaswellashelpyousetreasonablefinancialgoals.Balanceregretandrisk.Insteadofchoosingalessriskyoptionthatyouareleastlikelytoregretchoosetheonethatwillmaximizeyourchanceofreachingrealisticgoals.Infactpastexperiencesofregretmayhavegivenyouabetterappreciationofriskwhichisasignofgrowth.Don’tworryaloneespeciallyifyouaredrowninginregretffmiserylovescompanyit’sbecauseperspectivehelps.It’sgoodtoknowyou’renottheonlyidiotintheneighborhood.Onsomelevelwe’reallidiots.Theymostsuccessfulpeoplearethosewhohavebeenresoluteinthefaceoffailure.Ifyourthoughtsturnmor-bidgetprofessionalhelpsoyoucangobacktostrivingtowardyourpersonalandcareergoals.ThephilosopherSφrenKierkegaardisquotedto
Likethefluaperson’semotionalstatecanbecontagious.Watchsomeonecryandyou’lllikelyfeelsad;thinkabouttheelderlyandyou’lltendtowallslower.Nowastudysuggeststhatwecanalsocatchsomeoneelse’sirrationalthoughtprocesses.Anyonewho’slostmoneyonahouseinneedofrepairmayhavesuccumbedtoaclassiceconomicfallacyknownassunkcosts.Youmakeabadinvestmentinahomethat’snevergoingtosellformorethanyouputintoityetyouwanttojustifyyourinvestmentbycontinuingtothrowmoneyintorenovations.Onewaytoavoidthisholeistogetadvicefromsomeonewhohasnoself-interestintheproject.ButistheoutsiderstillsomehowsusceptibletoyourmindsetTofindoutsocialpsychologistAdamGalinskyofNorthwesternUniversityandcolleaguesaskedcollegestudentstotakeoverdecision-makingforapersontheyhadnevermet--andwhotheydidn’tknowwasfake.Thevolunteersweresplitintotwogroups:onethatfeltsomeconnectionwiththedecision-makerandanotherthatdidn’t.Inoneexperimentthevolunteerswatchedthefollowingscenarioplayoutviatextonacomputerscreen:thefakedecision-makertriedtooutbidanotherpersonforaprizeof356pointswhichequaled$4.45inrealmoney.Thedecision-makerstartedoutwith360pointsandeverytimetheotherbidderraisedthestakesby40pointsthedecision-makerfollowedsuit.Volunteersweretoldthatoncethedecision-makerbidover356pointsheorshewouldbegintolosesomeofthe$12paymentforparticipatinginthestudy.Whenthedecision-makernearedthisthresholdthevolunteerswereaskedtotakeoverbidding.Objectivelythevolunteersshouldhaverealizedthat--likethepersonwhomakesabadinvestmentinahouse--thedecisionmakerwouldkeepthrowinggoodmoneyafterbad.Butthevolunteerswhofeltidentificationwiththefakeplayermadealmost60%morebidsandweremorelikelytolosemoneythanthosewhodidn’tfeelaconnection.Galinskybelievesthattheresultssuggestthatcompaniestryingtoreverseresultsofbaddecisionsshouldfindtrueoutsiders.HepointstotroubledautomakerFordasanexample.Insteadofhiringfromwithin--asGeneralMotorsGMrecentlydid--FordmadeAlanMulallyfromBoeinganaerospacecompanytheirchiefexecu-tiveofficer.ManyexpertsbelievethatFordisnowrecoveringquickerthanGM.It’struethatinsidershavemoreknowledgeGalinskysays.Butwhenyouarealreadydowntheroadofafailedcourseofactionyoureallyneed..atrueoutsider./WhichofthefollowingstatementistrueoftheexperimentconductedbyGalinsky
EuropehaslongprideditselfonthenotionthatevenifitscousinacrosstheAt-lantichadsurpasseditinmattersgeopoliticalandmilitaryitsculturalcachetremainedunrivaled.Europewasthecapitalofgreatliteraturehautecouturethenouvellevague.Americanculturemayhavespreadtoeventhemostremotereachesoftheglobebutitwaslowbrow.SupermanandHollywoodblockbustersversusPicassoandCannes.ButasitturnsoutAmericaisactuallywinningthecultureraceforglobalaudiencesandleavingEuropeinthedustsaysFrenchjournalistFrtdtricMartelinhisbookMainstream.Martelspentfiveyearstravelingto30countriestoconducthisresearchandhisconclusionsarestrikingespeciallycomingfromaFrenchman.AmericanbusinessesarefarsmarterthantheirEuropeancounterpartsatusingnewdigitalmaterialstodistributemoviesmusictelevisionshowsandbooksallaroundtheglobe.MostofalltheyexcelinproducingaculturethateveryonelikessaysMartel.Butmainstreamdoesn’tonlymeanAmericanized.ThestrengthoftheU.S.istobeabletocreateuniversalcontentthatcaterstodifferentinterests.YettheU.S.isnowgettingsomestiffcompetitionfromothercountriesthatthriveinexportingtheirownculturalcontent.IndiaBrazilChinaandSouthKoreaarefastbecomingregionalculturalpowerssymbolizedbytherisingfameofBollywoodtelenovelasandK-pop.InLatinAmericainparticularBrazilismuchmoreofathreatintheregionalmarketplacethantheU.S.AndintheArabworldbigmultimediagroupsaretryingtounifyaverydiversepopulationbyofferinganalternativetotheWesternmodel.Thisdeveloping-worldsurgemeansEuropelagsbehindevenmore.Inpartit’sbecauseEurope’sdefaultdefinitionofhighculturefindsfewfansabroad.Europeanfilmsandliteratureareincreasinglyseenastooob-scurearrogantandself-referentialtoappealtomassaudiences.Inpartit’sbecauseeachnationhasitsownculturalindustryandlittleifanycohesionacrossEUborders.AndEuropecouldlearnafewthingsfromtheU.S.ForexampleAmericanproducershavefiguredouthowtogoforthemarginsaswellasthemiddle--whichistosaytodiversifyandmarkettoawholerangeoftastesandgroups.Theresult:eventhoughtheU.S.maybelosingfinancialandpoliticalcloutit’sgainingsoftpowerthroughitsculturalmediaandtechnologicalexports.Europecanregainthissoft-poweredgeonlyifitembracessomenewnotions:thatmasscultureisnotnecessarilybadcultureandthatdiversityincludingcontributionsfromimmigrantsandnewarrivalscouldmakeitsfilmsbooksandartmoreaccessibletoaudiencesabroad.ThatisifEuropereallywantstobepartofthemainstream.Europeanculturelagsbehindbecause
Exaggerationisanintoxicationofwords.Languagetemporarilylosesitsself-con-trol.Ineventsofworld-classexaggerationthetonguelikestodisconnectitselffromthepastandraceoffobviouslyastrideanypassingenthusiasm.Mostexcessesdonotdisplaytheexaggerator’sartinit’sbestlight:theyaremerelyblurbsandboasts.46Inmorecomplexusageexaggerationdoesdynamicandsuggestivework:itcanbeusedtofrightenorthreatentoreassureoneselforotherstoglorifyandabovealltorelievethetediumoflifetoentertain. Exaggerationisoneofthemethodsofallmyth--fromOlympiandeitiestogiantslikePaulBunyanandJohnHenrytomythichistoricalfigures--MaosayorGeorgePatton.47Achildexaggerateshisparents’powerstothepointofmyth;heroesandcaricaturesofcourseisbasedontheartistsmethodofexaggeratingonefeatureinproportiontotheothers. 48Thegreatdifficultywithallexaggerationsisthatwhilemostoftheaudiencemayunderstandthatexcessandornamentareintheairandmayautomaticallydoamentalcalculationdiscountingtherhetoricthefactisthatdifferentauditorsdiscountatdifferentrates.Itisoftendifficulttoknowjusthowmuchexaggerationisin-volvedandhowmuchtruthffIranianspumpingtheirfistsintheairdescribetheU.S.the"GreatSatan"howmuchofthatishomicidalhostilityhowmuchismerelyPersianliterarystyle Insimplestdefinitionexaggerationisaformoflying.IsitthereforebadaninstrumentofuntruthItdepends.Sometimestheartfulexaggerationisawayofevokingofdiscoveringanessentialtruthlyingbelowtheprosaicsurfaceofthings.49Theveryideaofexaggerationsupposessomediscoverableobjectiverealityinadvancesothetaskofthehumaneyeandscientificintelligenceinthisclassicviewwouldbetodescribethatrealityasdispassionatelyandaccuratelyaspossible. Theworldhasitsbeingoutsidethefancifulbrainoftheexaggeratoraromanticwhosebusinessistodistortreality.50Stillinthelate20thcenturywhererealityisnotstablewhereitisinsteaddiscontinuousmon-strouslysurprisingthenitishardtoknowwhatisanoverstatementandwhatisnotTheHolocaustforexamplewasaneventfarbeyondthevocabulariesofexaggeration.Neverthelessdistinctionsmustbemade;therearetimeswhenexaggerationsarehighlyuseful;therearetimeswhentheymaybefatal. Theveryideaofexaggerationsupposessomediscoverableobjectiverealityinadvancesothetaskofthehumaneyeandscientificintelligenceinthisclassicviewwouldbetodescribethatrealityasdispassionatelyandaccuratelyaspossible.
Ourabilitytothinkhaslongbeenconsideredcentraltowhatmakesushuman.Nowresearchsuggeststhatourbodiesandtheirrelationshipwiththeenvironment1evenourmostabstractthoughts.Thisincludesthinkinguprandomnumbersordeciding2toreviewpositiveornegativeexperiences. "Advocatesoftraditional3ofcognitionwouldbesurprised"saysTobiasLoetscherattheUniversityofMelbourneinParkvilleAustralia."They4considerhumanreasoningtoinvolveabstractcognitiveprocesseswithoutanyconnectiontobodyorspace." Untilrecentlythe5hasbeenthatourbodies6onlytoourmostbasicinteractionswiththeenvironment7sensoryandmotorprocesses.Thenewresultssuggestthatourbodiesarealso8toproduceabstractthoughtandthatevenseemingly9activitieshavethepowertoinfluenceourthinking.10thatourbodiesmayplayaroleinthoughtcanbefoundinthemetaphorsweusetodescribesituations11"Iwasgiventhecoldshoulder"or"shehasanexcellentgraspofrelativity". Thirtyyearsagosuch12ledthelinguistandphilosopherGeorgeLakoffattheUniversityofCalifor-niaBerkeleytogetherwithphilosopherMarkJohnsonattheUniversityofOregoninEugeneto13"conceptualmetaphortheory"thenotionthatwethinkofabstractconcepts14howourbodiesfunction.Now15forthetheoryhasstartedto16in.In200817researchersfoundthatpeoplemadetofeelsocially18reportedfeelingphysicallycolder.NowLoetscherandhiscolleagueshave19ourabilitytothinkofrandomnumbers--anexampleofabstractthought--tobodily20 15
Ourabilitytothinkhaslongbeenconsideredcentraltowhatmakesushuman.Nowresearchsuggeststhatourbodiesandtheirrelationshipwiththeenvironment1evenourmostabstractthoughts.Thisincludesthinkinguprandomnumbersordeciding2toreviewpositiveornegativeexperiences. "Advocatesoftraditional3ofcognitionwouldbesurprised"saysTobiasLoetscherattheUniversityofMelbourneinParkvilleAustralia."They4considerhumanreasoningtoinvolveabstractcognitiveprocesseswithoutanyconnectiontobodyorspace." Untilrecentlythe5hasbeenthatourbodies6onlytoourmostbasicinteractionswiththeenvironment7sensoryandmotorprocesses.Thenewresultssuggestthatourbodiesarealso8toproduceabstractthoughtandthatevenseemingly9activitieshavethepowertoinfluenceourthinking.10thatourbodiesmayplayaroleinthoughtcanbefoundinthemetaphorsweusetodescribesituations11"Iwasgiventhecoldshoulder"or"shehasanexcellentgraspofrelativity". Thirtyyearsagosuch12ledthelinguistandphilosopherGeorgeLakoffattheUniversityofCalifor-niaBerkeleytogetherwithphilosopherMarkJohnsonattheUniversityofOregoninEugeneto13"conceptualmetaphortheory"thenotionthatwethinkofabstractconcepts14howourbodiesfunction.Now15forthetheoryhasstartedto16in.In200817researchersfoundthatpeoplemadetofeelsocially18reportedfeelingphysicallycolder.NowLoetscherandhiscolleagueshave19ourabilitytothinkofrandomnumbers--anexampleofabstractthought--tobodily20 13
Thepursuitofinformationhasbeenahumanpreoccupationsinceknowledgewasfirstrecorded.Inthe3rdcenturyBCPtolemystoleevery1scrollfrompassingtravellersto2hisgreatlibraryinAlexandria.After2001America3aprogramtocompileasmanydataaspossibleaboutjustabouteverything.Since1996BrewsterKahlehasbeen4allthecontentonthewebasanot-for-profit5calledthe"InternetArchive".Ithas6expandedtosoftwarefilmsaudiorecordingsandscanningbooks. Therehasalwaysbeenmoreinformationthanpeoplecanmentallyprocess.Thedisparitybetweentheamountofinformationandman’sabilitytodealwithitmaybe7butthatneednotbeacausefor8Oursensoryandattentionalsystemsaretunedtobe9Peoplefindpatternstocompressinformationandmakeitmanageable.10CommanderSchmorrowdoesnotthinkthatmanwillbe11byrobots."Theflexibilityofthehumantoconsideras-yet-unforeseen12duringcriticaldecision-makinggo13thegutwhenproblem-solvingunderuncertaintyandothersuch14reasoningbehaviourswillnotbereadilyreplacedbyacomputer"hesays. The15ofdatanowavailableisaresourcesimilartootherresourcesandeventotechnologyitself.16resourcesandtechnologiesareneithergoodnorbad;itdependsonhowtheyare17.Intheageofbigdatacomputerswillbemonitoringmorethingsmakingmoredecisionsandeven18improvingtheirownprocesses--andmanwillbeleftwiththesame19hehasalwaysfaced.20T.S.Eliotasked:"WhereisthewisdomwehavelostinknowledgeWhereistheknowledgewehavelostininformation/ Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.10points13
Likethefluaperson’semotionalstatecanbecontagious.Watchsomeonecryandyou’lllikelyfeelsad;thinkabouttheelderlyandyou’lltendtowallslower.Nowastudysuggeststhatwecanalsocatchsomeoneelse’sirrationalthoughtprocesses.Anyonewho’slostmoneyonahouseinneedofrepairmayhavesuccumbedtoaclassiceconomicfallacyknownassunkcosts.Youmakeabadinvestmentinahomethat’snevergoingtosellformorethanyouputintoityetyouwanttojustifyyourinvestmentbycontinuingtothrowmoneyintorenovations.Onewaytoavoidthisholeistogetadvicefromsomeonewhohasnoself-interestintheproject.ButistheoutsiderstillsomehowsusceptibletoyourmindsetTofindoutsocialpsychologistAdamGalinskyofNorthwesternUniversityandcolleaguesaskedcollegestudentstotakeoverdecision-makingforapersontheyhadnevermet--andwhotheydidn’tknowwasfake.Thevolunteersweresplitintotwogroups:onethatfeltsomeconnectionwiththedecision-makerandanotherthatdidn’t.Inoneexperimentthevolunteerswatchedthefollowingscenarioplayoutviatextonacomputerscreen:thefakedecision-makertriedtooutbidanotherpersonforaprizeof356pointswhichequaled$4.45inrealmoney.Thedecision-makerstartedoutwith360pointsandeverytimetheotherbidderraisedthestakesby40pointsthedecision-makerfollowedsuit.Volunteersweretoldthatoncethedecision-makerbidover356pointsheorshewouldbegintolosesomeofthe$12paymentforparticipatinginthestudy.Whenthedecision-makernearedthisthresholdthevolunteerswereaskedtotakeoverbidding.Objectivelythevolunteersshouldhaverealizedthat--likethepersonwhomakesabadinvestmentinahouse--thedecisionmakerwouldkeepthrowinggoodmoneyafterbad.Butthevolunteerswhofeltidentificationwiththefakeplayermadealmost60%morebidsandweremorelikelytolosemoneythanthosewhodidn’tfeelaconnection.Galinskybelievesthattheresultssuggestthatcompaniestryingtoreverseresultsofbaddecisionsshouldfindtrueoutsiders.HepointstotroubledautomakerFordasanexample.Insteadofhiringfromwithin--asGeneralMotorsGMrecentlydid--FordmadeAlanMulallyfromBoeinganaerospacecompanytheirchiefexecu-tiveofficer.ManyexpertsbelievethatFordisnowrecoveringquickerthanGM.It’struethatinsidershavemoreknowledgeGalinskysays.Butwhenyouarealreadydowntheroadofafailedcourseofactionyoureallyneed..atrueoutsider./Accordingtoastudyanotherperson’sirrationalmindsetischaracterizedas
Exaggerationisanintoxicationofwords.Languagetemporarilylosesitsself-con-trol.Ineventsofworld-classexaggerationthetonguelikestodisconnectitselffromthepastandraceoffobviouslyastrideanypassingenthusiasm.Mostexcessesdonotdisplaytheexaggerator’sartinit’sbestlight:theyaremerelyblurbsandboasts.46Inmorecomplexusageexaggerationdoesdynamicandsuggestivework:itcanbeusedtofrightenorthreatentoreassureoneselforotherstoglorifyandabovealltorelievethetediumoflifetoentertain. Exaggerationisoneofthemethodsofallmyth--fromOlympiandeitiestogiantslikePaulBunyanandJohnHenrytomythichistoricalfigures--MaosayorGeorgePatton.47Achildexaggerateshisparents’powerstothepointofmyth;heroesandcaricaturesofcourseisbasedontheartistsmethodofexaggeratingonefeatureinproportiontotheothers. 48Thegreatdifficultywithallexaggerationsisthatwhilemostoftheaudiencemayunderstandthatexcessandornamentareintheairandmayautomaticallydoamentalcalculationdiscountingtherhetoricthefactisthatdifferentauditorsdiscountatdifferentrates.Itisoftendifficulttoknowjusthowmuchexaggerationisin-volvedandhowmuchtruthffIranianspumpingtheirfistsintheairdescribetheU.S.the"GreatSatan"howmuchofthatishomicidalhostilityhowmuchismerelyPersianliterarystyle Insimplestdefinitionexaggerationisaformoflying.IsitthereforebadaninstrumentofuntruthItdepends.Sometimestheartfulexaggerationisawayofevokingofdiscoveringanessentialtruthlyingbelowtheprosaicsurfaceofthings.49Theveryideaofexaggerationsupposessomediscoverableobjectiverealityinadvancesothetaskofthehumaneyeandscientificintelligenceinthisclassicviewwouldbetodescribethatrealityasdispassionatelyandaccuratelyaspossible. Theworldhasitsbeingoutsidethefancifulbrainoftheexaggeratoraromanticwhosebusinessistodistortreality.50Stillinthelate20thcenturywhererealityisnotstablewhereitisinsteaddiscontinuousmon-strouslysurprisingthenitishardtoknowwhatisanoverstatementandwhatisnotTheHolocaustforexamplewasaneventfarbeyondthevocabulariesofexaggeration.Neverthelessdistinctionsmustbemade;therearetimeswhenexaggerationsarehighlyuseful;therearetimeswhentheymaybefatal. Achildexaggerateshisparents’powerstothepointofmyth;heroesandcaricaturesofcourseisbasedontheartistsmethodofexaggeratingonefeatureinproportiontotheothers.
Ourabilitytothinkhaslongbeenconsideredcentraltowhatmakesushuman.Nowresearchsuggeststhatourbodiesandtheirrelationshipwiththeenvironment1evenourmostabstractthoughts.Thisincludesthinkinguprandomnumbersordeciding2toreviewpositiveornegativeexperiences. "Advocatesoftraditional3ofcognitionwouldbesurprised"saysTobiasLoetscherattheUniversityofMelbourneinParkvilleAustralia."They4considerhumanreasoningtoinvolveabstractcognitiveprocesseswithoutanyconnectiontobodyorspace." Untilrecentlythe5hasbeenthatourbodies6onlytoourmostbasicinteractionswiththeenvironment7sensoryandmotorprocesses.Thenewresultssuggestthatourbodiesarealso8toproduceabstractthoughtandthatevenseemingly9activitieshavethepowertoinfluenceourthinking.10thatourbodiesmayplayaroleinthoughtcanbefoundinthemetaphorsweusetodescribesituations11"Iwasgiventhecoldshoulder"or"shehasanexcellentgraspofrelativity". Thirtyyearsagosuch12ledthelinguistandphilosopherGeorgeLakoffattheUniversityofCalifor-niaBerkeleytogetherwithphilosopherMarkJohnsonattheUniversityofOregoninEugeneto13"conceptualmetaphortheory"thenotionthatwethinkofabstractconcepts14howourbodiesfunction.Now15forthetheoryhasstartedto16in.In200817researchersfoundthatpeoplemadetofeelsocially18reportedfeelingphysicallycolder.NowLoetscherandhiscolleagueshave19ourabilitytothinkofrandomnumbers--anexampleofabstractthought--tobodily20 3
Thepursuitofinformationhasbeenahumanpreoccupationsinceknowledgewasfirstrecorded.Inthe3rdcenturyBCPtolemystoleevery1scrollfrompassingtravellersto2hisgreatlibraryinAlexandria.After2001America3aprogramtocompileasmanydataaspossibleaboutjustabouteverything.Since1996BrewsterKahlehasbeen4allthecontentonthewebasanot-for-profit5calledthe"InternetArchive".Ithas6expandedtosoftwarefilmsaudiorecordingsandscanningbooks. Therehasalwaysbeenmoreinformationthanpeoplecanmentallyprocess.Thedisparitybetweentheamountofinformationandman’sabilitytodealwithitmaybe7butthatneednotbeacausefor8Oursensoryandattentionalsystemsaretunedtobe9Peoplefindpatternstocompressinformationandmakeitmanageable.10CommanderSchmorrowdoesnotthinkthatmanwillbe11byrobots."Theflexibilityofthehumantoconsideras-yet-unforeseen12duringcriticaldecision-makinggo13thegutwhenproblem-solvingunderuncertaintyandothersuch14reasoningbehaviourswillnotbereadilyreplacedbyacomputer"hesays. The15ofdatanowavailableisaresourcesimilartootherresourcesandeventotechnologyitself.16resourcesandtechnologiesareneithergoodnorbad;itdependsonhowtheyare17.Intheageofbigdatacomputerswillbemonitoringmorethingsmakingmoredecisionsandeven18improvingtheirownprocesses--andmanwillbeleftwiththesame19hehasalwaysfaced.20T.S.Eliotasked:"WhereisthewisdomwehavelostinknowledgeWhereistheknowledgewehavelostininformation/ Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.10points19
Ourabilitytothinkhaslongbeenconsideredcentraltowhatmakesushuman.Nowresearchsuggeststhatourbodiesandtheirrelationshipwiththeenvironment1evenourmostabstractthoughts.Thisincludesthinkinguprandomnumbersordeciding2toreviewpositiveornegativeexperiences. "Advocatesoftraditional3ofcognitionwouldbesurprised"saysTobiasLoetscherattheUniversityofMelbourneinParkvilleAustralia."They4considerhumanreasoningtoinvolveabstractcognitiveprocesseswithoutanyconnectiontobodyorspace." Untilrecentlythe5hasbeenthatourbodies6onlytoourmostbasicinteractionswiththeenvironment7sensoryandmotorprocesses.Thenewresultssuggestthatourbodiesarealso8toproduceabstractthoughtandthatevenseemingly9activitieshavethepowertoinfluenceourthinking.10thatourbodiesmayplayaroleinthoughtcanbefoundinthemetaphorsweusetodescribesituations11"Iwasgiventhecoldshoulder"or"shehasanexcellentgraspofrelativity". Thirtyyearsagosuch12ledthelinguistandphilosopherGeorgeLakoffattheUniversityofCalifor-niaBerkeleytogetherwithphilosopherMarkJohnsonattheUniversityofOregoninEugeneto13"conceptualmetaphortheory"thenotionthatwethinkofabstractconcepts14howourbodiesfunction.Now15forthetheoryhasstartedto16in.In200817researchersfoundthatpeoplemadetofeelsocially18reportedfeelingphysicallycolder.NowLoetscherandhiscolleagueshave19ourabilitytothinkofrandomnumbers--anexampleofabstractthought--tobodily20 17
Ourabilitytothinkhaslongbeenconsideredcentraltowhatmakesushuman.Nowresearchsuggeststhatourbodiesandtheirrelationshipwiththeenvironment1evenourmostabstractthoughts.Thisincludesthinkinguprandomnumbersordeciding2toreviewpositiveornegativeexperiences. "Advocatesoftraditional3ofcognitionwouldbesurprised"saysTobiasLoetscherattheUniversityofMelbourneinParkvilleAustralia."They4considerhumanreasoningtoinvolveabstractcognitiveprocesseswithoutanyconnectiontobodyorspace." Untilrecentlythe5hasbeenthatourbodies6onlytoourmostbasicinteractionswiththeenvironment7sensoryandmotorprocesses.Thenewresultssuggestthatourbodiesarealso8toproduceabstractthoughtandthatevenseemingly9activitieshavethepowertoinfluenceourthinking.10thatourbodiesmayplayaroleinthoughtcanbefoundinthemetaphorsweusetodescribesituations11"Iwasgiventhecoldshoulder"or"shehasanexcellentgraspofrelativity". Thirtyyearsagosuch12ledthelinguistandphilosopherGeorgeLakoffattheUniversityofCalifor-niaBerkeleytogetherwithphilosopherMarkJohnsonattheUniversityofOregoninEugeneto13"conceptualmetaphortheory"thenotionthatwethinkofabstractconcepts14howourbodiesfunction.Now15forthetheoryhasstartedto16in.In200817researchersfoundthatpeoplemadetofeelsocially18reportedfeelingphysicallycolder.NowLoetscherandhiscolleagueshave19ourabilitytothinkofrandomnumbers--anexampleofabstractthought--tobodily20 1
Ourabilitytothinkhaslongbeenconsideredcentraltowhatmakesushuman.Nowresearchsuggeststhatourbodiesandtheirrelationshipwiththeenvironment1evenourmostabstractthoughts.Thisincludesthinkinguprandomnumbersordeciding2toreviewpositiveornegativeexperiences. "Advocatesoftraditional3ofcognitionwouldbesurprised"saysTobiasLoetscherattheUniversityofMelbourneinParkvilleAustralia."They4considerhumanreasoningtoinvolveabstractcognitiveprocesseswithoutanyconnectiontobodyorspace." Untilrecentlythe5hasbeenthatourbodies6onlytoourmostbasicinteractionswiththeenvironment7sensoryandmotorprocesses.Thenewresultssuggestthatourbodiesarealso8toproduceabstractthoughtandthatevenseemingly9activitieshavethepowertoinfluenceourthinking.10thatourbodiesmayplayaroleinthoughtcanbefoundinthemetaphorsweusetodescribesituations11"Iwasgiventhecoldshoulder"or"shehasanexcellentgraspofrelativity". Thirtyyearsagosuch12ledthelinguistandphilosopherGeorgeLakoffattheUniversityofCalifor-niaBerkeleytogetherwithphilosopherMarkJohnsonattheUniversityofOregoninEugeneto13"conceptualmetaphortheory"thenotionthatwethinkofabstractconcepts14howourbodiesfunction.Now15forthetheoryhasstartedto16in.In200817researchersfoundthatpeoplemadetofeelsocially18reportedfeelingphysicallycolder.NowLoetscherandhiscolleagueshave19ourabilitytothinkofrandomnumbers--anexampleofabstractthought--tobodily20 7
Don’tlooknowbutthey’reallaroundyou.They’restandingbythecopymachinehoveringbytheprinteransweringthephone.Yesthey’retheoverworkedunderappreciatedinterns:youngeagerandnotalwayspaid.Andwithjust20%ofthegraduatingclassof2009gainfullyemployedaccordingtotheNationalAssociationofCollegesandEmployerstherearemoreandmoreofthemeachday.Itseemstheimportanceofinternshipsforsecuringfull-timeworkhasdramaticallyincreasedovertheyears.InternpreviouslyusedinthemedicalprofessiontodefineapersonwithadegreebutwithoutalicensetopracticebecameatermforaphysicianintrainingfollowingWorldWarIwhenmedicalschoolwasnolongerseenaspreparationenoughforpractice.Laterthewordmigratedtopoliticsasanalternativetothetermapprenticeasareferencetothoseinterestedinlearningaboutcareersingovernment.Meanwhileco-opprogramsinwhichstudentswouldworkatacompanyforanextendedperiodduringcollegeemerged.From1970to1983thenumberofcollegesanduniversitiesofferingtheprogramsincreasedfrom200to1000.SureittookanextrayeartoearnaB.A.butforthreemonthseachschoolyearstudentsworkedforcompaniestheywereinterestedintriedoutcareerstheyweren’tsureaboutandearnedmoneytohelpcovertuition.Internshipprogramshaveproducedseveralsuccesses:BillGateswasonceacongressionalpageandOprahWinfreyworkedataCBSaffiliateduringhercollegeyearsjusttonameafew.OfcourseMonicaLewinskywasa22-year-oldWhiteHouseinternwhensheengagedinanintimaterelationshipwithPresidentClintonascandalthatstilltaintsbothoffices.Today’sinternsarenotlimitedtosummerjobsattheirlocalbusinesses.SomeprogramsprovidedormhousingincitieslikeNewYorkandWashingtonallowingstudentsfromaroundthecountrytoworkforthenation’sbiggestcompanies.ManypopularcitiesevenhaveFacebookgroupsdevotedtoprovidingsocialoutingsandnetworkingopportunitiesforthethousandsofinternswhodescendeachsummer.Thoughinternshipswereformerlytoutedasanopportunityforstudentstoexplorecareeroptionsdoingsonowcomeswithaprice.Someexpertsarguethatinternshipspunishthosewhomightdecidelaterthanage18whattheywanttodowiththeirlife.Moreimportanttheycanfavorwealthierstudentswhocanaffordtonotmakeanymoneyduringthesummeroverthelessprivileged.Stillwithpressureincreasingonstudentstofindworktheclamorforinternshipsisonlygrowing.Tolandthatfirstjobcareeradvisersnowsayapplicantsshouldhavetwoormoreinternshipsundertheirbelt.Anyonewhotakesasummertosimplyexploremightbetoolate.ThecaseofMonicaLewinskyiscitedinParagraph3toshowthat
Thepursuitofinformationhasbeenahumanpreoccupationsinceknowledgewasfirstrecorded.Inthe3rdcenturyBCPtolemystoleevery1scrollfrompassingtravellersto2hisgreatlibraryinAlexandria.After2001America3aprogramtocompileasmanydataaspossibleaboutjustabouteverything.Since1996BrewsterKahlehasbeen4allthecontentonthewebasanot-for-profit5calledthe"InternetArchive".Ithas6expandedtosoftwarefilmsaudiorecordingsandscanningbooks. Therehasalwaysbeenmoreinformationthanpeoplecanmentallyprocess.Thedisparitybetweentheamountofinformationandman’sabilitytodealwithitmaybe7butthatneednotbeacausefor8Oursensoryandattentionalsystemsaretunedtobe9Peoplefindpatternstocompressinformationandmakeitmanageable.10CommanderSchmorrowdoesnotthinkthatmanwillbe11byrobots."Theflexibilityofthehumantoconsideras-yet-unforeseen12duringcriticaldecision-makinggo13thegutwhenproblem-solvingunderuncertaintyandothersuch14reasoningbehaviourswillnotbereadilyreplacedbyacomputer"hesays. The15ofdatanowavailableisaresourcesimilartootherresourcesandeventotechnologyitself.16resourcesandtechnologiesareneithergoodnorbad;itdependsonhowtheyare17.Intheageofbigdatacomputerswillbemonitoringmorethingsmakingmoredecisionsandeven18improvingtheirownprocesses--andmanwillbeleftwiththesame19hehasalwaysfaced.20T.S.Eliotasked:"WhereisthewisdomwehavelostinknowledgeWhereistheknowledgewehavelostininformation/ Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.10points15
A.Astheresearchershypothesizedparticipantswhowerefeelingblueweremorelikelytorespondtoandexpressapreferenceforfamiliarpatternswhereasmorecheerfulparticipantsdisplayednopreferenceforfamiliaroverpreviouslyunseenpatterns.Thatishappyparticipantsstillappreciatedthefamiliar--insomeinstancesevenmorepassionatelythanthoseinabadmood--buttheirmoodalsoboostedpositivereactionstonewthings.Astheauthorsputitifdesireforthefamiliarcanbeexpressedasa"warmglowoffamiliarity"thenperhapsgoodmoodcastsasimilarrayofsunshineonthenewcreatinga"warmglowofnovelty." B.Othertheoristshavesuggestedthatthevalueoffamiliarityismorerelativeandcontextual.Thatisafamiliarfaceismoreappearinginsituationsofdangerordisorientation--runningintoahometownneighborwhilewanderingaroundanunknowncitymightevokea"warmglow"whilebumpingintothatsamepersoninlineatthedelicounterbackhomeislesslikelytoelicitsuchpositiveemotions. C.Whenyou’reinabadmoodthecomfortofyourhomepajamasandcouchisoftenmostappealing.Yetwhenyou’refeelingabitsunnieryoumightbemorelikelytoventureoutandexploretheworldaroundyou.NewresearchpublishedinthejournalPsychologicalScienceshedslightonwhatisitaboutfeelingirritablethatmightmakeuslesslikelytotrynewthingswhileagoodmoodbringsoutoursenseofadventure. D.Previousresearchhasfoundthatexposuretothefamiliar--surroundingsobjectsfaces--isassociatedwithhappinesswithresearchersassumingthatthisrelationshipisasaresultofeitherconditioningthroughrepeatedexposureortheideathatwehaveatendencytowardkoinophiliathepreferenceforthefamiliarbecauseitcanhelpusdistinguishgoodpotentialmatesthenotionthat"familiarityisintrinsicallyrewardingbecauseitisconnectedwitheasyefficientandconflict-freeprocessing". E.Totestthattheoryresearchersconductedanexperimentinwhichparticipantsviewedaseriesofrandomdotpatterns.Inthefirstroundtheyviewedseveralpatterns;inthesecondtheyagainsawseveralpatterns--includingamixtureofthoseviewedduringthefirstroundandnewpreviouslyunseendesigns.Inoneexperimentpriortoviewingthepatternsstudyparticipants--sixteenundergraduatesfromtheUniversityofCaliforniaSanDiego--werefilledwitheithergoodorbadmoodbybeingaskedtorecallahappyorsadpersonalexperience.ThenastheyviewedthepatternstheirresponsesweremeasuredusingbothfacialelectromyographywhichbasicallytracksfacialresponseintermsofsmilesandfrownsandskinconductanceresponseSCRwhichmeasures"sympatheticarousal."Participantsalsoreportedhowtheyfelt. F.Inkeepingwiththispreviousstudyhasrepeatedlyfoundthatnewbornsaremorelikelytoshowsignsofneophobiathefearofnewthingsinunknownorperceivedunsafeenvironmentscomparedwithsafecomfortablesettings.Inkeepingwiththatpreviousstudyhasalsofoundthatbadmoodisoftenaresponsetoperceiveddangerordiscomfortwhilegoodmoodindicatesthat"anenvironmentisniceandfriendly."Itstandstoreasonthenthestudyauthorsarguethatthecausalrelationshipshouldgobothways.Thatisontheonehandmoodcanbearesponsetoenvironmentbutontheothermoodcanalsochangethewayweperceivetheworldaroundus.G .Whilemanystudiesshowthatpeoplebecomemorewillingtotrynovelethnicfoodsastheygetolderpeopleseemtobecomemorereluctanttoeattheotherkindsofnovelfoodsastheygetolder.Giventhesedifferencesitmightbeexpectedthatdifferentkindsofnovelfoodsmightbedifferentiallysusceptibletotheeffectsofdifferentsituationalvariables;howevertherearenodataavailable. 45
Thepursuitofinformationhasbeenahumanpreoccupationsinceknowledgewasfirstrecorded.Inthe3rdcenturyBCPtolemystoleevery1scrollfrompassingtravellersto2hisgreatlibraryinAlexandria.After2001America3aprogramtocompileasmanydataaspossibleaboutjustabouteverything.Since1996BrewsterKahlehasbeen4allthecontentonthewebasanot-for-profit5calledthe"InternetArchive".Ithas6expandedtosoftwarefilmsaudiorecordingsandscanningbooks. Therehasalwaysbeenmoreinformationthanpeoplecanmentallyprocess.Thedisparitybetweentheamountofinformationandman’sabilitytodealwithitmaybe7butthatneednotbeacausefor8Oursensoryandattentionalsystemsaretunedtobe9Peoplefindpatternstocompressinformationandmakeitmanageable.10CommanderSchmorrowdoesnotthinkthatmanwillbe11byrobots."Theflexibilityofthehumantoconsideras-yet-unforeseen12duringcriticaldecision-makinggo13thegutwhenproblem-solvingunderuncertaintyandothersuch14reasoningbehaviourswillnotbereadilyreplacedbyacomputer"hesays. The15ofdatanowavailableisaresourcesimilartootherresourcesandeventotechnologyitself.16resourcesandtechnologiesareneithergoodnorbad;itdependsonhowtheyare17.Intheageofbigdatacomputerswillbemonitoringmorethingsmakingmoredecisionsandeven18improvingtheirownprocesses--andmanwillbeleftwiththesame19hehasalwaysfaced.20T.S.Eliotasked:"WhereisthewisdomwehavelostinknowledgeWhereistheknowledgewehavelostininformation/ Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.10points11
A.Astheresearchershypothesizedparticipantswhowerefeelingblueweremorelikelytorespondtoandexpressapreferenceforfamiliarpatternswhereasmorecheerfulparticipantsdisplayednopreferenceforfamiliaroverpreviouslyunseenpatterns.Thatishappyparticipantsstillappreciatedthefamiliar--insomeinstancesevenmorepassionatelythanthoseinabadmood--buttheirmoodalsoboostedpositivereactionstonewthings.Astheauthorsputitifdesireforthefamiliarcanbeexpressedasa"warmglowoffamiliarity"thenperhapsgoodmoodcastsasimilarrayofsunshineonthenewcreatinga"warmglowofnovelty." B.Othertheoristshavesuggestedthatthevalueoffamiliarityismorerelativeandcontextual.Thatisafamiliarfaceismoreappearinginsituationsofdangerordisorientation--runningintoahometownneighborwhilewanderingaroundanunknowncitymightevokea"warmglow"whilebumpingintothatsamepersoninlineatthedelicounterbackhomeislesslikelytoelicitsuchpositiveemotions. C.Whenyou’reinabadmoodthecomfortofyourhomepajamasandcouchisoftenmostappealing.Yetwhenyou’refeelingabitsunnieryoumightbemorelikelytoventureoutandexploretheworldaroundyou.NewresearchpublishedinthejournalPsychologicalScienceshedslightonwhatisitaboutfeelingirritablethatmightmakeuslesslikelytotrynewthingswhileagoodmoodbringsoutoursenseofadventure. D.Previousresearchhasfoundthatexposuretothefamiliar--surroundingsobjectsfaces--isassociatedwithhappinesswithresearchersassumingthatthisrelationshipisasaresultofeitherconditioningthroughrepeatedexposureortheideathatwehaveatendencytowardkoinophiliathepreferenceforthefamiliarbecauseitcanhelpusdistinguishgoodpotentialmatesthenotionthat"familiarityisintrinsicallyrewardingbecauseitisconnectedwitheasyefficientandconflict-freeprocessing". E.Totestthattheoryresearchersconductedanexperimentinwhichparticipantsviewedaseriesofrandomdotpatterns.Inthefirstroundtheyviewedseveralpatterns;inthesecondtheyagainsawseveralpatterns--includingamixtureofthoseviewedduringthefirstroundandnewpreviouslyunseendesigns.Inoneexperimentpriortoviewingthepatternsstudyparticipants--sixteenundergraduatesfromtheUniversityofCaliforniaSanDiego--werefilledwitheithergoodorbadmoodbybeingaskedtorecallahappyorsadpersonalexperience.ThenastheyviewedthepatternstheirresponsesweremeasuredusingbothfacialelectromyographywhichbasicallytracksfacialresponseintermsofsmilesandfrownsandskinconductanceresponseSCRwhichmeasures"sympatheticarousal."Participantsalsoreportedhowtheyfelt. F.Inkeepingwiththispreviousstudyhasrepeatedlyfoundthatnewbornsaremorelikelytoshowsignsofneophobiathefearofnewthingsinunknownorperceivedunsafeenvironmentscomparedwithsafecomfortablesettings.Inkeepingwiththatpreviousstudyhasalsofoundthatbadmoodisoftenaresponsetoperceiveddangerordiscomfortwhilegoodmoodindicatesthat"anenvironmentisniceandfriendly."Itstandstoreasonthenthestudyauthorsarguethatthecausalrelationshipshouldgobothways.Thatisontheonehandmoodcanbearesponsetoenvironmentbutontheothermoodcanalsochangethewayweperceivetheworldaroundus.G .Whilemanystudiesshowthatpeoplebecomemorewillingtotrynovelethnicfoodsastheygetolderpeopleseemtobecomemorereluctanttoeattheotherkindsofnovelfoodsastheygetolder.Giventhesedifferencesitmightbeexpectedthatdifferentkindsofnovelfoodsmightbedifferentiallysusceptibletotheeffectsofdifferentsituationalvariables;howevertherearenodataavailable. 43
Don’tlooknowbutthey’reallaroundyou.They’restandingbythecopymachinehoveringbytheprinteransweringthephone.Yesthey’retheoverworkedunderappreciatedinterns:youngeagerandnotalwayspaid.Andwithjust20%ofthegraduatingclassof2009gainfullyemployedaccordingtotheNationalAssociationofCollegesandEmployerstherearemoreandmoreofthemeachday.Itseemstheimportanceofinternshipsforsecuringfull-timeworkhasdramaticallyincreasedovertheyears.InternpreviouslyusedinthemedicalprofessiontodefineapersonwithadegreebutwithoutalicensetopracticebecameatermforaphysicianintrainingfollowingWorldWarIwhenmedicalschoolwasnolongerseenaspreparationenoughforpractice.Laterthewordmigratedtopoliticsasanalternativetothetermapprenticeasareferencetothoseinterestedinlearningaboutcareersingovernment.Meanwhileco-opprogramsinwhichstudentswouldworkatacompanyforanextendedperiodduringcollegeemerged.From1970to1983thenumberofcollegesanduniversitiesofferingtheprogramsincreasedfrom200to1000.SureittookanextrayeartoearnaB.A.butforthreemonthseachschoolyearstudentsworkedforcompaniestheywereinterestedintriedoutcareerstheyweren’tsureaboutandearnedmoneytohelpcovertuition.Internshipprogramshaveproducedseveralsuccesses:BillGateswasonceacongressionalpageandOprahWinfreyworkedataCBSaffiliateduringhercollegeyearsjusttonameafew.OfcourseMonicaLewinskywasa22-year-oldWhiteHouseinternwhensheengagedinanintimaterelationshipwithPresidentClintonascandalthatstilltaintsbothoffices.Today’sinternsarenotlimitedtosummerjobsattheirlocalbusinesses.SomeprogramsprovidedormhousingincitieslikeNewYorkandWashingtonallowingstudentsfromaroundthecountrytoworkforthenation’sbiggestcompanies.ManypopularcitiesevenhaveFacebookgroupsdevotedtoprovidingsocialoutingsandnetworkingopportunitiesforthethousandsofinternswhodescendeachsummer.Thoughinternshipswereformerlytoutedasanopportunityforstudentstoexplorecareeroptionsdoingsonowcomeswithaprice.Someexpertsarguethatinternshipspunishthosewhomightdecidelaterthanage18whattheywanttodowiththeirlife.Moreimportanttheycanfavorwealthierstudentswhocanaffordtonotmakeanymoneyduringthesummeroverthelessprivileged.Stillwithpressureincreasingonstudentstofindworktheclamorforinternshipsisonlygrowing.Tolandthatfirstjobcareeradvisersnowsayapplicantsshouldhavetwoormoreinternshipsundertheirbelt.Anyonewhotakesasummertosimplyexploremightbetoolate.Whichofthefollowingwouldbethebesttitleforthetext
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