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In the span of 18 months, Isaac Newton invented calculus, constructed a theory of optics, explain...
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Jamesis________boy.
a 18-month-old
a 18 months old
an 18-month-old
an 18-months-old
15分Davidis1extremeworriedabouthisson2oftenbehaves
Ididn'tknowhebeabletowalkwhenhewastenmonthsold.
AftersixmonthsoftrainwithadogIwasabletobringhimhom
AfteraboutthreemonthsIwasnolonger沉溺的tonicotine.
ThankstotheEnglishcourseIcanliveintheUSAeasily.
IthasbeenaboutthreemonthssinceIethehighschool.
Ihavehadthebreadmaker. A.for3monthsago Bsince3mo
Ihavethismagazineforacoupleofmonths.
Ithinkifyoueatfourmealsadayforabouttwomonthsyou'll
I’llgotovisitShanghai___.
after two months
in two months
two months before
two months ago
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Ihavehadthebreadmaker.A.for3months B.since3months
Istaytherefortwomonthslastyear.
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Howtimeflies!IcanhardlybelieveIstayherefor3months
IlivedinStockholmfor18monthswhenIwasinmytwenty.Iwa
Igaveupeatingandbecameavegetarianafewmonthsago.
AnothertimefivemonthsagoIhappentobeupstairsatdusk
AftertwomonthsoftrainIcanswimfreely.
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Itiswidelybelievedthatournever-endingquestformaterialgoodsispartofthebasiccharacterofhumanbeings.Accordingtothepopularbeliefwemaynotlikeitbutthere’slittlewecandoaboutit.Despiteitspopularitythisviewofhumannatureiswrong.Whilehumanbeingsmayhaveabasicdesiretostrivetowardssomethingthereisnothinginevitableaboutmaterialgoods.Therearenumerousexamplesofsocietiesinwhichthingshaveplayedahighlyrestrictedrule.InmedievalEuropetheacquisitionofgoodswasrelativelyunimportant.Thecommonpeoplewhoselivesweresurelypoorbymodernstandardsshowedstrongpreferencesforleisureratherthanmoney.Inthenineteenth-andearlytwentieth-centuryUnitedStatesthereisalsoconsiderableevidencethatmanyworkingpeoplealsoexhibitedarestrictedappetiteformaterialgoods.Materialismisnotabasictraitofhumannaturebutaspecificproductofcapitalism.Withthedevelopmentofthemarketsystemmaterialismspilledoverforthefirsttimebeyondthecirclesoftherich.Thegrowthofthemiddleclasscreatedalargegroupofpotentialbuyersandthepossibilitythatmassculturecouldbeorientedaroundmaterialgoods.Thisprocesscanbeseennotonlyinhistoricalexperiencesbutisnowgoingoninsomepartsofthedevelopingworldwherethegrowthofalargemiddleclasshascontributedtoextensivematerialismandthebreakdownoftraditionalvalues.IntheUnitedStatestheturningpointwasthe1920s—thepointatwhichthepsychologyofshortagegavewaytothepsychologyofabundance.Thiswasacrucialperiodforthedevelopmentofmodernmaterialism.Economyanddisciplinewereout;wasteandexcesswerein.Materialismflourished—bothasasocialideologyandintermsofhighratesofrealspending.Inthemidstofallthisbuyingwecandetecttheoriginsofmodernconsumerdiscontent.ThiswasthedecadeduringwhichtheAmericandreamorwhatwasthencalledtheAmericanstandardoflivingcapturedthenation’simagination.Butitwasalwayssomethingofanillusion.Americanscomplainedaboutitemstheycouldnotafford—despitethefactthatinthe1920smostfamilieshadtelephonesvirtuallyallhadpurchasedlifeinsurancetwo-thirdsownedtheirownhomesandtookvacationsandoverhalfhadmotorcars.ThediscontentexpressedbymanyAmericanswaspromoted—andtoacertainextentevencreated—bymanufacturers.Theexplosionofconsumercreditmadethetaskeasierasautomobilesradioselectricrefrigeratorswashingmachines—evenjewelryandforeigntravel—couldbepaidforininstallments.Bytheendofthe1920s60percentofcarsradiosandfurniturewerebeingpurchasedthisway.Theabilitytobuywithoutactuallyhavingmoneyhelpedencourageaclimateofinstantsatisfactionexpandingexpectationsandultimatelymaterialism.Wecanlearnfromthefirst2paragraphsthat______.
NiagaraisanIndianwordwhichmeans"roaringwater".IndeedtheroarofthefallingwaterofNiagaracanbeheard1adistanceof5kms.Imagine2ofwaterflowingoveracliff90feethighandyouwillgetanideaofthatterriblenoise.And3tremendouspowertheNiagaraRiverhas!Itmovesbigrocksaboutandthrowsthemintotheboilingwaterbelow.4agoanoldshipwithoutsinglepersononboardwasputinmid-stream.Itsaileddowntheriver5atoyboatwithgreatspeed.Havingreachedthefalltheshipdroppedintotheboilingwaternever6again.Thereweresomepeoplewhowantedtobecomefamous7swimmingacrossthemostdangerouspartoftheNiagaraRiver.OneofthemwasCaptainWebbwhosaidthathewouldtrytoswimcrosstheNiagarawhich8crowdsofpeople.OntheeveningofJuly1st1893CaptainWebbcameuptotheriverand9aplunge.Hishavingjumpedintothewater10manypeoplewithhorror.Soonheappearedinthemiddleoftheriver.Aloudshoutwentupfromthecrowdbutamomentlatertherewas11silence.Themanhaddisappearedunderthewater.Thousandsofeyes12ontheriverbutthemanwasdrowned.In1902acertainMissTaylordecidedtogooverthefallsinabarrel.Thereweredifferentkindsofpillowsinsidethebarreltopreventherfrom13.HavingexaminedthebarrelcarefullyMissTaylorgotin.Thebarrelwasclosedandthen14intothewater.Havingreachedthefallsitoverturnedandwasshotdownbytheterrible15ofthewater.WhenthebarrelwasfinallycaughtandopenedMissTaylorcameoutalive16withafrightenedlookinhereyes.Onceacrowdofvisitorssawarope17overfromonebankoftherivertotheother.Thentheysawaman18therope.ThemanwasanactorBlondin19.HemanagedtocrossNiagaraFallsonatightrope.Thepeopleonthebankweresurprisedathis20itsowell. 10
JohnWinstonLennonwasbornintoaworldatwarwithitself—aperfectsymboloftheinternalcontradictionsthatdefinedhislifeandmusic.Germanaircraftweredroppingbombsonhiscityattheverymomentofhisarrival. 41____________.LennonalsohadapowerfulattachmenttohismotherJuliathatlingeredlongaftershediedin1958;theclassic1968albumTheBeatlesknownasthe"WhiteAlbum"foritswhitealbumlinerincludedhissong"Julia"—anexquisiteexpressionofrawsorrow.WhenheandMcCartneyfirstmetonJuly6th1957—atachurchpicnicwhereLennon’sbandwasastarattraction—Lennonwasbuddingintoafusionofboldattitudekeenwitandhonestcharm.TheBeatlesgavehimtheroomtobloom. 42____________. Inafewwaysthecurrentboy-bandphenomenonissimplytheBeatleswithamoderntwist:hugerecordsalesadoringyoungwomenqueueduponthesidewalksoutsidetheirconcertsandthecircus-likeatmospheresurroundingtheireverymove.WithhissharphandsomefeaturesandanattractivewarmthcontrastedbyhisacidturnofphraseLennonevokedasmuchhystericalfemaledesireasanymemberoftheBackStreetBoysifnotallofthemputtogether.43____________. LennonandOnoskillfullyusedthedisbeliefandscornthatoftengreetedtheirprovocativeexploitstopromotetheirpeacecampaigns:demonstratingintheirbedclothesforanendtotheVietnamWarinthespringof1969andpayingforhuge"WARISOVER!"signsintwelvecitiesaroundtheworldthefollowingChristmas.44____________. ApeculiarironyofLennon’sstoryisthewaywetendtoworshiptheManandtheBeatleattheexpenseofthesoloartist.TobefrankLennonwasnotalwaysterrificonhisown.45____________. A.TodaythepopularityoftheBeatlesseemslikeadistantmiracleanancientexplosionofenergeticteenagejoy.Survivingfilmsandhistoricalaccountsonlyhintatthemagicofthetwoyears1963and1964inwhichtheBeatlesbroughtBritainandthenAmericahappilytotheirknees. B.TheBeatlesworesuitsandchattedcheerfullywithreportersinthatfirstcoupleofyears.Theyalsomovedquicklytoseizecontrol—oftheirmusictheircareersandtheirindividualdestinies. C.HisimageastheintellectualBeatle—theshybrilliantseekeroftruthwithastubbornstreakandasmartmouth—wasrootedinhisdaysasawould-beartstudentandteenagerebelwitharemarkableintellect.HefoundsubstitutefatherfiguresinAmericanrockmusicians. D.OnthefinaldayofhislifeLennongaveaninterviewtopromotewhatwouldbehisfinalalbum.Whenaskedabouthis1971singlerecording"PowertothePeople"Lennonsaidhenowbelievedthatpeopledohavethepower."Idon’tmeanthepowerofthegun"heexplained."Theyhavethepowertomakeandcreatethesocietytheywant." E.ThecoupleplantedtreesforpeaceatCoventryCathedralinEnglandandinearly1970cuttheirhairforpeace.InopenlycourtingpublicscornLennonandOnoengineeredavitalpublicdebateaboutpeaceandloveasrealisticgoalsnotjustnaivenonsense. F.Thekeylineinthose"WARISOVER!"signswasinthesmalltypenearthebottom:IFYOUWANTIT.WhenJohnLennondiedheleftuswithauniquebodyofworkandthemostvaluablelessonrock&rollhastooffer:anythingispossible—ifyouwantit. G.HeneverdidbetterthantheintensityandhowlofhisJohnLennon/PlasticOnoBandalbumbutthereismuchinLennon’spost-Beatlemusictobeappreciated.Recordedduringhisso-calledlostweekend—aperiodofseparationfromOno—the1974albumWallsandBridgesisastrikingtestimonytothewretcheddesperationhefelt. 42
Directions:Studythefollowingcartooncarefullyandwriteanessayinwhichyoushould 1describethesetofdrawingsinterpretitsmeaningand 2pointoutitsimplicationsinourlife. Youshouldwrite160-200wordsneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.
NiagaraisanIndianwordwhichmeans"roaringwater".IndeedtheroarofthefallingwaterofNiagaracanbeheard1adistanceof5kms.Imagine2ofwaterflowingoveracliff90feethighandyouwillgetanideaofthatterriblenoise.And3tremendouspowertheNiagaraRiverhas!Itmovesbigrocksaboutandthrowsthemintotheboilingwaterbelow.4agoanoldshipwithoutsinglepersononboardwasputinmid-stream.Itsaileddowntheriver5atoyboatwithgreatspeed.Havingreachedthefalltheshipdroppedintotheboilingwaternever6again.Thereweresomepeoplewhowantedtobecomefamous7swimmingacrossthemostdangerouspartoftheNiagaraRiver.OneofthemwasCaptainWebbwhosaidthathewouldtrytoswimcrosstheNiagarawhich8crowdsofpeople.OntheeveningofJuly1st1893CaptainWebbcameuptotheriverand9aplunge.Hishavingjumpedintothewater10manypeoplewithhorror.Soonheappearedinthemiddleoftheriver.Aloudshoutwentupfromthecrowdbutamomentlatertherewas11silence.Themanhaddisappearedunderthewater.Thousandsofeyes12ontheriverbutthemanwasdrowned.In1902acertainMissTaylordecidedtogooverthefallsinabarrel.Thereweredifferentkindsofpillowsinsidethebarreltopreventherfrom13.HavingexaminedthebarrelcarefullyMissTaylorgotin.Thebarrelwasclosedandthen14intothewater.Havingreachedthefallsitoverturnedandwasshotdownbytheterrible15ofthewater.WhenthebarrelwasfinallycaughtandopenedMissTaylorcameoutalive16withafrightenedlookinhereyes.Onceacrowdofvisitorssawarope17overfromonebankoftherivertotheother.Thentheysawaman18therope.ThemanwasanactorBlondin19.HemanagedtocrossNiagaraFallsonatightrope.Thepeopleonthebankweresurprisedathis20itsowell. 8
Forcenturiesexplorershaveriskedtheirlivesventuringintotheunknownforreasonsofeconomicbenefitandnationalglory.Followingthelunarmissionsoftheearly1970sMarsnowloomsashumanity’snextgreatunknownland.Butwithdubiousprospectsforshort-termfinancialreturnandwithinternationalcompetitioninspacearecedingmemoryitisclearthatimperativesotherthanprofitornationalpridewillhavetocompelhumanbeingstoleavetheirtracksontheplanet’sredsurface.WithMarsthescientificbenefitsareperhapshigherthantheyhaveeverbeen.TheissueofwhetherlifeeverexistedontheplanetandwhetheritpersiststothisdayhasbeenhighlightedbyaccumulatingevidencethatMarsoncehadabundantliquidwaterandbythecontroversyoversuggestionsthatfossilsofbacteriarodetoEarthonarockejectedfromMarsduringitsearlyhistory.AdefiniteansweraboutlifeonMarspastorpresentwouldgiveresearchersinvaluabledataabouttherangeofconditionsunderwhichaplanetcangeneratethecomplexchemistrythatleadstolife.TherevelationthatlifearoseindependentlyonMarsandonEarthwouldprovidethefirstconcreteclueinoneofthedeepestmysteriesinallofscience:howprevalentislifeinourgalaxyOneofthereasonswhytheideaofsendingpeopletoMarsstrikesachordinsomanypeopleisthatitisalreadypossible—theU.S.hasthemoneyandthefundamentaltechnologyneededtodoit.Moreimportantrecentdiscoveriesabouttheplanet’senvironmentinthedistantpasthavepresentedaclearandcompellingscientificincentiveforsendingpeople:tosearchforevidenceoflife.ThethesisthatliquidwaterwasoncestableonMarshasbeenstrengthenedbyaerialphotographstakenlastyearthatshowedwhatappearedtobeadrainagechannelcutdeeplybywaterflowingforhundredsifnotthousandsofyears.AthoroughhuntforanylifeonMarsthatmightbehangingon—despitethepresentdeficitofwater—wouldalsohavetobeundertakenbyhumansaccordingtosomeexperts.Suchlifewillbehiddenandprobablytiny.Findingitwillrequiresurveyingvasttractsofterritoryoneexpertexplains.Itwillrequiretheabilitytocoverlongdistancesandadapttodifferentconditions.Robotsmightbeuptothetasksometimeinthedistantfuturemakinghumanexplorersredundantheconcedes.ButrelyingonthemtosurveyMarsduringperiodicalmissionstotheplanetwouldtakeaverylongtime—decadesifnotcenturieshebelieves.AccordingtothepassagesendingpeopletoMarsis______.
A.Recentarchaeologicalresearchhasfocusedonaphenomenonbarelynoticedbefore:extensivepatchesofrichblacksoilfoundalongthebanksandonterracesaboveallmajorriversintheAmazon.Somecoveranareaofmanyacresandareupto6feetdeep.Theyarethoughttohaveformedovermanycenturiesastheaccumulatedproductoforganicremainsleftbynativesettlements.ThesesoilsareusuallyfilledwithfragmentsofbustedceramicsandarenowbeingstudiedforcluestotheriseoftropicalforestcivilizationsintheAmazonBasin.Localfarmersregardtheblacksoilsasa"giftfromthepast"becausetheyarenaturallyfertileandhavetheabilitytosupportawiderangeofcrops. B.Secondlythereisatrulyimpressivediversityoflanguageswithseveralhundreddistincttonguesanddialects.ThisverbaldiversitymusthaveevolvedoverthousandsofyearsandimpliesanoccupationoftheAmazonbasinforatleast14000yearsafiguresupportedbyarchaeologicalevidence.TherockartintheAmazonBasinmaybeasoldashumanoccupationitself.Imagesarecarvedandpaintedonexposedrocknearrapidsandwaterfallswherefishingismostproductiveandincavesandrocksheltersclosetoarchaeologicalsites. C.Twofactorshavebeeninstrumentalinliftingtheveilofmisunderstanding.Firstisasurprisinglydiverserangeofceramicstyles.Recentresearchseemstoconfirmthatacreativeexplosionofstylesoccurredabout2000yearsago.ArchaeologicaldigsinthehighestreachesoftheUpperAmazonhavedemonstratedtheexistenceofawidespreadstyleofpaintinglargewatertightjarsinboldblackredandcreamdesigns.ThissamestylehasbeenfoundonanisleatthemouthoftheAmazonandappearstohaveitsoriginswheretheAmazonmeetstheoceanlaterspreadingacrossmuchoftheUpperAmazon.Thestyletranscendslocalandregionalculturesandpointstoconsiderableintercoursebetweensocietiesalongthevastrivernetwork. D.ThenativepeoplesoftheAmazoncannolongerbeseenasisolatedcommunitiesinthedepthsoftheforestordispersedalongrivers.Westillhavemuchtolearnabouttheirsocietiesbuttherainforestshouldnolongerbeseenasanuntouched"paradise". E.AmongthemostexcitingdiscoveriesarefuneraljarsdatingtoA.D.1400-1700foundincavesandrocksheltersnearthemouthoftheAmazon.Thebonesofmenwomenandchildrenwerepreservedinindividuallydedicatedvessels.Itseemsthatthesiteswerevisitedregularlyovertheyearsandnewjarsaddedasfamilymembersexpired.Theseburialsreflectthefamilytiesofancientsettlementsandtheirnurturingoflinksbetweenthelivingandthedead. F.PopulationcollapseandmovementalongtheprincipalriversoftheAmazonsystemhavecontributedtoaveilofmisunderstandingthathaslongcoveredtheculturalachievementsoftropicalforestsocieties.Diffusebandshuntingdeepintheforestinterioreventuallycametobeseenasthetypicaltropicalforestadaptation.SomuchsothatwhenarchaeologicalstudiesbeganinearnestatthemouthoftheAmazoninthe1950sscientistsarguedthatthesophisticatedculturetheywerediscoveringcouldnothaveoriginatedintheAmazonBasinitselfbutmusthavebeenderivedfrommoreadvancedcultureselsewhere.Theyimaginedthetropicalforesttobean"imitationparadise"unabletosupportmuchbeyondasimplehunting-and-gatheringwayoflife.Thismistakenideahasexertedapersistentinfluenceeversince. G.ThefutureoftheAmazonBasinisnowasubjectoffiercedebate.Knowledgeaboutthepasthasavitalroletoplayinplanninganddecisionmakingforthefuture.Archaeologypointstosuccessfulmethodsforadaptingtotheforestgroundedinpracticalexpertiseandempiricalknowledgeofthelimitationsandpossibilitiesofthisenvironment.Thesetechniquesforwisemanagementarebecomingamatterofglobalconcern. Order: 42
Allgreatwritersexpresstheirideasinanindividualway:itisoftenpossibletodeterminetheauthorshipofaliterarypassagefromthestyleinwhichitiswritten;46Manyauthorsfeelthattheconventionsofthewrittenlanguagehamperthemandtheyusewordsfreelywithlittleobservanceofacceptedgrammarandsentencestructureinordertoconveyvividlytheirfeelingsbeliefsandfantasies.Otherswithadeeprespectfortraditionalusageachieveastyleofclassicalclearnessandperfectionorachieveeffectsofvisualormusicalbeautybytheirmasteryofexistingformsenrichedbyasensitiveandadventurousvocabularyvividimageryandablendingofevocativevowelsandconsonants. Youngpeopleoftenfeeltheneedtoexperimentandasaresulttobreakawayfromthetraditionstheyhavebeentaught.Indealingwithaforeignlanguagehowevertheyhavetobearinmindtwoconditionsforexperiment.47Anygreatexperimentalartistisfullyfamiliarwiththeconventionsfromwhichhewishestobreakfree:heiscapableofachievementinestablishedformsbutfeelstheseareinadequatefortheexpressionofhisideas.Inthesecondplaceheisindisputablyanoutstandingartistwhohassomethingoriginaltoexpress;otherwisetheexperimentswillappearpretentiousevenchildish. Fewstudentscanachievesointimateanunderstandingofaforeignlanguagethattheycanexploreitsresourcesfreelyandexperimentally.Notallfeeltheneedtodoso.48Andinanycaseexaminationcandidatesneedtobecomethoroughlyacquaintedwithconventionalusageasitisasureknowledgeofacceptedformsthatexaminerslookfor. ThestudentundertakingaProficiencycourseshouldhavetheabilitytousesimpleEnglishcorrectlytoexpresseverydayfactsandideas.49Thisabilitytoexpressoneselfinaforeignlanguageonabasisofthinkinginthatlanguagewithoutreferencetoone’sownisessentialatallstagesoflearning.Studentswithextensiveexperienceintranslationwhohavehadlittlepracticeinusingtheforeignlanguagedirectlymustaboveallwriteverysimplyatfirstusingonlyeasyconstructionswhichtheyareconvincedarecorrectforgettingforthetimebeingtheirownlanguageandrigorouslyavoidingtranslatingfromit. Morecomplexformsmorevariedvocabularyandsentencestructureshouldevolvenaturallyinstepwiththestudent’sincreasingknowledgeofthelanguage.Thestudentintroducesacertainformofconstructiononlywhenheisthoroughlyfamiliarwithitandiscertainthatitisnormallyusedinthisway.Asheachievesadditionalconfidencehecanbegintotakeaninterestinuseofthelanguagetocreatediverseeffects.Hemaywanttoconveyimpressionsofsuspensecalmdignityhumorofmusicorpoetry.50Hewillmastertheartoflogicalexplanationofexactletterwritingofformalspeechesandnaturalconversationandofvividimpressionisticdescription.Buthewillstillwritewithinthelimitsofhisabilityandknowledge.AndasalearnerhewillstillbestudyingandobservingconventionalEnglishusageinallthathewrites. 48
JohnWinstonLennonwasbornintoaworldatwarwithitself—aperfectsymboloftheinternalcontradictionsthatdefinedhislifeandmusic.Germanaircraftweredroppingbombsonhiscityattheverymomentofhisarrival. 41____________.LennonalsohadapowerfulattachmenttohismotherJuliathatlingeredlongaftershediedin1958;theclassic1968albumTheBeatlesknownasthe"WhiteAlbum"foritswhitealbumlinerincludedhissong"Julia"—anexquisiteexpressionofrawsorrow.WhenheandMcCartneyfirstmetonJuly6th1957—atachurchpicnicwhereLennon’sbandwasastarattraction—Lennonwasbuddingintoafusionofboldattitudekeenwitandhonestcharm.TheBeatlesgavehimtheroomtobloom. 42____________. Inafewwaysthecurrentboy-bandphenomenonissimplytheBeatleswithamoderntwist:hugerecordsalesadoringyoungwomenqueueduponthesidewalksoutsidetheirconcertsandthecircus-likeatmospheresurroundingtheireverymove.WithhissharphandsomefeaturesandanattractivewarmthcontrastedbyhisacidturnofphraseLennonevokedasmuchhystericalfemaledesireasanymemberoftheBackStreetBoysifnotallofthemputtogether.43____________. LennonandOnoskillfullyusedthedisbeliefandscornthatoftengreetedtheirprovocativeexploitstopromotetheirpeacecampaigns:demonstratingintheirbedclothesforanendtotheVietnamWarinthespringof1969andpayingforhuge"WARISOVER!"signsintwelvecitiesaroundtheworldthefollowingChristmas.44____________. ApeculiarironyofLennon’sstoryisthewaywetendtoworshiptheManandtheBeatleattheexpenseofthesoloartist.TobefrankLennonwasnotalwaysterrificonhisown.45____________. A.TodaythepopularityoftheBeatlesseemslikeadistantmiracleanancientexplosionofenergeticteenagejoy.Survivingfilmsandhistoricalaccountsonlyhintatthemagicofthetwoyears1963and1964inwhichtheBeatlesbroughtBritainandthenAmericahappilytotheirknees. B.TheBeatlesworesuitsandchattedcheerfullywithreportersinthatfirstcoupleofyears.Theyalsomovedquicklytoseizecontrol—oftheirmusictheircareersandtheirindividualdestinies. C.HisimageastheintellectualBeatle—theshybrilliantseekeroftruthwithastubbornstreakandasmartmouth—wasrootedinhisdaysasawould-beartstudentandteenagerebelwitharemarkableintellect.HefoundsubstitutefatherfiguresinAmericanrockmusicians. D.OnthefinaldayofhislifeLennongaveaninterviewtopromotewhatwouldbehisfinalalbum.Whenaskedabouthis1971singlerecording"PowertothePeople"Lennonsaidhenowbelievedthatpeopledohavethepower."Idon’tmeanthepowerofthegun"heexplained."Theyhavethepowertomakeandcreatethesocietytheywant." E.ThecoupleplantedtreesforpeaceatCoventryCathedralinEnglandandinearly1970cuttheirhairforpeace.InopenlycourtingpublicscornLennonandOnoengineeredavitalpublicdebateaboutpeaceandloveasrealisticgoalsnotjustnaivenonsense. F.Thekeylineinthose"WARISOVER!"signswasinthesmalltypenearthebottom:IFYOUWANTIT.WhenJohnLennondiedheleftuswithauniquebodyofworkandthemostvaluablelessonrock&rollhastooffer:anythingispossible—ifyouwantit. G.HeneverdidbetterthantheintensityandhowlofhisJohnLennon/PlasticOnoBandalbumbutthereismuchinLennon’spost-Beatlemusictobeappreciated.Recordedduringhisso-calledlostweekend—aperiodofseparationfromOno—the1974albumWallsandBridgesisastrikingtestimonytothewretcheddesperationhefelt. 44
NiagaraisanIndianwordwhichmeans"roaringwater".IndeedtheroarofthefallingwaterofNiagaracanbeheard1adistanceof5kms.Imagine2ofwaterflowingoveracliff90feethighandyouwillgetanideaofthatterriblenoise.And3tremendouspowertheNiagaraRiverhas!Itmovesbigrocksaboutandthrowsthemintotheboilingwaterbelow.4agoanoldshipwithoutsinglepersononboardwasputinmid-stream.Itsaileddowntheriver5atoyboatwithgreatspeed.Havingreachedthefalltheshipdroppedintotheboilingwaternever6again.Thereweresomepeoplewhowantedtobecomefamous7swimmingacrossthemostdangerouspartoftheNiagaraRiver.OneofthemwasCaptainWebbwhosaidthathewouldtrytoswimcrosstheNiagarawhich8crowdsofpeople.OntheeveningofJuly1st1893CaptainWebbcameuptotheriverand9aplunge.Hishavingjumpedintothewater10manypeoplewithhorror.Soonheappearedinthemiddleoftheriver.Aloudshoutwentupfromthecrowdbutamomentlatertherewas11silence.Themanhaddisappearedunderthewater.Thousandsofeyes12ontheriverbutthemanwasdrowned.In1902acertainMissTaylordecidedtogooverthefallsinabarrel.Thereweredifferentkindsofpillowsinsidethebarreltopreventherfrom13.HavingexaminedthebarrelcarefullyMissTaylorgotin.Thebarrelwasclosedandthen14intothewater.Havingreachedthefallsitoverturnedandwasshotdownbytheterrible15ofthewater.WhenthebarrelwasfinallycaughtandopenedMissTaylorcameoutalive16withafrightenedlookinhereyes.Onceacrowdofvisitorssawarope17overfromonebankoftherivertotheother.Thentheysawaman18therope.ThemanwasanactorBlondin19.HemanagedtocrossNiagaraFallsonatightrope.Thepeopleonthebankweresurprisedathis20itsowell. 14
A.Recentarchaeologicalresearchhasfocusedonaphenomenonbarelynoticedbefore:extensivepatchesofrichblacksoilfoundalongthebanksandonterracesaboveallmajorriversintheAmazon.Somecoveranareaofmanyacresandareupto6feetdeep.Theyarethoughttohaveformedovermanycenturiesastheaccumulatedproductoforganicremainsleftbynativesettlements.ThesesoilsareusuallyfilledwithfragmentsofbustedceramicsandarenowbeingstudiedforcluestotheriseoftropicalforestcivilizationsintheAmazonBasin.Localfarmersregardtheblacksoilsasa"giftfromthepast"becausetheyarenaturallyfertileandhavetheabilitytosupportawiderangeofcrops. B.Secondlythereisatrulyimpressivediversityoflanguageswithseveralhundreddistincttonguesanddialects.ThisverbaldiversitymusthaveevolvedoverthousandsofyearsandimpliesanoccupationoftheAmazonbasinforatleast14000yearsafiguresupportedbyarchaeologicalevidence.TherockartintheAmazonBasinmaybeasoldashumanoccupationitself.Imagesarecarvedandpaintedonexposedrocknearrapidsandwaterfallswherefishingismostproductiveandincavesandrocksheltersclosetoarchaeologicalsites. C.Twofactorshavebeeninstrumentalinliftingtheveilofmisunderstanding.Firstisasurprisinglydiverserangeofceramicstyles.Recentresearchseemstoconfirmthatacreativeexplosionofstylesoccurredabout2000yearsago.ArchaeologicaldigsinthehighestreachesoftheUpperAmazonhavedemonstratedtheexistenceofawidespreadstyleofpaintinglargewatertightjarsinboldblackredandcreamdesigns.ThissamestylehasbeenfoundonanisleatthemouthoftheAmazonandappearstohaveitsoriginswheretheAmazonmeetstheoceanlaterspreadingacrossmuchoftheUpperAmazon.Thestyletranscendslocalandregionalculturesandpointstoconsiderableintercoursebetweensocietiesalongthevastrivernetwork. D.ThenativepeoplesoftheAmazoncannolongerbeseenasisolatedcommunitiesinthedepthsoftheforestordispersedalongrivers.Westillhavemuchtolearnabouttheirsocietiesbuttherainforestshouldnolongerbeseenasanuntouched"paradise". E.AmongthemostexcitingdiscoveriesarefuneraljarsdatingtoA.D.1400-1700foundincavesandrocksheltersnearthemouthoftheAmazon.Thebonesofmenwomenandchildrenwerepreservedinindividuallydedicatedvessels.Itseemsthatthesiteswerevisitedregularlyovertheyearsandnewjarsaddedasfamilymembersexpired.Theseburialsreflectthefamilytiesofancientsettlementsandtheirnurturingoflinksbetweenthelivingandthedead. F.PopulationcollapseandmovementalongtheprincipalriversoftheAmazonsystemhavecontributedtoaveilofmisunderstandingthathaslongcoveredtheculturalachievementsoftropicalforestsocieties.Diffusebandshuntingdeepintheforestinterioreventuallycametobeseenasthetypicaltropicalforestadaptation.SomuchsothatwhenarchaeologicalstudiesbeganinearnestatthemouthoftheAmazoninthe1950sscientistsarguedthatthesophisticatedculturetheywerediscoveringcouldnothaveoriginatedintheAmazonBasinitselfbutmusthavebeenderivedfrommoreadvancedcultureselsewhere.Theyimaginedthetropicalforesttobean"imitationparadise"unabletosupportmuchbeyondasimplehunting-and-gatheringwayoflife.Thismistakenideahasexertedapersistentinfluenceeversince. G.ThefutureoftheAmazonBasinisnowasubjectoffiercedebate.Knowledgeaboutthepasthasavitalroletoplayinplanninganddecisionmakingforthefuture.Archaeologypointstosuccessfulmethodsforadaptingtotheforestgroundedinpracticalexpertiseandempiricalknowledgeofthelimitationsandpossibilitiesofthisenvironment.Thesetechniquesforwisemanagementarebecomingamatterofglobalconcern. Order: 44
NiagaraisanIndianwordwhichmeans"roaringwater".IndeedtheroarofthefallingwaterofNiagaracanbeheard1adistanceof5kms.Imagine2ofwaterflowingoveracliff90feethighandyouwillgetanideaofthatterriblenoise.And3tremendouspowertheNiagaraRiverhas!Itmovesbigrocksaboutandthrowsthemintotheboilingwaterbelow.4agoanoldshipwithoutsinglepersononboardwasputinmid-stream.Itsaileddowntheriver5atoyboatwithgreatspeed.Havingreachedthefalltheshipdroppedintotheboilingwaternever6again.Thereweresomepeoplewhowantedtobecomefamous7swimmingacrossthemostdangerouspartoftheNiagaraRiver.OneofthemwasCaptainWebbwhosaidthathewouldtrytoswimcrosstheNiagarawhich8crowdsofpeople.OntheeveningofJuly1st1893CaptainWebbcameuptotheriverand9aplunge.Hishavingjumpedintothewater10manypeoplewithhorror.Soonheappearedinthemiddleoftheriver.Aloudshoutwentupfromthecrowdbutamomentlatertherewas11silence.Themanhaddisappearedunderthewater.Thousandsofeyes12ontheriverbutthemanwasdrowned.In1902acertainMissTaylordecidedtogooverthefallsinabarrel.Thereweredifferentkindsofpillowsinsidethebarreltopreventherfrom13.HavingexaminedthebarrelcarefullyMissTaylorgotin.Thebarrelwasclosedandthen14intothewater.Havingreachedthefallsitoverturnedandwasshotdownbytheterrible15ofthewater.WhenthebarrelwasfinallycaughtandopenedMissTaylorcameoutalive16withafrightenedlookinhereyes.Onceacrowdofvisitorssawarope17overfromonebankoftherivertotheother.Thentheysawaman18therope.ThemanwasanactorBlondin19.HemanagedtocrossNiagaraFallsonatightrope.Thepeopleonthebankweresurprisedathis20itsowell. 18
NiagaraisanIndianwordwhichmeans"roaringwater".IndeedtheroarofthefallingwaterofNiagaracanbeheard1adistanceof5kms.Imagine2ofwaterflowingoveracliff90feethighandyouwillgetanideaofthatterriblenoise.And3tremendouspowertheNiagaraRiverhas!Itmovesbigrocksaboutandthrowsthemintotheboilingwaterbelow.4agoanoldshipwithoutsinglepersononboardwasputinmid-stream.Itsaileddowntheriver5atoyboatwithgreatspeed.Havingreachedthefalltheshipdroppedintotheboilingwaternever6again.Thereweresomepeoplewhowantedtobecomefamous7swimmingacrossthemostdangerouspartoftheNiagaraRiver.OneofthemwasCaptainWebbwhosaidthathewouldtrytoswimcrosstheNiagarawhich8crowdsofpeople.OntheeveningofJuly1st1893CaptainWebbcameuptotheriverand9aplunge.Hishavingjumpedintothewater10manypeoplewithhorror.Soonheappearedinthemiddleoftheriver.Aloudshoutwentupfromthecrowdbutamomentlatertherewas11silence.Themanhaddisappearedunderthewater.Thousandsofeyes12ontheriverbutthemanwasdrowned.In1902acertainMissTaylordecidedtogooverthefallsinabarrel.Thereweredifferentkindsofpillowsinsidethebarreltopreventherfrom13.HavingexaminedthebarrelcarefullyMissTaylorgotin.Thebarrelwasclosedandthen14intothewater.Havingreachedthefallsitoverturnedandwasshotdownbytheterrible15ofthewater.WhenthebarrelwasfinallycaughtandopenedMissTaylorcameoutalive16withafrightenedlookinhereyes.Onceacrowdofvisitorssawarope17overfromonebankoftherivertotheother.Thentheysawaman18therope.ThemanwasanactorBlondin19.HemanagedtocrossNiagaraFallsonatightrope.Thepeopleonthebankweresurprisedathis20itsowell. 20
NiagaraisanIndianwordwhichmeans"roaringwater".IndeedtheroarofthefallingwaterofNiagaracanbeheard1adistanceof5kms.Imagine2ofwaterflowingoveracliff90feethighandyouwillgetanideaofthatterriblenoise.And3tremendouspowertheNiagaraRiverhas!Itmovesbigrocksaboutandthrowsthemintotheboilingwaterbelow.4agoanoldshipwithoutsinglepersononboardwasputinmid-stream.Itsaileddowntheriver5atoyboatwithgreatspeed.Havingreachedthefalltheshipdroppedintotheboilingwaternever6again.Thereweresomepeoplewhowantedtobecomefamous7swimmingacrossthemostdangerouspartoftheNiagaraRiver.OneofthemwasCaptainWebbwhosaidthathewouldtrytoswimcrosstheNiagarawhich8crowdsofpeople.OntheeveningofJuly1st1893CaptainWebbcameuptotheriverand9aplunge.Hishavingjumpedintothewater10manypeoplewithhorror.Soonheappearedinthemiddleoftheriver.Aloudshoutwentupfromthecrowdbutamomentlatertherewas11silence.Themanhaddisappearedunderthewater.Thousandsofeyes12ontheriverbutthemanwasdrowned.In1902acertainMissTaylordecidedtogooverthefallsinabarrel.Thereweredifferentkindsofpillowsinsidethebarreltopreventherfrom13.HavingexaminedthebarrelcarefullyMissTaylorgotin.Thebarrelwasclosedandthen14intothewater.Havingreachedthefallsitoverturnedandwasshotdownbytheterrible15ofthewater.WhenthebarrelwasfinallycaughtandopenedMissTaylorcameoutalive16withafrightenedlookinhereyes.Onceacrowdofvisitorssawarope17overfromonebankoftherivertotheother.Thentheysawaman18therope.ThemanwasanactorBlondin19.HemanagedtocrossNiagaraFallsonatightrope.Thepeopleonthebankweresurprisedathis20itsowell. 4
Itiswidelybelievedthatournever-endingquestformaterialgoodsispartofthebasiccharacterofhumanbeings.Accordingtothepopularbeliefwemaynotlikeitbutthere’slittlewecandoaboutit.Despiteitspopularitythisviewofhumannatureiswrong.Whilehumanbeingsmayhaveabasicdesiretostrivetowardssomethingthereisnothinginevitableaboutmaterialgoods.Therearenumerousexamplesofsocietiesinwhichthingshaveplayedahighlyrestrictedrule.InmedievalEuropetheacquisitionofgoodswasrelativelyunimportant.Thecommonpeoplewhoselivesweresurelypoorbymodernstandardsshowedstrongpreferencesforleisureratherthanmoney.Inthenineteenth-andearlytwentieth-centuryUnitedStatesthereisalsoconsiderableevidencethatmanyworkingpeoplealsoexhibitedarestrictedappetiteformaterialgoods.Materialismisnotabasictraitofhumannaturebutaspecificproductofcapitalism.Withthedevelopmentofthemarketsystemmaterialismspilledoverforthefirsttimebeyondthecirclesoftherich.Thegrowthofthemiddleclasscreatedalargegroupofpotentialbuyersandthepossibilitythatmassculturecouldbeorientedaroundmaterialgoods.Thisprocesscanbeseennotonlyinhistoricalexperiencesbutisnowgoingoninsomepartsofthedevelopingworldwherethegrowthofalargemiddleclasshascontributedtoextensivematerialismandthebreakdownoftraditionalvalues.IntheUnitedStatestheturningpointwasthe1920s—thepointatwhichthepsychologyofshortagegavewaytothepsychologyofabundance.Thiswasacrucialperiodforthedevelopmentofmodernmaterialism.Economyanddisciplinewereout;wasteandexcesswerein.Materialismflourished—bothasasocialideologyandintermsofhighratesofrealspending.Inthemidstofallthisbuyingwecandetecttheoriginsofmodernconsumerdiscontent.ThiswasthedecadeduringwhichtheAmericandreamorwhatwasthencalledtheAmericanstandardoflivingcapturedthenation’simagination.Butitwasalwayssomethingofanillusion.Americanscomplainedaboutitemstheycouldnotafford—despitethefactthatinthe1920smostfamilieshadtelephonesvirtuallyallhadpurchasedlifeinsurancetwo-thirdsownedtheirownhomesandtookvacationsandoverhalfhadmotorcars.ThediscontentexpressedbymanyAmericanswaspromoted—andtoacertainextentevencreated—bymanufacturers.Theexplosionofconsumercreditmadethetaskeasierasautomobilesradioselectricrefrigeratorswashingmachines—evenjewelryandforeigntravel—couldbepaidforininstallments.Bytheendofthe1920s60percentofcarsradiosandfurniturewerebeingpurchasedthisway.Theabilitytobuywithoutactuallyhavingmoneyhelpedencourageaclimateofinstantsatisfactionexpandingexpectationsandultimatelymaterialism.Accordingtothepassagethepracticeofinstallment______.
Scienceisawayofthinkingmuchmorethanitisabodyofknowledge.46Itsgoalistofindouthowtheworldworkstoseekwhatregularitiestheremaybetopenetratetotheconnectionsofthings—fromsubnuclearparticleswhichmaybetheconstituentsofallmattertolivingorganismsthehumansocialcommunityandhencetothecosmosasawhole.Ourintuitionisbynomeansaninfallibleguide.Ourperceptionsmaybedistortedbytrainingandprejudiceormerelybecauseofthelimitationsofthephenomenaoftheworld.47EvensostraightforwardaquestionaswhetherintheabsenceoffrictionapoundofleadfallsfasterthanagramoffluffwasansweredincorrectlybyAristotleandalmosteveryoneelsebeforethetimeofGalileo.Scienceisbasedonexperimentonawillingnesstochallengeolddogmaonanopennesstoseetheuniverseasitreallyis.Accordinglysciencesometimesrequirescourage—attheveryleastthecouragetoquestiontheconventionalwisdom. 48Beyondthisthemaintrickofscienceistoreallythinkofsomething:theshapeofcloudsandtheiroccasionalsharpbottomedgesatthesamealtitudeeverywhereinthesky;theformationofadewdroponaleaf;theoriginofanameoraword;thereasonforhumansocialcustoms—theincesttabooforexample;howitisthatalensinsunlightcanmakepaperburn;howa"walkingstick"gottolooksomuchlikeatwig;whytheMoonseemstofollowusaswewalk;whatpreventsusfromdiggingaholedowntothecenteroftheEarth;whatthedefinitionisof"down"onasphericalearth;howitispossibleforthebodytoconvertyesterday’slunchintotoday’smuscleandsinew;orhowfarisup—doestheuniversegoonforeverorifitdoesnotisthereanymeaningtothequestionofwhatliesontheothersideSomeofthesequestionsareprettyeasy.Othersespeciallythelastaremysteriestowhichnooneeventodayknowstheanswer.Theyarenaturalquestionstoask.49Everyculturehasposedsuchquestionsinonewayoranotherandalmostalwaystheproposedanswersareinthenatureof"JustSoStories"attemptedexplanationsdivorcedfromexperimentorevenfromcarefulcomparativeobservations. Butthescientificcastofmindexaminestheworldcriticallyasifmanyalternativeworldsmightexistasifotherthingsmightbeherewhicharenot.Thenweareforcedtoaskwhywhatweseeispresentandnotsomethingelse.WhyaretheSunandtheMoonandtheplanetsspheresWhynotpyramidsorcubesordodecahedraWhynotirregularjumblyshapesWhysosymmetricalworlds50Ifyouspendanytimespinninghypothesescheckingtoseewhethertheymakesensewhethertheyconformtowhatelseweknowthinkingoftestsyoucanposetosubstantiateordeflateyourhypothesesyouwillfindyourselfdoingscience.Andasyoucometopracticethishabitofthoughtmoreandmoreyouwillgetbetterandbetteratit. Ifyouspendanytimespinninghypothesescheckingtoseewhethertheymakesensewhethertheyconformtowhatelseweknowthinkingoftestsyoucanposetosubstantiateordeflateyourhypothesesyouwillfindyourselfdoingscience.
Allgreatwritersexpresstheirideasinanindividualway:itisoftenpossibletodeterminetheauthorshipofaliterarypassagefromthestyleinwhichitiswritten;46Manyauthorsfeelthattheconventionsofthewrittenlanguagehamperthemandtheyusewordsfreelywithlittleobservanceofacceptedgrammarandsentencestructureinordertoconveyvividlytheirfeelingsbeliefsandfantasies.Otherswithadeeprespectfortraditionalusageachieveastyleofclassicalclearnessandperfectionorachieveeffectsofvisualormusicalbeautybytheirmasteryofexistingformsenrichedbyasensitiveandadventurousvocabularyvividimageryandablendingofevocativevowelsandconsonants. Youngpeopleoftenfeeltheneedtoexperimentandasaresulttobreakawayfromthetraditionstheyhavebeentaught.Indealingwithaforeignlanguagehowevertheyhavetobearinmindtwoconditionsforexperiment.47Anygreatexperimentalartistisfullyfamiliarwiththeconventionsfromwhichhewishestobreakfree:heiscapableofachievementinestablishedformsbutfeelstheseareinadequatefortheexpressionofhisideas.Inthesecondplaceheisindisputablyanoutstandingartistwhohassomethingoriginaltoexpress;otherwisetheexperimentswillappearpretentiousevenchildish. Fewstudentscanachievesointimateanunderstandingofaforeignlanguagethattheycanexploreitsresourcesfreelyandexperimentally.Notallfeeltheneedtodoso.48Andinanycaseexaminationcandidatesneedtobecomethoroughlyacquaintedwithconventionalusageasitisasureknowledgeofacceptedformsthatexaminerslookfor. ThestudentundertakingaProficiencycourseshouldhavetheabilitytousesimpleEnglishcorrectlytoexpresseverydayfactsandideas.49Thisabilitytoexpressoneselfinaforeignlanguageonabasisofthinkinginthatlanguagewithoutreferencetoone’sownisessentialatallstagesoflearning.Studentswithextensiveexperienceintranslationwhohavehadlittlepracticeinusingtheforeignlanguagedirectlymustaboveallwriteverysimplyatfirstusingonlyeasyconstructionswhichtheyareconvincedarecorrectforgettingforthetimebeingtheirownlanguageandrigorouslyavoidingtranslatingfromit. Morecomplexformsmorevariedvocabularyandsentencestructureshouldevolvenaturallyinstepwiththestudent’sincreasingknowledgeofthelanguage.Thestudentintroducesacertainformofconstructiononlywhenheisthoroughlyfamiliarwithitandiscertainthatitisnormallyusedinthisway.Asheachievesadditionalconfidencehecanbegintotakeaninterestinuseofthelanguagetocreatediverseeffects.Hemaywanttoconveyimpressionsofsuspensecalmdignityhumorofmusicorpoetry.50Hewillmastertheartoflogicalexplanationofexactletterwritingofformalspeechesandnaturalconversationandofvividimpressionisticdescription.Buthewillstillwritewithinthelimitsofhisabilityandknowledge.AndasalearnerhewillstillbestudyingandobservingconventionalEnglishusageinallthathewrites. 46
NiagaraisanIndianwordwhichmeans"roaringwater".IndeedtheroarofthefallingwaterofNiagaracanbeheard1adistanceof5kms.Imagine2ofwaterflowingoveracliff90feethighandyouwillgetanideaofthatterriblenoise.And3tremendouspowertheNiagaraRiverhas!Itmovesbigrocksaboutandthrowsthemintotheboilingwaterbelow.4agoanoldshipwithoutsinglepersononboardwasputinmid-stream.Itsaileddowntheriver5atoyboatwithgreatspeed.Havingreachedthefalltheshipdroppedintotheboilingwaternever6again.Thereweresomepeoplewhowantedtobecomefamous7swimmingacrossthemostdangerouspartoftheNiagaraRiver.OneofthemwasCaptainWebbwhosaidthathewouldtrytoswimcrosstheNiagarawhich8crowdsofpeople.OntheeveningofJuly1st1893CaptainWebbcameuptotheriverand9aplunge.Hishavingjumpedintothewater10manypeoplewithhorror.Soonheappearedinthemiddleoftheriver.Aloudshoutwentupfromthecrowdbutamomentlatertherewas11silence.Themanhaddisappearedunderthewater.Thousandsofeyes12ontheriverbutthemanwasdrowned.In1902acertainMissTaylordecidedtogooverthefallsinabarrel.Thereweredifferentkindsofpillowsinsidethebarreltopreventherfrom13.HavingexaminedthebarrelcarefullyMissTaylorgotin.Thebarrelwasclosedandthen14intothewater.Havingreachedthefallsitoverturnedandwasshotdownbytheterrible15ofthewater.WhenthebarrelwasfinallycaughtandopenedMissTaylorcameoutalive16withafrightenedlookinhereyes.Onceacrowdofvisitorssawarope17overfromonebankoftherivertotheother.Thentheysawaman18therope.ThemanwasanactorBlondin19.HemanagedtocrossNiagaraFallsonatightrope.Thepeopleonthebankweresurprisedathis20itsowell. 6
Itiswidelybelievedthatournever-endingquestformaterialgoodsispartofthebasiccharacterofhumanbeings.Accordingtothepopularbeliefwemaynotlikeitbutthere’slittlewecandoaboutit.Despiteitspopularitythisviewofhumannatureiswrong.Whilehumanbeingsmayhaveabasicdesiretostrivetowardssomethingthereisnothinginevitableaboutmaterialgoods.Therearenumerousexamplesofsocietiesinwhichthingshaveplayedahighlyrestrictedrule.InmedievalEuropetheacquisitionofgoodswasrelativelyunimportant.Thecommonpeoplewhoselivesweresurelypoorbymodernstandardsshowedstrongpreferencesforleisureratherthanmoney.Inthenineteenth-andearlytwentieth-centuryUnitedStatesthereisalsoconsiderableevidencethatmanyworkingpeoplealsoexhibitedarestrictedappetiteformaterialgoods.Materialismisnotabasictraitofhumannaturebutaspecificproductofcapitalism.Withthedevelopmentofthemarketsystemmaterialismspilledoverforthefirsttimebeyondthecirclesoftherich.Thegrowthofthemiddleclasscreatedalargegroupofpotentialbuyersandthepossibilitythatmassculturecouldbeorientedaroundmaterialgoods.Thisprocesscanbeseennotonlyinhistoricalexperiencesbutisnowgoingoninsomepartsofthedevelopingworldwherethegrowthofalargemiddleclasshascontributedtoextensivematerialismandthebreakdownoftraditionalvalues.IntheUnitedStatestheturningpointwasthe1920s—thepointatwhichthepsychologyofshortagegavewaytothepsychologyofabundance.Thiswasacrucialperiodforthedevelopmentofmodernmaterialism.Economyanddisciplinewereout;wasteandexcesswerein.Materialismflourished—bothasasocialideologyandintermsofhighratesofrealspending.Inthemidstofallthisbuyingwecandetecttheoriginsofmodernconsumerdiscontent.ThiswasthedecadeduringwhichtheAmericandreamorwhatwasthencalledtheAmericanstandardoflivingcapturedthenation’simagination.Butitwasalwayssomethingofanillusion.Americanscomplainedaboutitemstheycouldnotafford—despitethefactthatinthe1920smostfamilieshadtelephonesvirtuallyallhadpurchasedlifeinsurancetwo-thirdsownedtheirownhomesandtookvacationsandoverhalfhadmotorcars.ThediscontentexpressedbymanyAmericanswaspromoted—andtoacertainextentevencreated—bymanufacturers.Theexplosionofconsumercreditmadethetaskeasierasautomobilesradioselectricrefrigeratorswashingmachines—evenjewelryandforeigntravel—couldbepaidforininstallments.Bytheendofthe1920s60percentofcarsradiosandfurniturewerebeingpurchasedthisway.Theabilitytobuywithoutactuallyhavingmoneyhelpedencourageaclimateofinstantsatisfactionexpandingexpectationsandultimatelymaterialism.Thedevelopmentofmodernmaterialismwaspromotedby______.
Forcenturiesexplorershaveriskedtheirlivesventuringintotheunknownforreasonsofeconomicbenefitandnationalglory.Followingthelunarmissionsoftheearly1970sMarsnowloomsashumanity’snextgreatunknownland.Butwithdubiousprospectsforshort-termfinancialreturnandwithinternationalcompetitioninspacearecedingmemoryitisclearthatimperativesotherthanprofitornationalpridewillhavetocompelhumanbeingstoleavetheirtracksontheplanet’sredsurface.WithMarsthescientificbenefitsareperhapshigherthantheyhaveeverbeen.TheissueofwhetherlifeeverexistedontheplanetandwhetheritpersiststothisdayhasbeenhighlightedbyaccumulatingevidencethatMarsoncehadabundantliquidwaterandbythecontroversyoversuggestionsthatfossilsofbacteriarodetoEarthonarockejectedfromMarsduringitsearlyhistory.AdefiniteansweraboutlifeonMarspastorpresentwouldgiveresearchersinvaluabledataabouttherangeofconditionsunderwhichaplanetcangeneratethecomplexchemistrythatleadstolife.TherevelationthatlifearoseindependentlyonMarsandonEarthwouldprovidethefirstconcreteclueinoneofthedeepestmysteriesinallofscience:howprevalentislifeinourgalaxyOneofthereasonswhytheideaofsendingpeopletoMarsstrikesachordinsomanypeopleisthatitisalreadypossible—theU.S.hasthemoneyandthefundamentaltechnologyneededtodoit.Moreimportantrecentdiscoveriesabouttheplanet’senvironmentinthedistantpasthavepresentedaclearandcompellingscientificincentiveforsendingpeople:tosearchforevidenceoflife.ThethesisthatliquidwaterwasoncestableonMarshasbeenstrengthenedbyaerialphotographstakenlastyearthatshowedwhatappearedtobeadrainagechannelcutdeeplybywaterflowingforhundredsifnotthousandsofyears.AthoroughhuntforanylifeonMarsthatmightbehangingon—despitethepresentdeficitofwater—wouldalsohavetobeundertakenbyhumansaccordingtosomeexperts.Suchlifewillbehiddenandprobablytiny.Findingitwillrequiresurveyingvasttractsofterritoryoneexpertexplains.Itwillrequiretheabilitytocoverlongdistancesandadapttodifferentconditions.Robotsmightbeuptothetasksometimeinthedistantfuturemakinghumanexplorersredundantheconcedes.ButrelyingonthemtosurveyMarsduringperiodicalmissionstotheplanetwouldtakeaverylongtime—decadesifnotcenturieshebelieves.Whichofthefollowingmaybethereasonforhumanity’sexploring
NiagaraisanIndianwordwhichmeans"roaringwater".IndeedtheroarofthefallingwaterofNiagaracanbeheard1adistanceof5kms.Imagine2ofwaterflowingoveracliff90feethighandyouwillgetanideaofthatterriblenoise.And3tremendouspowertheNiagaraRiverhas!Itmovesbigrocksaboutandthrowsthemintotheboilingwaterbelow.4agoanoldshipwithoutsinglepersononboardwasputinmid-stream.Itsaileddowntheriver5atoyboatwithgreatspeed.Havingreachedthefalltheshipdroppedintotheboilingwaternever6again.Thereweresomepeoplewhowantedtobecomefamous7swimmingacrossthemostdangerouspartoftheNiagaraRiver.OneofthemwasCaptainWebbwhosaidthathewouldtrytoswimcrosstheNiagarawhich8crowdsofpeople.OntheeveningofJuly1st1893CaptainWebbcameuptotheriverand9aplunge.Hishavingjumpedintothewater10manypeoplewithhorror.Soonheappearedinthemiddleoftheriver.Aloudshoutwentupfromthecrowdbutamomentlatertherewas11silence.Themanhaddisappearedunderthewater.Thousandsofeyes12ontheriverbutthemanwasdrowned.In1902acertainMissTaylordecidedtogooverthefallsinabarrel.Thereweredifferentkindsofpillowsinsidethebarreltopreventherfrom13.HavingexaminedthebarrelcarefullyMissTaylorgotin.Thebarrelwasclosedandthen14intothewater.Havingreachedthefallsitoverturnedandwasshotdownbytheterrible15ofthewater.WhenthebarrelwasfinallycaughtandopenedMissTaylorcameoutalive16withafrightenedlookinhereyes.Onceacrowdofvisitorssawarope17overfromonebankoftherivertotheother.Thentheysawaman18therope.ThemanwasanactorBlondin19.HemanagedtocrossNiagaraFallsonatightrope.Thepeopleonthebankweresurprisedathis20itsowell. 16
Althoughmanyfactorsaffecthumanhealthduringperiodsinspaceweightlessnessisthedominantandsinglemostimportantone.Thedirectandindirecteffectsofweightlessnessleadtoaseriesofrelatedresponses.Ultimatelythewholebodyfrombonestobrainkidneystobowelsreacts. Whenspacetravelersgraspthewalloftheirspacecraftandjerktheirbodiesbackandforththeysayitfeelsasthoughtheyarestationaryandthespacecraftismoving.Thereasonisbasedinourrelianceongravitytoperceiveoursurroundings. Thecontinuousanduniversalnatureofgravityremovesitfromourdailynoticebutourbodiesneverforget.Whetherwerealizeitornotwehaveevolvedalargenumberofsilentautomaticreactionstocopewiththeconstantstressoflivinginadownward-pullingworld.Onlywhenwedecreaseorincreasetheeffectiveforceofgravityonourbodiesdoourmindsperceiveit. Oursensesprovideaccurateinformationaboutthelocationofourcenterofmassandtherelativepositionsofourbodyparts.Ourbrainsintegratesignalsfromoureyesandearswithotherinformationfromtheorgansinourinnerearfromourmusclesandjointsandfromoursensesoftouchandpressure. Theapparatusoftheinnerearispartitionedintotwodistinctcomponents:circularfluid-filledtubesthatsensetheangleoftheheadandtwobagsfilledwithcalciumcrystalsembeddedinathickfluidwhichrespondtolinearmovement.Themovementofthecalciumcrystalssendsasignaltothebraintotellusthedirectionofgravity.Thisisnottheonlycuethebrainreceives.Nervesinthemusclesjointsandskin—particularlytheslainonthebottomofthefeet—respondtotheweightoflimbsegmentsandotherbodyparts. Removinggravitytransformsthesesignals.Theinnerearnolongerperceivesadownwardtendencywhentheheadmoves.Thelimbsnolongerhaveweightsomusclesarenolongerrequiredtocontractandrelaxintheusualwaytomaintainpostureandbringaboutmovement.Nervesthatrespondtotouchandpressureinthefeetandanklesnolongersignalthedirectionofdown.Theseandotherchangescontributetoorientationillusionssuchasafeelingthatthebodyorthespacecraftspontaneouslychangesdirection.In1961aRussianastronautreportedvividsensationsofbeingupsidedown;onespaceshuttlespecialistinastronomysaid"WhenthemainenginescutoffIimmediatelyfeltasthoughwehadinverted180degrees."Suchillusionscanrecurevenaftersometimeinspace. WhetherwerealizeitornotLine2ParA．3itrefers
Forcenturiesexplorershaveriskedtheirlivesventuringintotheunknownforreasonsofeconomicbenefitandnationalglory.Followingthelunarmissionsoftheearly1970sMarsnowloomsashumanity’snextgreatunknownland.Butwithdubiousprospectsforshort-termfinancialreturnandwithinternationalcompetitioninspacearecedingmemoryitisclearthatimperativesotherthanprofitornationalpridewillhavetocompelhumanbeingstoleavetheirtracksontheplanet’sredsurface.WithMarsthescientificbenefitsareperhapshigherthantheyhaveeverbeen.TheissueofwhetherlifeeverexistedontheplanetandwhetheritpersiststothisdayhasbeenhighlightedbyaccumulatingevidencethatMarsoncehadabundantliquidwaterandbythecontroversyoversuggestionsthatfossilsofbacteriarodetoEarthonarockejectedfromMarsduringitsearlyhistory.AdefiniteansweraboutlifeonMarspastorpresentwouldgiveresearchersinvaluabledataabouttherangeofconditionsunderwhichaplanetcangeneratethecomplexchemistrythatleadstolife.TherevelationthatlifearoseindependentlyonMarsandonEarthwouldprovidethefirstconcreteclueinoneofthedeepestmysteriesinallofscience:howprevalentislifeinourgalaxyOneofthereasonswhytheideaofsendingpeopletoMarsstrikesachordinsomanypeopleisthatitisalreadypossible—theU.S.hasthemoneyandthefundamentaltechnologyneededtodoit.Moreimportantrecentdiscoveriesabouttheplanet’senvironmentinthedistantpasthavepresentedaclearandcompellingscientificincentiveforsendingpeople:tosearchforevidenceoflife.ThethesisthatliquidwaterwasoncestableonMarshasbeenstrengthenedbyaerialphotographstakenlastyearthatshowedwhatappearedtobeadrainagechannelcutdeeplybywaterflowingforhundredsifnotthousandsofyears.AthoroughhuntforanylifeonMarsthatmightbehangingon—despitethepresentdeficitofwater—wouldalsohavetobeundertakenbyhumansaccordingtosomeexperts.Suchlifewillbehiddenandprobablytiny.Findingitwillrequiresurveyingvasttractsofterritoryoneexpertexplains.Itwillrequiretheabilitytocoverlongdistancesandadapttodifferentconditions.Robotsmightbeuptothetasksometimeinthedistantfuturemakinghumanexplorersredundantheconcedes.ButrelyingonthemtosurveyMarsduringperiodicalmissionstotheplanetwouldtakeaverylongtime—decadesifnotcenturieshebelieves.AccordingtotheexperttheexplorationoftheMarsbyrobots______.
TheAmazonRiverbasinboaststhelargestriversystemonEarthandharborsanecosystemthatistremendouslycomplex.EarlytravelersfromrenaissanceEuropewereoverwhelmedbytheirfirstencounters.In1531FranciscoPizarrooverthrewtheIncanempireremovingtheemperorfromhisthroneandtakingforSpaintheIncanimperialtreasures.AdecadelaterhisyoungerbrotherventuredeastfromthehighplateauoftheAndesMountainsinpursuitofthefamouscitiesofgoldandspicesthoughttobehiddeninthejungleforest.Goingdowntherivertheexpeditionsoonexhausteditssuppliesandasmallgroupwassentaheadtosearchforfood.EightmonthslaterthisgroupemergedatthemouthoftheAmazonhavingmadewhatwouldprovetobethefirstdescentofthelengthoftheriver.AmissionarywhoaccompaniedthegroupsentaremarkableaccountoftheiradventurestothePopeincludingmentionofthegreatsignaldrumsthatsoundedfromvillagetovillagefarinadvanceoftheirarrivalwarningofthecomingoftheEuropeanstrangers.Hismanuscriptrecordsseeinginnumerablesettlementsalongtheriver—ononedaytheypassedmorethantwentyvillagesinsuccessionandsomeofthesearesaidtohavestretchedforsixmilesormore.Suchreportshaveintriguedscientistseversincefortheydescribedensepopulationsandlargefederationsoftribeswhichifverifiedwouldbeentirelyatoddswithmodernstereotypesofhiddenthinlyscatteredtribesscratchingoutanuncertainexistence.Beginninginthelateseventeenth-centurythesuccessorstothefirstexplorersrecordedandcollectedmanyoftheeverydayobjectsfashionedfromwoodandotherorganicmaterialsthatusuallyrotinatropicalclimate.SuchcollectionshousedinEuropeanmuseumspreserveawindowintoculturesthatweresoontoexperiencehugechangesbroughtaboutbyforeigndiseasesandcruelabuseatthehandsofEuropeans.PopulationcollapseandmovementalongtheprincipalriversoftheAmazonsystemhavecontributedtoaveilofmisunderstandingthathaslongcoveredtheculturalachievementsoftropicalforestsocieties.Diffusebandshuntingdeepintheforestinterioreventuallycametobeseenasthetypicaltropicalforestadaptation.SomuchsothatwhenarchaeologicalstudiesbeganinearnestatthemouthoftheAmazoninthe1950’sscientistsarguedthatthesophisticatedculturetheywerediscoveringcouldnothaveoriginatedintheAmazonBasinitselfbutmusthavebeenderivedfrommoreadvancedcultureselsewhere.Theyimaginedthetropicalforesttobeanimitationparadiseunabletosupportmuchbeyondasimplehunting-and-gatheringwayoflife.Thismistakenideahasexertedapersistentinfluenceeversince.ThismistakenideaLine10Par
NiagaraisanIndianwordwhichmeans"roaringwater".IndeedtheroarofthefallingwaterofNiagaracanbeheard1adistanceof5kms.Imagine2ofwaterflowingoveracliff90feethighandyouwillgetanideaofthatterriblenoise.And3tremendouspowertheNiagaraRiverhas!Itmovesbigrocksaboutandthrowsthemintotheboilingwaterbelow.4agoanoldshipwithoutsinglepersononboardwasputinmid-stream.Itsaileddowntheriver5atoyboatwithgreatspeed.Havingreachedthefalltheshipdroppedintotheboilingwaternever6again.Thereweresomepeoplewhowantedtobecomefamous7swimmingacrossthemostdangerouspartoftheNiagaraRiver.OneofthemwasCaptainWebbwhosaidthathewouldtrytoswimcrosstheNiagarawhich8crowdsofpeople.OntheeveningofJuly1st1893CaptainWebbcameuptotheriverand9aplunge.Hishavingjumpedintothewater10manypeoplewithhorror.Soonheappearedinthemiddleoftheriver.Aloudshoutwentupfromthecrowdbutamomentlatertherewas11silence.Themanhaddisappearedunderthewater.Thousandsofeyes12ontheriverbutthemanwasdrowned.In1902acertainMissTaylordecidedtogooverthefallsinabarrel.Thereweredifferentkindsofpillowsinsidethebarreltopreventherfrom13.HavingexaminedthebarrelcarefullyMissTaylorgotin.Thebarrelwasclosedandthen14intothewater.Havingreachedthefallsitoverturnedandwasshotdownbytheterrible15ofthewater.WhenthebarrelwasfinallycaughtandopenedMissTaylorcameoutalive16withafrightenedlookinhereyes.Onceacrowdofvisitorssawarope17overfromonebankoftherivertotheother.Thentheysawaman18therope.ThemanwasanactorBlondin19.HemanagedtocrossNiagaraFallsonatightrope.Thepeopleonthebankweresurprisedathis20itsowell. 2
Scienceisawayofthinkingmuchmorethanitisabodyofknowledge.46Itsgoalistofindouthowtheworldworkstoseekwhatregularitiestheremaybetopenetratetotheconnectionsofthings—fromsubnuclearparticleswhichmaybetheconstituentsofallmattertolivingorganismsthehumansocialcommunityandhencetothecosmosasawhole.Ourintuitionisbynomeansaninfallibleguide.Ourperceptionsmaybedistortedbytrainingandprejudiceormerelybecauseofthelimitationsofthephenomenaoftheworld.47EvensostraightforwardaquestionaswhetherintheabsenceoffrictionapoundofleadfallsfasterthanagramoffluffwasansweredincorrectlybyAristotleandalmosteveryoneelsebeforethetimeofGalileo.Scienceisbasedonexperimentonawillingnesstochallengeolddogmaonanopennesstoseetheuniverseasitreallyis.Accordinglysciencesometimesrequirescourage—attheveryleastthecouragetoquestiontheconventionalwisdom. 48Beyondthisthemaintrickofscienceistoreallythinkofsomething:theshapeofcloudsandtheiroccasionalsharpbottomedgesatthesamealtitudeeverywhereinthesky;theformationofadewdroponaleaf;theoriginofanameoraword;thereasonforhumansocialcustoms—theincesttabooforexample;howitisthatalensinsunlightcanmakepaperburn;howa"walkingstick"gottolooksomuchlikeatwig;whytheMoonseemstofollowusaswewalk;whatpreventsusfromdiggingaholedowntothecenteroftheEarth;whatthedefinitionisof"down"onasphericalearth;howitispossibleforthebodytoconvertyesterday’slunchintotoday’smuscleandsinew;orhowfarisup—doestheuniversegoonforeverorifitdoesnotisthereanymeaningtothequestionofwhatliesontheothersideSomeofthesequestionsareprettyeasy.Othersespeciallythelastaremysteriestowhichnooneeventodayknowstheanswer.Theyarenaturalquestionstoask.49Everyculturehasposedsuchquestionsinonewayoranotherandalmostalwaystheproposedanswersareinthenatureof"JustSoStories"attemptedexplanationsdivorcedfromexperimentorevenfromcarefulcomparativeobservations. Butthescientificcastofmindexaminestheworldcriticallyasifmanyalternativeworldsmightexistasifotherthingsmightbeherewhicharenot.Thenweareforcedtoaskwhywhatweseeispresentandnotsomethingelse.WhyaretheSunandtheMoonandtheplanetsspheresWhynotpyramidsorcubesordodecahedraWhynotirregularjumblyshapesWhysosymmetricalworlds50Ifyouspendanytimespinninghypothesescheckingtoseewhethertheymakesensewhethertheyconformtowhatelseweknowthinkingoftestsyoucanposetosubstantiateordeflateyourhypothesesyouwillfindyourselfdoingscience.Andasyoucometopracticethishabitofthoughtmoreandmoreyouwillgetbetterandbetteratit. Itsgoalistofindouthowtheworldworkstoseekwhatregularitiestheremaybetopenetratetotheconnectionsofthings—fromsubnuclearparticleswhichmaybetheconstituentsofallmattertolivingorganismsthehumansocialcommunityandhencetothecosmosasawhole.
Scienceisawayofthinkingmuchmorethanitisabodyofknowledge.46Itsgoalistofindouthowtheworldworkstoseekwhatregularitiestheremaybetopenetratetotheconnectionsofthings—fromsubnuclearparticleswhichmaybetheconstituentsofallmattertolivingorganismsthehumansocialcommunityandhencetothecosmosasawhole.Ourintuitionisbynomeansaninfallibleguide.Ourperceptionsmaybedistortedbytrainingandprejudiceormerelybecauseofthelimitationsofthephenomenaoftheworld.47EvensostraightforwardaquestionaswhetherintheabsenceoffrictionapoundofleadfallsfasterthanagramoffluffwasansweredincorrectlybyAristotleandalmosteveryoneelsebeforethetimeofGalileo.Scienceisbasedonexperimentonawillingnesstochallengeolddogmaonanopennesstoseetheuniverseasitreallyis.Accordinglysciencesometimesrequirescourage—attheveryleastthecouragetoquestiontheconventionalwisdom. 48Beyondthisthemaintrickofscienceistoreallythinkofsomething:theshapeofcloudsandtheiroccasionalsharpbottomedgesatthesamealtitudeeverywhereinthesky;theformationofadewdroponaleaf;theoriginofanameoraword;thereasonforhumansocialcustoms—theincesttabooforexample;howitisthatalensinsunlightcanmakepaperburn;howa"walkingstick"gottolooksomuchlikeatwig;whytheMoonseemstofollowusaswewalk;whatpreventsusfromdiggingaholedowntothecenteroftheEarth;whatthedefinitionisof"down"onasphericalearth;howitispossibleforthebodytoconvertyesterday’slunchintotoday’smuscleandsinew;orhowfarisup—doestheuniversegoonforeverorifitdoesnotisthereanymeaningtothequestionofwhatliesontheothersideSomeofthesequestionsareprettyeasy.Othersespeciallythelastaremysteriestowhichnooneeventodayknowstheanswer.Theyarenaturalquestionstoask.49Everyculturehasposedsuchquestionsinonewayoranotherandalmostalwaystheproposedanswersareinthenatureof"JustSoStories"attemptedexplanationsdivorcedfromexperimentorevenfromcarefulcomparativeobservations. Butthescientificcastofmindexaminestheworldcriticallyasifmanyalternativeworldsmightexistasifotherthingsmightbeherewhicharenot.Thenweareforcedtoaskwhywhatweseeispresentandnotsomethingelse.WhyaretheSunandtheMoonandtheplanetsspheresWhynotpyramidsorcubesordodecahedraWhynotirregularjumblyshapesWhysosymmetricalworlds50Ifyouspendanytimespinninghypothesescheckingtoseewhethertheymakesensewhethertheyconformtowhatelseweknowthinkingoftestsyoucanposetosubstantiateordeflateyourhypothesesyouwillfindyourselfdoingscience.Andasyoucometopracticethishabitofthoughtmoreandmoreyouwillgetbetterandbetteratit. Beyondthisthemaintrickofscienceistoreallythinkofsomething:theshapeofcloudsandtheiroccasionalsharpbottomedgesatthesamealtitudeeverywhereinthesky;theformationofadewdroponaleaf;theoriginofanameoraword;thereasonforhumansocialcustoms—theincesttabooforexample
NiagaraisanIndianwordwhichmeans"roaringwater".IndeedtheroarofthefallingwaterofNiagaracanbeheard1adistanceof5kms.Imagine2ofwaterflowingoveracliff90feethighandyouwillgetanideaofthatterriblenoise.And3tremendouspowertheNiagaraRiverhas!Itmovesbigrocksaboutandthrowsthemintotheboilingwaterbelow.4agoanoldshipwithoutsinglepersononboardwasputinmid-stream.Itsaileddowntheriver5atoyboatwithgreatspeed.Havingreachedthefalltheshipdroppedintotheboilingwaternever6again.Thereweresomepeoplewhowantedtobecomefamous7swimmingacrossthemostdangerouspartoftheNiagaraRiver.OneofthemwasCaptainWebbwhosaidthathewouldtrytoswimcrosstheNiagarawhich8crowdsofpeople.OntheeveningofJuly1st1893CaptainWebbcameuptotheriverand9aplunge.Hishavingjumpedintothewater10manypeoplewithhorror.Soonheappearedinthemiddleoftheriver.Aloudshoutwentupfromthecrowdbutamomentlatertherewas11silence.Themanhaddisappearedunderthewater.Thousandsofeyes12ontheriverbutthemanwasdrowned.In1902acertainMissTaylordecidedtogooverthefallsinabarrel.Thereweredifferentkindsofpillowsinsidethebarreltopreventherfrom13.HavingexaminedthebarrelcarefullyMissTaylorgotin.Thebarrelwasclosedandthen14intothewater.Havingreachedthefallsitoverturnedandwasshotdownbytheterrible15ofthewater.WhenthebarrelwasfinallycaughtandopenedMissTaylorcameoutalive16withafrightenedlookinhereyes.Onceacrowdofvisitorssawarope17overfromonebankoftherivertotheother.Thentheysawaman18therope.ThemanwasanactorBlondin19.HemanagedtocrossNiagaraFallsonatightrope.Thepeopleonthebankweresurprisedathis20itsowell. 12
Althoughmanyfactorsaffecthumanhealthduringperiodsinspaceweightlessnessisthedominantandsinglemostimportantone.Thedirectandindirecteffectsofweightlessnessleadtoaseriesofrelatedresponses.Ultimatelythewholebodyfrombonestobrainkidneystobowelsreacts.Whenspacetravelersgraspthewalloftheirspacecraftandjerktheirbodiesbackandforththeysayitfeelsasthoughtheyarestationaryandthespacecraftismoving.Thereasonisbasedinourrelianceongravitytoperceiveoursurroundings.Thecontinuousanduniversalnatureofgravityremovesitfromourdailynoticebutourbodiesneverforget.Whetherwerealizeitornotwehaveevolvedalargenumberofsilentautomaticreactionstocopewiththeconstantstressoflivinginadownward-pullingworld.Onlywhenwedecreaseorincreasetheeffectiveforceofgravityonourbodiesdoourmindsperceiveit.Oursensesprovideaccurateinformationaboutthelocationofourcenterofmassandtherelativepositionsofourbodyparts.Ourbrainsintegratesignalsfromoureyesandearswithotherinformationfromtheorgansinourinnerearfromourmusclesandjointsandfromoursensesoftouchandpressure.Theapparatusoftheinnerearispartitionedintotwodistinctcomponents:circularfluid-filledtubesthatsensetheangleoftheheadandtwobagsfilledwithcalciumcrystalsembeddedinathickfluidwhichrespondtolinearmovement.Themovementofthecalciumcrystalssendsasignaltothebraintotellusthedirectionofgravity.Thisisnottheonlycuethebrainreceives.Nervesinthemusclesjointsandskin—particularlytheslainonthebottomofthefeet—respondtotheweightoflimbsegmentsandotherbodyparts.Removinggravitytransformsthesesignals.Theinnerearnolongerperceivesadownwardtendencywhentheheadmoves.Thelimbsnolongerhaveweightsomusclesarenolongerrequiredtocontractandrelaxintheusualwaytomaintainpostureandbringaboutmovement.Nervesthatrespondtotouchandpressureinthefeetandanklesnolongersignalthedirectionofdown.Theseandotherchangescontributetoorientationillusionssuchasafeelingthatthebodyorthespacecraftspontaneouslychangesdirection.In1961aRussianastronautreportedvividsensationsofbeingupsidedown;onespaceshuttlespecialistinastronomysaidWhenthemainenginescutoffIimmediatelyfeltasthoughwehadinverted180degrees.Suchillusionscanrecurevenaftersometimeinspace.Thefunctionofapparatusoftheinnerearis______.
TheAmazonRiverbasinboaststhelargestriversystemonEarthandharborsanecosystemthatistremendouslycomplex.EarlytravelersfromrenaissanceEuropewereoverwhelmedbytheirfirstencounters.In1531FranciscoPizarrooverthrewtheIncanempireremovingtheemperorfromhisthroneandtakingforSpaintheIncanimperialtreasures.AdecadelaterhisyoungerbrotherventuredeastfromthehighplateauoftheAndesMountainsinpursuitofthefamouscitiesofgoldandspicesthoughttobehiddeninthejungleforest.Goingdowntherivertheexpeditionsoonexhausteditssuppliesandasmallgroupwassentaheadtosearchforfood.EightmonthslaterthisgroupemergedatthemouthoftheAmazonhavingmadewhatwouldprovetobethefirstdescentofthelengthoftheriver.AmissionarywhoaccompaniedthegroupsentaremarkableaccountoftheiradventurestothePopeincludingmentionofthegreatsignaldrumsthatsoundedfromvillagetovillagefarinadvanceoftheirarrivalwarningofthecomingoftheEuropeanstrangers.Hismanuscriptrecordsseeinginnumerablesettlementsalongtheriver—ononedaytheypassedmorethantwentyvillagesinsuccessionandsomeofthesearesaidtohavestretchedforsixmilesormore.Suchreportshaveintriguedscientistseversincefortheydescribedensepopulationsandlargefederationsoftribeswhichifverifiedwouldbeentirelyatoddswithmodernstereotypesofhiddenthinlyscatteredtribesscratchingoutanuncertainexistence.Beginninginthelateseventeenth-centurythesuccessorstothefirstexplorersrecordedandcollectedmanyoftheeverydayobjectsfashionedfromwoodandotherorganicmaterialsthatusuallyrotinatropicalclimate.SuchcollectionshousedinEuropeanmuseumspreserveawindowintoculturesthatweresoontoexperiencehugechangesbroughtaboutbyforeigndiseasesandcruelabuseatthehandsofEuropeans.PopulationcollapseandmovementalongtheprincipalriversoftheAmazonsystemhavecontributedtoaveilofmisunderstandingthathaslongcoveredtheculturalachievementsoftropicalforestsocieties.Diffusebandshuntingdeepintheforestinterioreventuallycametobeseenasthetypicaltropicalforestadaptation.SomuchsothatwhenarchaeologicalstudiesbeganinearnestatthemouthoftheAmazoninthe1950’sscientistsarguedthatthesophisticatedculturetheywerediscoveringcouldnothaveoriginatedintheAmazonBasinitselfbutmusthavebeenderivedfrommoreadvancedcultureselsewhere.Theyimaginedthetropicalforesttobeanimitationparadiseunabletosupportmuchbeyondasimplehunting-and-gatheringwayoflife.Thismistakenideahasexertedapersistentinfluenceeversince.Fromthemissionary’smanuscriptwemayinferthat______.
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