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益火之源以消阴翳的治法最适用于???
实热证
虚热证
虚寒证
实寒证
以上均不是
益火之源以消阴翳的治法适用于病变此种治法即内经所谓
益火之源以消阴翳适用于
实寒证
虚寒证
实热证
虚热证
寒热错杂证
益火之源以消阴翳的治法适用于
实寒证
实热证
虚寒证
虚热证
阴阳两虚证
益火之源以消阴翳的治法适用于证内经称之为
益火之源以消阴翳的治法适用于
阴虚阳亢
阴阳两虚
阳盛伤阴
阴盛伤阳
阳虚阴盛
益火之源以消阴翳的治法适用于
实寒证
实热证
虚寒证
虚热证
益火之源以消阴翳的治法适用于
实热证
虚热证
虚寒证
实寒证
寒热错杂
益火之源以消阴翳适用于治疗
实热证
实寒证
阳虚证
阴虚证
阴阳俱损证
益火之源以消阴翳的治法适用于
阴虚则热
阳虚则寒
通因通用
塞因塞用
寒因寒用
益火之源以消阴翳的治法最适用于
虚热证
实寒证
实热证
虚寒证
虚实夹杂证
适用于益火之源以消阴翳的治法是
实寒证
实热证
虚寒证
虚热证
益火之源以消阴翳适用于
阳偏胜
阳偏衰
阴偏胜
阴偏衰
阴阳两虚
益火之源以消阴翳的治法适用于
实热证
虚热证
虚寒证
实寒证
益火之源以消阴翳的治疗原则适用于
阳虚之寒证
阴盛之寒证
阴盛伤阳之证
阴损及阳证
益火之源以消阴翳的治法适用于
阴虚则热
阳虚则寒
阴阳两虚
阴盛格阳
阳盛格阴
益火之源以消阴翳适用于
实寒证
虚寒证
实热证
虚热证
寒热错杂证
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Congressisnowdeliberatinglegislativeandbudgetarychangesthatwoulddramaticallyredefinethenation’sresponsibilitiesfortheleastadvantaged.Debateabouttheseresponsibilitiesshouldbewelcomedandnewideasgivencarefulconsideration.ItisnotwritteninstoneorintheConstitutionthatthefederalgovernmentneedstotakecareofthepoor.1Currentprogramsarewidelyviewedasdeficientinlargepartbecausetheyareperceivedasencouragingdependencyandthedissolutionofthefamily.Insomeareasthefederalrolehasbecometoointrusive.Andwithoutnewtaxesmoneyisinshortsupply.Returningresponsibilitytothestateswithatie-offgrantfromthefederalgovernmenttoeasethetransitionisseenbymanyasthesolution.Inmyownviewargumentsthatcurrentproposalsarethebestmeansofdealingwiththeseproblemsaresomewhatdisingenuous.2AsmanyhavearguedtheseproposalscouldmoreaccuratelybedescribedasaTrojanhorsedesignedtodismantlethewelfarestatethathasexistedforthepast60years.Iftheobjectiveistoencourageworkandmarriagethesereformssendtherightsignalsbutmaydisappointinpractice.Iftheobjectiveistoprovidestateswithgreaterflexibilitythesolutionisastreamlinedwaiverprocessandothermodestreforms.3Statesalreadyhaveagreatdealofflexibilityandcouldreadilybegivenmorewithinaframeworkthatestablishesminimumprotectionsforthepoorandaccountabilityforthepublic’smoney.Iftheobjectiveistoreducethedeficitthiscouldbeachievedwithoutcuttingsodeeplyintoprogramsthathelpthemostvulnerable.Thepoorest20percentofthepopulationnowreceivesroughly4percentofallincomeintheUnitedStates.Anydeficitreductionpackagethatasksthemtopaymorethan4percentofthetotalburdenisarguablyunfair.Yetchancesarethattheywillenduppayingfarmorethanthis.Deficitreductionisaworthygoalbutnumeroustaxsubsidiesandentitlementprogramscouldbetappedbeforelow-incomeprogramswerecut.4Asitissafety-netprogramsarebeingrestructuredinwaysthatnotonlyyieldfederalsavingsbutalsopromiselessstateeffortaswell.Finallyiftheobjectiveistoreducepovertywithoutencouragingdependencythemostimportantthingthatgovernmentcandoistoassistlow-incomeworkingfamilieswithsuchmeasuresastheEITCchildcaresubsidizedhealthinsuranceandadjustmentsintheminimumwage.5Ifpersonalcommitmentstoworkandfamilyarethesurestwayoutofpovertyastheyhavebeeninthepastthenthesework-orientedmeasuresarethebestwaytokeepthosewhoplaybytherulesfromfallingfurtherbehind.
1Idon’tknowanysuccessfulwomenwhohaven’thadapowerfulsponsorintheirorganizationtogivethemtheirfirstbigbreaksaysAvivahWittenberg-Coxthebossof20-firstaconsultancythathelpscompaniesputmorewomenintoseniorjobs.Thatsentimentisechoedbymanypeoplewhoworkinthisfield.ButwhydowomenneedsomuchhelpManymenwhoclimbthecorporateladderhavesponsorstoo.Indeedtheyfinditeasierthanwomentopersuadeaseniorcolleaguetosponsorthem.Butwomenneedhelpmorebecausetheyaregenerallymorereluctanttopromotethemselves.Theyarealsolesslikelytobuildupusefulnetworksofcontacts.2Thatmayhelptoexplainwhywomenalthoughtheynowenterwhite-collarjobsinmuchthesamenumbersasmeninmanycountriesstillfinditsohardtogetanywhereneartheexecutivesuite.AnewreportSponsorEffect:UKproducedbytheCentreforTalentInnovationCTIaNewYorkthink-tankoffersadetailedpictureofthefemaletalentpipelineinBritainbasedonasurveyofabout2500graduateemployeesmostlyoflargecompanies.3ItnotesthatalthoughwomeninBritainaccountfor57%ofnewrecruitstowhite-collarjobstheymakeupjust17%ofexecutivedirectorsandamere4%ofchiefexecutivesoftheFTSE’s100biggestcompanies.Itisnotthatthewomenlackambitionsaysthereport.Nolessthan79%ofseniorwomeninthesamplesaidtheyaspiredtoatopjoband91%werekeentobepromoted.4Norsaytheauthorsaretheynecessarilyheldbackbyfamilyresponsibilities:nearlytwoinfiveofthoseaged40oroverhadnochildren.Threeinfiveoftheover-40sdidhavechildrenandtalentedwomenwhoquitworktoraisekidsarenotincludedinthesample.Stillthesurvey’smainfindingisstriking.5Only16%ofthesamplehadsponsorsdefinedaspeopleseverallevelsabovethemwhogivethemcareeradviceintroducethemtocontactsandhelpthemgetpromotions.Havingasponsordramaticallyimprovesawoman’scareerprospects.
1Idon’tknowanysuccessfulwomenwhohaven’thadapowerfulsponsorintheirorganizationtogivethemtheirfirstbigbreaksaysAvivahWittenberg-Coxthebossof20-firstaconsultancythathelpscompaniesputmorewomenintoseniorjobs.Thatsentimentisechoedbymanypeoplewhoworkinthisfield.ButwhydowomenneedsomuchhelpManymenwhoclimbthecorporateladderhavesponsorstoo.Indeedtheyfinditeasierthanwomentopersuadeaseniorcolleaguetosponsorthem.Butwomenneedhelpmorebecausetheyaregenerallymorereluctanttopromotethemselves.Theyarealsolesslikelytobuildupusefulnetworksofcontacts.2Thatmayhelptoexplainwhywomenalthoughtheynowenterwhite-collarjobsinmuchthesamenumbersasmeninmanycountriesstillfinditsohardtogetanywhereneartheexecutivesuite.AnewreportSponsorEffect:UKproducedbytheCentreforTalentInnovationCTIaNewYorkthink-tankoffersadetailedpictureofthefemaletalentpipelineinBritainbasedonasurveyofabout2500graduateemployeesmostlyoflargecompanies.3ItnotesthatalthoughwomeninBritainaccountfor57%ofnewrecruitstowhite-collarjobstheymakeupjust17%ofexecutivedirectorsandamere4%ofchiefexecutivesoftheFTSE’s100biggestcompanies.Itisnotthatthewomenlackambitionsaysthereport.Nolessthan79%ofseniorwomeninthesamplesaidtheyaspiredtoatopjoband91%werekeentobepromoted.4Norsaytheauthorsaretheynecessarilyheldbackbyfamilyresponsibilities:nearlytwoinfiveofthoseaged40oroverhadnochildren.Threeinfiveoftheover-40sdidhavechildrenandtalentedwomenwhoquitworktoraisekidsarenotincludedinthesample.Stillthesurvey’smainfindingisstriking.5Only16%ofthesamplehadsponsorsdefinedaspeopleseverallevelsabovethemwhogivethemcareeradviceintroducethemtocontactsandhelpthemgetpromotions.Havingasponsordramaticallyimprovesawoman’scareerprospects.
Personalityistoalargeextentinherent—A-typeparentsusuallybringaboutA-typeoffspring.1Buttheenvironmentmustalsohaveaprofoundeffectsinceifcompetitionisimportanttotheparentsitislikelytobecomeamajorfactorinthelivesoftheirchildren.OneplacewherechildrensoakupAcharacteristicsisschoolwhichisbyitsverynatureahighlycompetitiveinstitution.Toomanyschoolsadoptthewinatallcostsmoralstandardandmeasuretheirsuccessbysportingachievements.2Thecurrentpassionformakingchildrencompeteagainsttheirclassmatesoragainsttheclockproducesatwo-layersysteminwhichcompetitiveA-typesseeminsomewaybetterthantheirB-typefellows.Beingtookeentowincanhavedangerousconsequences:rememberthatPheidippidesthefirstmarathonrunnerdroppeddeadsecondsaftersaying:Rejoiceweconquer!Byfartheworstformofcompetitioninschoolsisthedisproportionateemphasisonexaminations.Itisarareschoolthatallowspupilstoconcentrateonthosethingstheydowell.3Themeritsofcompetitionbyexaminationaresomewhatquestionablebutcompetitioninthecertainknowledgeoffailureispositivelyharmful.ObviouslyitisneitherpracticalnordesirablethatallAyoungsterschangeintoB’s.4Theworldneedstypesandschoolshaveanimportantdutytotrytofitachild’spersonalitytohispossiblefutureemployment.Itistopmanagement.Ifthepreoccupationofschoolswithacademicworkwaslessenedmoretimemightbespentteachingchildrensurervalues.5Perhapsselectionforthecaringprofessionsespeciallymedicinecouldbemadelessbygoodgradesinchemistryandmorebysuchconsiderationsassensitivityandsympathy.ItissurelyamistaketochooseourdoctorsexclusivelyfromA-typestock.B’sareimportantandshouldbeencouraged.
1WiththeextensionofdemocraticrightsinthefirsthalfofthenineteenthcenturyandtheensuingdeclineoftheFederalistestablishmentanewconceptionofeducationbegantoemerge.Educationwasnolongeraconfirmationofapre-existingstatusbutaninstrumentintheacquisitionofhigherstatus.Foranewgenerationofupwardlymobilestudentsthegoalofeducationwasnottopreparethemtolivecomfortablyintheworldintowhichtheyhadbeenbornbuttoteachnewvirtuesandskillsthatwouldpropelthemintoadifferentandbetterworld.2Educationbecametraining;andthestudentwasnolongerthegentleman-in-waitingbutthe.journeymanapprenticeforupwardmobility.Inthenineteenthcenturyacollegeeducationbegantobeseenasawaytogetaheadintheworld.Thefoundingoftheland-grantcollegesopenedthedoorsofhighereducationtopoorbutaspiringboysfromnon-Anglo-Saxonworking-classandlower-middle-classbackgrounds.3Themythofthepoorboywhoworkedhiswaythroughcollegetosuccessdrewmillionsofpoorboystothenewcampuses.Andwiththisshifteducationbecamemorevocational:itsobjectwastheacquisitionofpracticalskillsandusefulinformation.4Forthegentleman-in-waitingvirtueconsistedaboveallingraceandstyleindoingwellwhatwasappropriatetohisposition;educationwasmerelyawayofacquiringpolish.Andvicewasmanifestedingracelessnessawkwardnessinbehavinginappropriatelydiscourteouslyorostentatiously.Fortheapprenticehowevervirtuewasevidencedinsuccessthroughhardwork.Therequisitequalitiesofcharacterwerenotgraceorstylebutdrivedeterminationandasharpeyeforopportunity.Whilecasualliberalityandevenprodigalitycharacterizedthegentlemanfrugalitythriftandself-controlcametodistinguishthenewapprentice.5Andwhilethegentlemandidnotaspiretoahigherstationbecausehisstationwasalreadyhightheapprenticewascontinuallybecomingstrivingstrugglingupward.Failurefortheapprenticemeantstandingstillnotrising.
Scholasticthinkersheldawidevarietyofdoctrinesinbothphilosophyandtheologythestudyofreligion.1WhatgivesunitytothewholeScholasticmovementtheacademicpracticeinEuropefromthe9thtothe17thcenturiesarethecommonaimsattitudesandmethodsgenerallyacceptedbyallitsmembers.ThechiefconcernoftheScholasticswasnottodiscovernewfactsbuttointegratetheknowledgealreadyacquiredseparatelybyGreekreasoningandChristianrevelation.ThisconcernisoneofthemostcharacteristicdifferencesbetweenScholasticismandmodemthoughtsincetheRenaissance. ThebasicaimoftheScholasticsdeterminedcertaincommonattitudesthemostimportantofwhichwastheirconvictionofthefundamentalharmonybetweenreasonandrevelation.2TheScholasticsmaintainedthatbecausethesameGodwasthesourceofbothtypesofknowledgeandtruthwasoneofhischiefattributeshecouldnotcontradicthimselfinthesetwowaysofspeaking.Anyapparentoppositionbetweenrevelationandreasoncouldbetracedeithertoanincorrectuseofreasonortoaninaccurateinterpretationofthewordsofrevelation.BecausetheScholasticsbelievedthatrevelationwasthedirectteachingofGoditpossessedforthemahigherdegreeoftruthandcertaintythandidnaturalreason.Inapparentconflictsbetweenreligiousfaithandphilosophicreasoningfaithwasthusalwaysthesupremearbiter;thetheologiansdecisionoverruledthatofthephilosopher.Aftertheearly13thcenturyScholasticthoughtemphasizedmoretheindependenceofphilosophywithinitsowndomain.3NonethelessthroughouttheScholasticperiodphilosophywascalledtheservantoftheologynotonlybecausethetruthofphilosophywassubordinatedtothatoftheologybutalsobecausethetheologianusedphilosophytounderstandandexplainrevelation. ThisattitudeofScholasticismstandsinsharpcontrasttotheso-calleddouble-truththeoryoftheSpanish-ArabphilosopherandphysicianAverros.HistheoryassumedthattruthwasaccessibletobothphilosophyandIslamictheologybutthatonlyphilosophycouldattainitperfectly.Theso-calledtruthsoftheologyservedhenceasimperfectimaginativeexpressionsforthecommonpeopleoftheauthentictruthaccessibleonlytophilosophy.AverrosmaintainedthatphilosophictruthcouldevencontradictatleastverballytheteachingsofIslamictheology. 4AsaresultoftheirbeliefintheharmonybetweenfaithandreasontheScholasticsattemptedtodeterminetheprecisescopeandcompetenceofeachofthesefaculties.ManyearlyScholasticssuchastheItalianecclesiasticandphilosopherSt.Anselmdidnotclearlydistinguishthetwoandwereoverconfidentthatreasoncouldprovecertaindoctrinesofrevelation.5LaterattheheightofthematureperiodofScholasticismtheItaliantheologianandphilosopherThomasAquinasworkedoutabalancebetween 4AsaresultoftheirbeliefintheharmonybetweenfaithandreasontheScholasticsattemptedtodeterminetheprecisescopeandcompetenceofeachofthesefaculties.译成中文
WhereintheworldisthelargestnumberofdifferentlanguagesspokenMostlinguistswouldprobablyplumpforNewGuineaanislandthathas830recognizedtonguesscatteredarounditsisolatedjungle-coveredvalleys.Butaplaceontheothersideoftheworldrunsitclose.ThefiveboroughsofNewYorkCityarereckonedtobehometospeakersofaround800languages.Manyofthemclosetoextinction.1NewYorkisalsohomeofcoursetoalotofacademiclinguistsandthreeofthemhavegottogethertocreateanorganizationcalledtheEndangeredLanguageAllianceELAwhichisferretingoutspeakersofunusualtonguesfromthecity’shuddledimmigrantmasses.TheELAwhichwassetuplastyearbyDanielKaufmanJulietteBlevinsandBobHolmanhasworkedindetailon12languagessinceitsinception.Ithascodifiedtheirgrammarstheirpronunciationsandtheirword-formationpatternsaswellastheirsongsandlegends.EachvolunteerspeakerofalanguageofinterestisfirsttestedwithwhatisknownasaSwadeshlist.Thisisasetof207high-frequencyslow-to-changewordssuchaspartsofthebodycolorsandbasicverbslikeeatdrinksleepandkill.TheSwadeshlistisintendedtoascertainanindividual’sfluencybeforeheistakenon.OncehehasbeenacceptedDrKauf-manandhiscolleaguesstartchippingawayatthelanguage’sphonologythesoundsofwhichitiscomposedanditssyntaxhowitsmeaningischangedbytheorderofwordsandphrases.Thissortofanalysisisthebreadandbutteroflinguistics.Everysooftenthoughtheresearcherscomeacrossabitofjam.TheMahongwewordmanonoforexamplemeansIlikewhenspokensoftandflatandIdon’tlikewhenthefirstsyllableisatadsharperintone.Similarlymhazacouldbeeitherchestorcouncilhouse.InbothcasesthetwowordsarenearlyindistinguishabletoanEnglishspeakerbutyieldstarklydifferentpatternswhenrunthroughaspectrograph.2Manonoisaparticularlinguisticodditysinceitusesonlytonetodifferentiateanaffirmativefromanegative—aphenomenontheELAhassincediscoveredappliestoallverbsinMahongwe.Suchnicetiesareinterestingtoexperts.ButtheELAisattemptingtounderstandmorethanjustthenutsandboltsoflanguages.Itiscollectingstoriesandotherverbalmaterialspecifictotheculturesoftheparticipants.OnevolunteerforexamplewantstowriteastorybookforchildreninherlanguageShughniandalsoarecipebook.3ThatmeanscreatingawrittenformofthelanguagewhichtheresearchersdousingwhatisknownastheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet.4ManyofDr.Kaufman’sbetterfindshesays.havecomefromhangingoutatstreetcornerswithaclipboardonRooseveltAvenue—astreetintheboroughofQueensthathedescribesastheepicenteroftheepicenteroflinguisticNewYork.Howlongitwillremainsoismoot.Theworld’slanguageswhichnumberabout6900arereckonedtobedyingoutattherateofoneafortnight.ThereasonispreciselythesortofculturalmixingthatNewYorkepitomizes.5Thevalueoflearninganyparticularlanguageisincreasedbythenumberofpeoplewhoalreadyspeakitwhilethevalueofaminoritylanguageisdiminishedaspeopleabandonit.Tothoselanguagesthathathinotherwordsshallbegiven.Fromthosethathathnotshallthelastspeakerssoonbetakenaway
Congressisnowdeliberatinglegislativeandbudgetarychangesthatwoulddramaticallyredefinethenation’sresponsibilitiesfortheleastadvantaged.Debateabouttheseresponsibilitiesshouldbewelcomedandnewideasgivencarefulconsideration.ItisnotwritteninstoneorintheConstitutionthatthefederalgovernmentneedstotakecareofthepoor.1Currentprogramsarewidelyviewedasdeficientinlargepartbecausetheyareperceivedasencouragingdependencyandthedissolutionofthefamily.Insomeareasthefederalrolehasbecometoointrusive.Andwithoutnewtaxesmoneyisinshortsupply.Returningresponsibilitytothestateswithatie-offgrantfromthefederalgovernmenttoeasethetransitionisseenbymanyasthesolution.Inmyownviewargumentsthatcurrentproposalsarethebestmeansofdealingwiththeseproblemsaresomewhatdisingenuous.2AsmanyhavearguedtheseproposalscouldmoreaccuratelybedescribedasaTrojanhorsedesignedtodismantlethewelfarestatethathasexistedforthepast60years.Iftheobjectiveistoencourageworkandmarriagethesereformssendtherightsignalsbutmaydisappointinpractice.Iftheobjectiveistoprovidestateswithgreaterflexibilitythesolutionisastreamlinedwaiverprocessandothermodestreforms.3Statesalreadyhaveagreatdealofflexibilityandcouldreadilybegivenmorewithinaframeworkthatestablishesminimumprotectionsforthepoorandaccountabilityforthepublic’smoney.Iftheobjectiveistoreducethedeficitthiscouldbeachievedwithoutcuttingsodeeplyintoprogramsthathelpthemostvulnerable.Thepoorest20percentofthepopulationnowreceivesroughly4percentofallincomeintheUnitedStates.Anydeficitreductionpackagethatasksthemtopaymorethan4percentofthetotalburdenisarguablyunfair.Yetchancesarethattheywillenduppayingfarmorethanthis.Deficitreductionisaworthygoalbutnumeroustaxsubsidiesandentitlementprogramscouldbetappedbeforelow-incomeprogramswerecut.4Asitissafety-netprogramsarebeingrestructuredinwaysthatnotonlyyieldfederalsavingsbutalsopromiselessstateeffortaswell.Finallyiftheobjectiveistoreducepovertywithoutencouragingdependencythemostimportantthingthatgovernmentcandoistoassistlow-incomeworkingfamilieswithsuchmeasuresastheEITCchildcaresubsidizedhealthinsuranceandadjustmentsintheminimumwage.5Ifpersonalcommitmentstoworkandfamilyarethesurestwayoutofpovertyastheyhavebeeninthepastthenthesework-orientedmeasuresarethebestwaytokeepthosewhoplaybytherulesfromfallingfurtherbehind.
Themythologyofaculturecanprovidesomevitalinsightsintothebeliefsandvaluesofthatculture.1Byusingfantasticandsometimesincrediblestoriestocreateanoraltraditionbywhichtoexplainthewondersofthenaturalworldandteachlessonstoyoungergenerationsasocietyexposesthoseideasandconceptsheldmostimportant.2Justasimportantasthefinallessontobegatheredfromthestorieshoweverarethecharactersandtherolestheyplayinconveyingthatmessage.3PerhapstheepitomeofmythologyanditsuseasatooltopassonculturalvaluescanbefoundinAesop’sFablestoldandretoldduringtheeraoftheGreekEmpire.Aesopaslavewhowonthefavorofthecourtthroughhisimaginativeanddescriptivetalesalmostexclusivelyusedanimalstofilltherolesinhisshortstories.Humanswhenatallpresentalmostalwaysplayedthepartofbumblingfoolsstrugglingtolearnthelessonbeingpresented.ThischoiceofcharacterizationallowsustoseethattheGreeksplacedwisdomonalevelslightlybeyondhumansimplyingthatdeepwisdomandunderstandingisauniversalqualitysoughtbyratherthansteanningfromhumanbeings.Aesop’sfablesillustratedthecentralthemesofhumilityandself-reliancereflectingtheimportanceofthosetraitsinearlyGreeksociety.Thefollyofhumanswasusedtocontrastagainsttheultimategoalofattainingahigherlevelofunderstandingandawarenessoftruthsaboutnatureandhumanity.Forexampleonenotablefablefeaturesafoxrepeatedlytryingtoreachabunchofgrapesonaveryhighvine.Afterfailingatseveralattemptsthefoxgivesupmakingupitsmindthatthegrapeswereprobablysouranyway.4Thefable’slessonthatweoftenplaydownthatwhichwecan’tachievesoastomakeourselvesfeelbetterteachesthereaderorlistenerinanentertainingwayaboutoneoftheweaknessesofthehumanpsyche.5ThemythologyofotherculturesandsocietiesrevealtheunderlyingtraitsoftheirrespectiveculturesjustasAesop’sfablesdid.ThestoriesofRomangodsAztecghostsandEuropeanelvesallservedtotrainancientgenerationsthoselessonsconsideredmostimportanttotheircommunityandtodaytheyofferapowerfullookingglassbywhichtoevaluateandconsiderthecontextualenvironmentinwhichthosecultureexisted.
Congressisnowdeliberatinglegislativeandbudgetarychangesthatwoulddramaticallyredefinethenation’sresponsibilitiesfortheleastadvantaged.Debateabouttheseresponsibilitiesshouldbewelcomedandnewideasgivencarefulconsideration.ItisnotwritteninstoneorintheConstitutionthatthefederalgovernmentneedstotakecareofthepoor.1Currentprogramsarewidelyviewedasdeficientinlargepartbecausetheyareperceivedasencouragingdependencyandthedissolutionofthefamily.Insomeareasthefederalrolehasbecometoointrusive.Andwithoutnewtaxesmoneyisinshortsupply.Returningresponsibilitytothestateswithatie-offgrantfromthefederalgovernmenttoeasethetransitionisseenbymanyasthesolution.Inmyownviewargumentsthatcurrentproposalsarethebestmeansofdealingwiththeseproblemsaresomewhatdisingenuous.2AsmanyhavearguedtheseproposalscouldmoreaccuratelybedescribedasaTrojanhorsedesignedtodismantlethewelfarestatethathasexistedforthepast60years.Iftheobjectiveistoencourageworkandmarriagethesereformssendtherightsignalsbutmaydisappointinpractice.Iftheobjectiveistoprovidestateswithgreaterflexibilitythesolutionisastreamlinedwaiverprocessandothermodestreforms.3Statesalreadyhaveagreatdealofflexibilityandcouldreadilybegivenmorewithinaframeworkthatestablishesminimumprotectionsforthepoorandaccountabilityforthepublic’smoney.Iftheobjectiveistoreducethedeficitthiscouldbeachievedwithoutcuttingsodeeplyintoprogramsthathelpthemostvulnerable.Thepoorest20percentofthepopulationnowreceivesroughly4percentofallincomeintheUnitedStates.Anydeficitreductionpackagethatasksthemtopaymorethan4percentofthetotalburdenisarguablyunfair.Yetchancesarethattheywillenduppayingfarmorethanthis.Deficitreductionisaworthygoalbutnumeroustaxsubsidiesandentitlementprogramscouldbetappedbeforelow-incomeprogramswerecut.4Asitissafety-netprogramsarebeingrestructuredinwaysthatnotonlyyieldfederalsavingsbutalsopromiselessstateeffortaswell.Finallyiftheobjectiveistoreducepovertywithoutencouragingdependencythemostimportantthingthatgovernmentcandoistoassistlow-incomeworkingfamilieswithsuchmeasuresastheEITCchildcaresubsidizedhealthinsuranceandadjustmentsintheminimumwage.5Ifpersonalcommitmentstoworkandfamilyarethesurestwayoutofpovertyastheyhavebeeninthepastthenthesework-orientedmeasuresarethebestwaytokeepthosewhoplaybytherulesfromfallingfurtherbehind.
Americanstodaydon’tplaceaveryhighvalueonintellect.Ourheroesareathletesentertainersandentrepreneursnotscholars.1Evenourschoolsarewherewesendourchildrentogetapracticaleducation—nottopursueknowledgeforthesakeofknowledge.Symptomsofpervasiveanti-intellectualisminourschoolsaren’tdifficulttofind.SchoolshavealwaysbeeninasocietywherepracticalismoreimportantthanintellectualsayseducationwriterDianeRavitch.Schoolscouldbeacounterbalance.Ravitch’slatestbookLeftBack:ACenturyofFailedSchoolReformstracestherootsofanti-intellectualisminourschoolsconcludingtheyareanythingbutacounterbalancetotheAmericandistasteforintellectualpursuits.Buttheycouldandshouldbe.Encouragingkidstorejectthelifeofthemindleavesthemvulnerabletoexploitationandcontrol.2Withouttheabilitytothinkcriticallytodefendtheirideasandunderstandtheideasofotherstheycannotfullyparticipateinourdemocracy.ContinuingalongthispathsayswriterEarlShorrisWewillbecomeasecond-ratecountry.Wewillhavealesscivilsociety.IntellectisresentedasaformofpowerorprivilegewriteshistorianandprofessorRichardHofstadterinAnti-IntellectualisminAmericanLifeaPulitzer-Prizewinningbookontherootsofanti-intellectualisminUSpoliticsreligionandeducation.FromthebeginningofourhistorysaysHofstadterourdemocraticandpopulisturgeshavedrivenustorejectanythingthatsmellsofelitism.3Practicalitycommonsenseandnativeintelligencehavebeenconsideredmorenoblequalitiesthananythingyoucouldlearnfromabook.RalphWaldoEmersonandotherTranscendentalistphilosophersthoughtschoolingandrigorousbooklearningputunnaturalrestraintsonchildren4Weareshutupinschoolsandcollegerecitationroomsfor10or15yearsandcomeoutatlastwithabellyfulofwordsanddonotknowathing.MarkTwain’sHuckleberryFinnexemplifiedAmericananti-intellectualism.Itsheroavoidsbeingcivilized—goingtoschoolandlearningtoread—sohecanpreservehisinnategoodness.IntellectaccordingtoHofstadterisdifferentfromnativeintelligenceaqualitywereluctantlyadmire.Intellectisthecriticalcreativeandcontemplativesideofthemind.5Intelligenceseekstograspmanipulatere-orderandadjustwhileintellectexaminesponderswonderstheorizescriticizesandimagines.Schoolremainsaplacewhereintellectismistrusted.Hofstadtersaysourcountry’seducationalsystemisinthegripsofpeoplewhojoyfullyandmilitantlyproclaimtheirhostilitytointellectandtheireagernesstoidentifywithchildrenwhoshowtheleastintellectualpromise./
TheinclusionofallchildrenandyouthispartofageneralintegrativetrendthathasacceleratedsinceWorldWarII.Itrelatestosomenewerdevelopmentsaswell.Concernfortheearth’sendangeredenvironmenthasbecomecentralemphasizinginbothintellectualandsociallifetheneedforcooperationratherthancompetitiontheimportanceofunderstandinginterrelationshipsoftheecosystemandtheideathatecologycanbeusedasanorganizingconcept.Inadifferentveintherapiddevelopmentofmicroelectronicsparticularlytheuseofcomputersformultiplefunctionsineducationgoesforbeyondpossibilitiesofearliertechnologicaladvances.1Althoughtechnologyisthoughtofbysomeasantagonistictohumanisticconcernsothersarguethatitmakescommunicationandcomprehensionavailabletoawiderpopulationandencouragessystemthinkingbothultimatelyintegrativeeffects.Thepolarizationofopinionontechnology’seffectsandmostotherimportantissuesisaproblemineducationalpolicydetermination.2Inadditiontothedifficultiesofgoverningincreasinglylargeanddiverseeducationsystemsaswellasthoseofmeetingthenever-endingdemandsofexpandingeducationthechroniclackofconsensusmakesthesystemunabletorespondsatisfactorilytopubliccriticismandunabletoplanforsubstantivelong-rangedevelopment.3Thepoliticalandadministrativeresponsessofarhavebeentoattendtoshort-runefficiencybyimprovingmanagementtechniquesandtoadoptpolarresponsestoaccommodatepolarcriticisms.Thuscommunityandcommunityschoolshavebeenemphasizedalongwithcentralcontrolandstandardizationandinstitutionalalternativeshavebeenopenedwhilethestructureofmaininstitutionshasbecomemorearticulated.Forexamplethefocusofattentionhasbeenplacedonthetransitionstageswhichearlierwerevirtuallyignored:fromhometoschoolfromprimarytosecondarytouppersecondaryfromschooltowork.Tertiaryinstitutionshavebeenreconceivedaspartofaunifiedlevel;testinghasbecomemoresophisticatedandcredentialshavebecomemoredifferentiatedeitherbycertificateorbytranscript.Alternativeteachingstrategieshavebeenencouragedintheorybutbasiccurriculumuniformityhaseffectivelyrestrictedthepracticeofnewmethods.Generaleducationisstillmainlyabstractandsubjectmatterthoughinternallymoredynamicstillrestsonlanguagemathematicsandscience.Therehasbeenanincreasingrelianceontheconstructionofsubjectmattertoguidethemethodofteaching.4Teachersareentrustedwithagreatervarietyoftasksbuttheyarelesstrustedwithknowledgeleadingpoliticalauthoritiestocallforupgradingofteachertrainingteacherinservicetrainingandregularassessmentofteacherperformance.5Recentreformeffortshavebeenfocusedonintegratinggeneralandvocationaleducationandonencouraginglifelongorrecurrenteducationtomeetchangingindividualandsocialneeds.Thusnotonlyhasthenumberofstudentsandinstitutionsincreasedasaresultofinclusionpoliciesbutthescopeofeducationhasalsoexpanded.Thistremendousgrowthhoweverhasraisednewquestionsabouttheproperfunctionsoftheschoolandtheeffectivenessforlifeworkorintellectualadvancementofpresentprogramsandmeansofinstruction.
Scholasticthinkersheldawidevarietyofdoctrinesinbothphilosophyandtheologythestudyofreligion.1WhatgivesunitytothewholeScholasticmovementtheacademicpracticeinEuropefromthe9thtothe17thcenturiesarethecommonaimsattitudesandmethodsgenerallyacceptedbyallitsmembers.ThechiefconcernoftheScholasticswasnottodiscovernewfactsbuttointegratetheknowledgealreadyacquiredseparatelybyGreekreasoningandChristianrevelation.ThisconcernisoneofthemostcharacteristicdifferencesbetweenScholasticismandmodemthoughtsincetheRenaissance. ThebasicaimoftheScholasticsdeterminedcertaincommonattitudesthemostimportantofwhichwastheirconvictionofthefundamentalharmonybetweenreasonandrevelation.2TheScholasticsmaintainedthatbecausethesameGodwasthesourceofbothtypesofknowledgeandtruthwasoneofhischiefattributeshecouldnotcontradicthimselfinthesetwowaysofspeaking.Anyapparentoppositionbetweenrevelationandreasoncouldbetracedeithertoanincorrectuseofreasonortoaninaccurateinterpretationofthewordsofrevelation.BecausetheScholasticsbelievedthatrevelationwasthedirectteachingofGoditpossessedforthemahigherdegreeoftruthandcertaintythandidnaturalreason.Inapparentconflictsbetweenreligiousfaithandphilosophicreasoningfaithwasthusalwaysthesupremearbiter;thetheologiansdecisionoverruledthatofthephilosopher.Aftertheearly13thcenturyScholasticthoughtemphasizedmoretheindependenceofphilosophywithinitsowndomain.3NonethelessthroughouttheScholasticperiodphilosophywascalledtheservantoftheologynotonlybecausethetruthofphilosophywassubordinatedtothatoftheologybutalsobecausethetheologianusedphilosophytounderstandandexplainrevelation. ThisattitudeofScholasticismstandsinsharpcontrasttotheso-calleddouble-truththeoryoftheSpanish-ArabphilosopherandphysicianAverros.HistheoryassumedthattruthwasaccessibletobothphilosophyandIslamictheologybutthatonlyphilosophycouldattainitperfectly.Theso-calledtruthsoftheologyservedhenceasimperfectimaginativeexpressionsforthecommonpeopleoftheauthentictruthaccessibleonlytophilosophy.AverrosmaintainedthatphilosophictruthcouldevencontradictatleastverballytheteachingsofIslamictheology. 4AsaresultoftheirbeliefintheharmonybetweenfaithandreasontheScholasticsattemptedtodeterminetheprecisescopeandcompetenceofeachofthesefaculties.ManyearlyScholasticssuchastheItalianecclesiasticandphilosopherSt.Anselmdidnotclearlydistinguishthetwoandwereoverconfidentthatreasoncouldprovecertaindoctrinesofrevelation.5LaterattheheightofthematureperiodofScholasticismtheItaliantheologianandphilosopherThomasAquinasworkedoutabalancebetween 2TheScholasticsmaintainedthatbecausethesameGodwasthesourceofbothtypesofknowledgeandtruthwasoneofhischiefattributeshecouldnotcontradicthimselfinthesetwowaysofspeaking.译成中文
Themythologyofaculturecanprovidesomevitalinsightsintothebeliefsandvaluesofthatculture.1Byusingfantasticandsometimesincrediblestoriestocreateanoraltraditionbywhichtoexplainthewondersofthenaturalworldandteachlessonstoyoungergenerationsasocietyexposesthoseideasandconceptsheldmostimportant.2Justasimportantasthefinallessontobegatheredfromthestorieshoweverarethecharactersandtherolestheyplayinconveyingthatmessage.3PerhapstheepitomeofmythologyanditsuseasatooltopassonculturalvaluescanbefoundinAesop’sFablestoldandretoldduringtheeraoftheGreekEmpire.Aesopaslavewhowonthefavorofthecourtthroughhisimaginativeanddescriptivetalesalmostexclusivelyusedanimalstofilltherolesinhisshortstories.Humanswhenatallpresentalmostalwaysplayedthepartofbumblingfoolsstrugglingtolearnthelessonbeingpresented.ThischoiceofcharacterizationallowsustoseethattheGreeksplacedwisdomonalevelslightlybeyondhumansimplyingthatdeepwisdomandunderstandingisauniversalqualitysoughtbyratherthansteanningfromhumanbeings.Aesop’sfablesillustratedthecentralthemesofhumilityandself-reliancereflectingtheimportanceofthosetraitsinearlyGreeksociety.Thefollyofhumanswasusedtocontrastagainsttheultimategoalofattainingahigherlevelofunderstandingandawarenessoftruthsaboutnatureandhumanity.Forexampleonenotablefablefeaturesafoxrepeatedlytryingtoreachabunchofgrapesonaveryhighvine.Afterfailingatseveralattemptsthefoxgivesupmakingupitsmindthatthegrapeswereprobablysouranyway.4Thefable’slessonthatweoftenplaydownthatwhichwecan’tachievesoastomakeourselvesfeelbetterteachesthereaderorlistenerinanentertainingwayaboutoneoftheweaknessesofthehumanpsyche.5ThemythologyofotherculturesandsocietiesrevealtheunderlyingtraitsoftheirrespectiveculturesjustasAesop’sfablesdid.ThestoriesofRomangodsAztecghostsandEuropeanelvesallservedtotrainancientgenerationsthoselessonsconsideredmostimportanttotheircommunityandtodaytheyofferapowerfullookingglassbywhichtoevaluateandconsiderthecontextualenvironmentinwhichthosecultureexisted.
Americanstodaydon’tplaceaveryhighvalueonintellect.Ourheroesareathletesentertainersandentrepreneursnotscholars.1Evenourschoolsarewherewesendourchildrentogetapracticaleducation—nottopursueknowledgeforthesakeofknowledge.Symptomsofpervasiveanti-intellectualisminourschoolsaren’tdifficulttofind.SchoolshavealwaysbeeninasocietywherepracticalismoreimportantthanintellectualsayseducationwriterDianeRavitch.Schoolscouldbeacounterbalance.Ravitch’slatestbookLeftBack:ACenturyofFailedSchoolReformstracestherootsofanti-intellectualisminourschoolsconcludingtheyareanythingbutacounterbalancetotheAmericandistasteforintellectualpursuits.Buttheycouldandshouldbe.Encouragingkidstorejectthelifeofthemindleavesthemvulnerabletoexploitationandcontrol.2Withouttheabilitytothinkcriticallytodefendtheirideasandunderstandtheideasofotherstheycannotfullyparticipateinourdemocracy.ContinuingalongthispathsayswriterEarlShorrisWewillbecomeasecond-ratecountry.Wewillhavealesscivilsociety.IntellectisresentedasaformofpowerorprivilegewriteshistorianandprofessorRichardHofstadterinAnti-IntellectualisminAmericanLifeaPulitzer-Prizewinningbookontherootsofanti-intellectualisminUSpoliticsreligionandeducation.FromthebeginningofourhistorysaysHofstadterourdemocraticandpopulisturgeshavedrivenustorejectanythingthatsmellsofelitism.3Practicalitycommonsenseandnativeintelligencehavebeenconsideredmorenoblequalitiesthananythingyoucouldlearnfromabook.RalphWaldoEmersonandotherTranscendentalistphilosophersthoughtschoolingandrigorousbooklearningputunnaturalrestraintsonchildren4Weareshutupinschoolsandcollegerecitationroomsfor10or15yearsandcomeoutatlastwithabellyfulofwordsanddonotknowathing.MarkTwain’sHuckleberryFinnexemplifiedAmericananti-intellectualism.Itsheroavoidsbeingcivilized—goingtoschoolandlearningtoread—sohecanpreservehisinnategoodness.IntellectaccordingtoHofstadterisdifferentfromnativeintelligenceaqualitywereluctantlyadmire.Intellectisthecriticalcreativeandcontemplativesideofthemind.5Intelligenceseekstograspmanipulatere-orderandadjustwhileintellectexaminesponderswonderstheorizescriticizesandimagines.Schoolremainsaplacewhereintellectismistrusted.Hofstadtersaysourcountry’seducationalsystemisinthegripsofpeoplewhojoyfullyandmilitantlyproclaimtheirhostilitytointellectandtheireagernesstoidentifywithchildrenwhoshowtheleastintellectualpromise./
Nocompanylikestobetolditiscontributingtothemoraldeclineofanation.IsthiswhatyouintendedtoaccomplishwithyourcareersSenatorRobertDoleaskedTimeWarnerexecutiveslastweek.YouhavesoldyoursoulsbutmustyoucorruptournationandthreatenourchildrenaswellAtTimeWarnerhoweversuchquestionsaresimplythelatestmanifestationofthesoul-searchingthathasinvolvedthecompanyeversincethecompanywasbornin1990.1It’saself-examinationthathasatvarioustimesinvolvedissuesofresponsibilitycreativefreedomandthecorporatebottomline.AtthecoreofthisdebateischairmanGeraldLevin56whotookoverforthelateSteveRossin1992.2OnthefinancialfrontLevinisunderpressuretoraisethestockpriceandreducethecompany’smountainousdebtwhichwillincreaseto$17.3billionaftertwonewcabledealsclose.Hehaspromisedtoselloffsomeofthepropertyandrestructurethecompanybutinvestorsarewaitingimpatiently.3TheflapoverrapisnotmakinglifeanyeasierforhimLevinhasconsistentlydefendedthecompany’srapmusiconthegroundsofexpression.In1992whenTimeWarnerwasunderfireforreleasingIce-T’sviolentrapsongCopKillerLevindescribedrapaslawfulexpressionofstreetculturewhichdeservesanoutlet.4ThetestofanydemocraticsocietyhewroteinaWallStreetJournalcolumnliesnotinhowwellitcancontrolexpressionbutinwhetheritgivesfreedomofthoughtandexpressionthewidestpossiblelatitudehoweverdisputableorirritatingtheresultsmaysometimesbe.Wewon’tretreatinthefaceofanythreats.Levinwouldnotcommentonthedebatelastweekbutthereweresignsthatthechairmanwasbackingoffhishard-linestandatleasttosomeextent.Duringthediscussionofrocksingingversesatlastmonth’sstockholders’meeting.Levinassertedthatmusicisnotthecauseofsociety’sillsandevencitedhissonateacherintheBronxNewYorkwhousesraptocommunicatewithstudents.5Buthetalkedaswellaboutthebalancedstrugglebetweencreativefreedomandsocialresponsibilityandheannouncedthatthecompanywouldlaunchadrivetodevelopstandardsfordistributionandlabelingofpotentiallyobjectionablemusic.The15-memberTimeWarnerboardisgenerallysupportiveofLevinandhiscorporatestrategy.Butinsiderssayseveralofthemhaveshowntheirconcernsinthismatter.SomeofushaveknownformanymanyyearsthatthefreedomsundertheFirstAmendmentarenottotallyunlimitedsaysLuce.Ithinkitisperhapsthecasethatsomepeopleassociatedwiththecompanyhaveonlyrecentlycometorealizethis.
AsapartoftheserviceindustryecotourismpromoteswhatAlanDuringinhisimportantbookHowMuchisEnough!callstheshiftfrommaterialtonon-materialends.1Thisshiftistheonlyviablewayinwhichhumandemandsmadeontheenvironmentwillnotoverrunthecarryingcapacityoftheplanet.Ecotourismisinfundamentaloppositiontoconsumptionasameanstofulfillment;ratherthesenseofplacetheexcitementofexperienceandtheopportunityoflearningbecometheoverridingproductssoldtoecotourists.2TheseecotourismproductsarebaseduponpreservingandprotectingtheoriginalculturesandenvironmentsnotupontransformingthemintosomeDisney-land-likefantasy-world.Increasinglyaconservationethicandaviableprocessofdevelopmenthaveemergedfromtheecotourismmovementorperhapsviceversa.TheecotourismethichasbeendefinedbytheEcotourismSocietytomean:responsibletravelthatconservesthenaturalenvironsandsustainsthewell-beingoflocalpeople.3Ecotourismofferstravelersthemeanstoassistpersonallyandlocallyintheconservationofthreatenedenvironmentsandtosupportcommunitiesdirectlythatareseekingviableeconomicalternativestoendcyclesofpovertyandenvironmentaldestruction.Thisnon-profitorganizationisworkingtoraisepublicsupportforimplementingecotourismprinciplesandpracticesaroundtheworld.4TheconcertedeffortbypolicymakersbusinessesrecreationmanagersandorganizationssuchastheWorldWildlifeFundandConservationInternationaltomakeecotourismamainstreampracticeispromising.WeintheWesternindustrializednationshaveanincredibleopportunityforrestorativeandregenerativechangethroughecotourism.Thereseemstobelittledoubtthattourismwillcontinuetogrow.Themostimportantquestionremains:Willitbeecologicallyresponsibleandsustainable5Theresponsibilityclearlyrestswithourselvestocareforanenvironmentalandculturaldiversitywhichhistoricallywehaveusedmerelytoserveourneeds—andourneedsonly.Ecotourismasamodelprocessandethicoffersanopportunitytoputrespectforourearthintopracticeinawaythatallpeoplecanenjoyitsbeautyandbenefits.
AsapartoftheserviceindustryecotourismpromoteswhatAlanDuringinhisimportantbookHowMuchisEnough!callstheshiftfrommaterialtonon-materialends.1Thisshiftistheonlyviablewayinwhichhumandemandsmadeontheenvironmentwillnotoverrunthecarryingcapacityoftheplanet.Ecotourismisinfundamentaloppositiontoconsumptionasameanstofulfillment;ratherthesenseofplacetheexcitementofexperienceandtheopportunityoflearningbecometheoverridingproductssoldtoecotourists.2TheseecotourismproductsarebaseduponpreservingandprotectingtheoriginalculturesandenvironmentsnotupontransformingthemintosomeDisney-land-likefantasy-world.Increasinglyaconservationethicandaviableprocessofdevelopmenthaveemergedfromtheecotourismmovementorperhapsviceversa.TheecotourismethichasbeendefinedbytheEcotourismSocietytomean:responsibletravelthatconservesthenaturalenvironsandsustainsthewell-beingoflocalpeople.3Ecotourismofferstravelersthemeanstoassistpersonallyandlocallyintheconservationofthreatenedenvironmentsandtosupportcommunitiesdirectlythatareseekingviableeconomicalternativestoendcyclesofpovertyandenvironmentaldestruction.Thisnon-profitorganizationisworkingtoraisepublicsupportforimplementingecotourismprinciplesandpracticesaroundtheworld.4TheconcertedeffortbypolicymakersbusinessesrecreationmanagersandorganizationssuchastheWorldWildlifeFundandConservationInternationaltomakeecotourismamainstreampracticeispromising.WeintheWesternindustrializednationshaveanincredibleopportunityforrestorativeandregenerativechangethroughecotourism.Thereseemstobelittledoubtthattourismwillcontinuetogrow.Themostimportantquestionremains:Willitbeecologicallyresponsibleandsustainable5Theresponsibilityclearlyrestswithourselvestocareforanenvironmentalandculturaldiversitywhichhistoricallywehaveusedmerelytoserveourneeds—andourneedsonly.Ecotourismasamodelprocessandethicoffersanopportunitytoputrespectforourearthintopracticeinawaythatallpeoplecanenjoyitsbeautyandbenefits.
TheinclusionofallchildrenandyouthispartofageneralintegrativetrendthathasacceleratedsinceWorldWarII.Itrelatestosomenewerdevelopmentsaswell.Concernfortheearth’sendangeredenvironmenthasbecomecentralemphasizinginbothintellectualandsociallifetheneedforcooperationratherthancompetitiontheimportanceofunderstandinginterrelationshipsoftheecosystemandtheideathatecologycanbeusedasanorganizingconcept.Inadifferentveintherapiddevelopmentofmicroelectronicsparticularlytheuseofcomputersformultiplefunctionsineducationgoesforbeyondpossibilitiesofearliertechnologicaladvances.1Althoughtechnologyisthoughtofbysomeasantagonistictohumanisticconcernsothersarguethatitmakescommunicationandcomprehensionavailabletoawiderpopulationandencouragessystemthinkingbothultimatelyintegrativeeffects.Thepolarizationofopinionontechnology’seffectsandmostotherimportantissuesisaproblemineducationalpolicydetermination.2Inadditiontothedifficultiesofgoverningincreasinglylargeanddiverseeducationsystemsaswellasthoseofmeetingthenever-endingdemandsofexpandingeducationthechroniclackofconsensusmakesthesystemunabletorespondsatisfactorilytopubliccriticismandunabletoplanforsubstantivelong-rangedevelopment.3Thepoliticalandadministrativeresponsessofarhavebeentoattendtoshort-runefficiencybyimprovingmanagementtechniquesandtoadoptpolarresponsestoaccommodatepolarcriticisms.Thuscommunityandcommunityschoolshavebeenemphasizedalongwithcentralcontrolandstandardizationandinstitutionalalternativeshavebeenopenedwhilethestructureofmaininstitutionshasbecomemorearticulated.Forexamplethefocusofattentionhasbeenplacedonthetransitionstageswhichearlierwerevirtuallyignored:fromhometoschoolfromprimarytosecondarytouppersecondaryfromschooltowork.Tertiaryinstitutionshavebeenreconceivedaspartofaunifiedlevel;testinghasbecomemoresophisticatedandcredentialshavebecomemoredifferentiatedeitherbycertificateorbytranscript.Alternativeteachingstrategieshavebeenencouragedintheorybutbasiccurriculumuniformityhaseffectivelyrestrictedthepracticeofnewmethods.Generaleducationisstillmainlyabstractandsubjectmatterthoughinternallymoredynamicstillrestsonlanguagemathematicsandscience.Therehasbeenanincreasingrelianceontheconstructionofsubjectmattertoguidethemethodofteaching.4Teachersareentrustedwithagreatervarietyoftasksbuttheyarelesstrustedwithknowledgeleadingpoliticalauthoritiestocallforupgradingofteachertrainingteacherinservicetrainingandregularassessmentofteacherperformance.5Recentreformeffortshavebeenfocusedonintegratinggeneralandvocationaleducationandonencouraginglifelongorrecurrenteducationtomeetchangingindividualandsocialneeds.Thusnotonlyhasthenumberofstudentsandinstitutionsincreasedasaresultofinclusionpoliciesbutthescopeofeducationhasalsoexpanded.Thistremendousgrowthhoweverhasraisednewquestionsabouttheproperfunctionsoftheschoolandtheeffectivenessforlifeworkorintellectualadvancementofpresentprogramsandmeansofinstruction.
Gandhi’spacifismcanbeseparatedtosomeextentfromhisotherteachings.1Itsmotivewasreligiousbutheclaimedalsoforitthatitwasadefinitivetechniqueamethodcapableofproducingdesiredpoliticalresults.Gandhi’sattitudewasnotthatofmostWesternpacifists.Satyagraha2themethodGandhiproposedandpracticedfirstevolvedinSouthAfricawasasortofnon-violentwarfareawayofdefeatingtheenemywithouthurtinghimandwithoutfeelingorarousinghatred.ItentailedsuchthingsascivildisobediencestrikeslyingdowninfrontofRailwaytrainsenduringpolicechargeswithoutrunningawayandwithouthittingbackandthelike.GandhiobjectedtopassiveresistanceasatranslationofSatyagraha:inGujaratiitseemsthewordmeansfirmnessinthetruth.3InhisearlydaysGandhiservedasastretcher-bearerontheBritishsideintheBoerWarandhewaspreparedtodothesameagaininthewarof1914-1918.Evenafterhehadcompletelyabjuredviolencehewashonestenoughtoseethatinwaritisusuallynecessarytotakesides.Sincehiswholepoliticallifecenteredroundastrugglefornationalindependencehecouldnotand4indeedhedidnottakethesterileanddishonestlineofpretendingthatineverywarbothsidesareexactlythesameanditmakesnodifferencewhowins.NordidhelikemostWesternpacifistsspecializeinavoidingawkwardquestions.Inrelationtothelatewaronequestionthateverypacifisthadaclearobligationtoanswerwas:WhatabouttheJewsAreyoupreparedtoseethemexterminatedIfnothowdoyouproposetosavethemwithoutresortingtowar5ImustsaythatIhaveneverheardfromanyWesternpacifistanhonestanswertothisquestionthoughIhaveheardplentyofevasionsusuallyoftheyou’reanothertype.ButitsohappensthatGandhiwasaskedasomewhatsimilarquestionin1938andthathisanswerisonrecordinMr.LouisFischer’sGandhiandStalin.AccordingtoMr.FischerGandhi’sviewwasthattheGermanJewsoughttocommitcollectivesuicidewhichwouldhavearousedtheworldandthepeopleofGermanytoHitler’sviolence./
1Materialculturereferstothetouchablematerialthings—physicalobjectsthatcanbeseenheldfeltused—thatacultureproduces.Examiningaculture’stoolsandtechnologycantellusaboutthegroup’shistoryandwayoflife.Similarlyresearchintothematerialcultureofmusiccanhelpustounderstandthemusic-culture.Themostvividbodyofthingsinitofcoursearemusicalinstruments.2Wecannothearforourselvestheactualsoundofanymusicalperformancebeforethe1870swhenthephonographwasinventedsowerelyoninstrumentsforimportantinformationaboutmusic-culturesintheremotepastandtheirdevelopment.Herewehavetwokindsofevidence:instrumentswellpreservedandinstrumentspicturedinart.ThroughthestudyofinstrumentsaswellaspaintingswrittendocumentsandsoonwecanexplorethemovementofmusicfromtheNearEasttoChinaoverathousandyearsagoorwecanoutlinethespreadofNearEasterninfluencetoEuropethatresultedinthedevelopmentofmostoftheinstrumentsonthesymphonyorchestra.Sheetmusicorprintedmusictooismaterialculture.Scholarsoncedefinedfolkmusic-culturesasthoseinwhichpeoplelearnandsingmusicbyearratherthanfromprintbutresearchshowsmutualinfluenceamongoralandwrittensourcesduringthepastfewcenturiesinEuropeBritainandAmerica.Printedversionslimitvarietybecausetheytendtostandardizeanysongyettheystimulatepeopletocreatenewanddifferentsongs.3Besidestheabilitytoreadmusicnotationhasafar-reachingeffectonmusiciansandwhenitbecomeswidespreadonthemusic-cultureasawhole.Musicisdeep-rootedintheculturalbackgroundthatfostersit.Wenowpaymoreandmoreattentiontotraditionalorethnicfeaturesinfolkmusicandarewillingtopreservethefolkmusicaswedowithmanytraditionalculturalheritage.Musiciansallovertheworldarebusywithrecordingclassicmusicintheircountryforthesakeoftheiruniqueculture.4Asalwayspeople’saspirationwillalwaysfocusontheirindividualityratherthanuniversalfeaturesthataresharedbyallculturesalike.5Onemoreimportantpartofmusic’smaterialcultureshouldbesingledout:theinfluenceoftheelectronicmedia—radiorecordplayertaperecorderandtelevisionwiththefuturepromisingtalkingandsingingcomputersandotherdevelopments.Thisisallpartoftheinformation-revolutionatwentiethcenturyphenomenonasimportantastheindustrialrevolutioninthenineteenth.Theseelectronicmediaarenotjustlimitedtomodemnations;theyhaveaffectedmusic-culturesallovertheglobe.
Americanstodaydon’tplaceaveryhighvalueonintellect.Ourheroesareathletesentertainersandentrepreneursnotscholars.1Evenourschoolsarewherewesendourchildrentogetapracticaleducation—nottopursueknowledgeforthesakeofknowledge.Symptomsofpervasiveanti-intellectualisminourschoolsaren’tdifficulttofind.SchoolshavealwaysbeeninasocietywherepracticalismoreimportantthanintellectualsayseducationwriterDianeRavitch.Schoolscouldbeacounterbalance.Ravitch’slatestbookLeftBack:ACenturyofFailedSchoolReformstracestherootsofanti-intellectualisminourschoolsconcludingtheyareanythingbutacounterbalancetotheAmericandistasteforintellectualpursuits.Buttheycouldandshouldbe.Encouragingkidstorejectthelifeofthemindleavesthemvulnerabletoexploitationandcontrol.2Withouttheabilitytothinkcriticallytodefendtheirideasandunderstandtheideasofotherstheycannotfullyparticipateinourdemocracy.ContinuingalongthispathsayswriterEarlShorrisWewillbecomeasecond-ratecountry.Wewillhavealesscivilsociety.IntellectisresentedasaformofpowerorprivilegewriteshistorianandprofessorRichardHofstadterinAnti-IntellectualisminAmericanLifeaPulitzer-Prizewinningbookontherootsofanti-intellectualisminUSpoliticsreligionandeducation.FromthebeginningofourhistorysaysHofstadterourdemocraticandpopulisturgeshavedrivenustorejectanythingthatsmellsofelitism.3Practicalitycommonsenseandnativeintelligencehavebeenconsideredmorenoblequalitiesthananythingyoucouldlearnfromabook.RalphWaldoEmersonandotherTranscendentalistphilosophersthoughtschoolingandrigorousbooklearningputunnaturalrestraintsonchildren4Weareshutupinschoolsandcollegerecitationroomsfor10or15yearsandcomeoutatlastwithabellyfulofwordsanddonotknowathing.MarkTwain’sHuckleberryFinnexemplifiedAmericananti-intellectualism.Itsheroavoidsbeingcivilized—goingtoschoolandlearningtoread—sohecanpreservehisinnategoodness.IntellectaccordingtoHofstadterisdifferentfromnativeintelligenceaqualitywereluctantlyadmire.Intellectisthecriticalcreativeandcontemplativesideofthemind.5Intelligenceseekstograspmanipulatere-orderandadjustwhileintellectexaminesponderswonderstheorizescriticizesandimagines.Schoolremainsaplacewhereintellectismistrusted.Hofstadtersaysourcountry’seducationalsystemisinthegripsofpeoplewhojoyfullyandmilitantlyproclaimtheirhostilitytointellectandtheireagernesstoidentifywithchildrenwhoshowtheleastintellectualpromise./
Themythologyofaculturecanprovidesomevitalinsightsintothebeliefsandvaluesofthatculture.1Byusingfantasticandsometimesincrediblestoriestocreateanoraltraditionbywhichtoexplainthewondersofthenaturalworldandteachlessonstoyoungergenerationsasocietyexposesthoseideasandconceptsheldmostimportant.2Justasimportantasthefinallessontobegatheredfromthestorieshoweverarethecharactersandtherolestheyplayinconveyingthatmessage.3PerhapstheepitomeofmythologyanditsuseasatooltopassonculturalvaluescanbefoundinAesop’sFablestoldandretoldduringtheeraoftheGreekEmpire.Aesopaslavewhowonthefavorofthecourtthroughhisimaginativeanddescriptivetalesalmostexclusivelyusedanimalstofilltherolesinhisshortstories.Humanswhenatallpresentalmostalwaysplayedthepartofbumblingfoolsstrugglingtolearnthelessonbeingpresented.ThischoiceofcharacterizationallowsustoseethattheGreeksplacedwisdomonalevelslightlybeyondhumansimplyingthatdeepwisdomandunderstandingisauniversalqualitysoughtbyratherthansteanningfromhumanbeings.Aesop’sfablesillustratedthecentralthemesofhumilityandself-reliancereflectingtheimportanceofthosetraitsinearlyGreeksociety.Thefollyofhumanswasusedtocontrastagainsttheultimategoalofattainingahigherlevelofunderstandingandawarenessoftruthsaboutnatureandhumanity.Forexampleonenotablefablefeaturesafoxrepeatedlytryingtoreachabunchofgrapesonaveryhighvine.Afterfailingatseveralattemptsthefoxgivesupmakingupitsmindthatthegrapeswereprobablysouranyway.4Thefable’slessonthatweoftenplaydownthatwhichwecan’tachievesoastomakeourselvesfeelbetterteachesthereaderorlistenerinanentertainingwayaboutoneoftheweaknessesofthehumanpsyche.5ThemythologyofotherculturesandsocietiesrevealtheunderlyingtraitsoftheirrespectiveculturesjustasAesop’sfablesdid.ThestoriesofRomangodsAztecghostsandEuropeanelvesallservedtotrainancientgenerationsthoselessonsconsideredmostimportanttotheircommunityandtodaytheyofferapowerfullookingglassbywhichtoevaluateandconsiderthecontextualenvironmentinwhichthosecultureexisted.
Gandhi’spacifismcanbeseparatedtosomeextentfromhisotherteachings.1Itsmotivewasreligiousbutheclaimedalsoforitthatitwasadefinitivetechniqueamethodcapableofproducingdesiredpoliticalresults.Gandhi’sattitudewasnotthatofmostWesternpacifists.Satyagraha2themethodGandhiproposedandpracticedfirstevolvedinSouthAfricawasasortofnon-violentwarfareawayofdefeatingtheenemywithouthurtinghimandwithoutfeelingorarousinghatred.ItentailedsuchthingsascivildisobediencestrikeslyingdowninfrontofRailwaytrainsenduringpolicechargeswithoutrunningawayandwithouthittingbackandthelike.GandhiobjectedtopassiveresistanceasatranslationofSatyagraha:inGujaratiitseemsthewordmeansfirmnessinthetruth.3InhisearlydaysGandhiservedasastretcher-bearerontheBritishsideintheBoerWarandhewaspreparedtodothesameagaininthewarof1914-1918.Evenafterhehadcompletelyabjuredviolencehewashonestenoughtoseethatinwaritisusuallynecessarytotakesides.Sincehiswholepoliticallifecenteredroundastrugglefornationalindependencehecouldnotand4indeedhedidnottakethesterileanddishonestlineofpretendingthatineverywarbothsidesareexactlythesameanditmakesnodifferencewhowins.NordidhelikemostWesternpacifistsspecializeinavoidingawkwardquestions.Inrelationtothelatewaronequestionthateverypacifisthadaclearobligationtoanswerwas:WhatabouttheJewsAreyoupreparedtoseethemexterminatedIfnothowdoyouproposetosavethemwithoutresortingtowar5ImustsaythatIhaveneverheardfromanyWesternpacifistanhonestanswertothisquestionthoughIhaveheardplentyofevasionsusuallyoftheyou’reanothertype.ButitsohappensthatGandhiwasaskedasomewhatsimilarquestionin1938andthathisanswerisonrecordinMr.LouisFischer’sGandhiandStalin.AccordingtoMr.FischerGandhi’sviewwasthattheGermanJewsoughttocommitcollectivesuicidewhichwouldhavearousedtheworldandthepeopleofGermanytoHitler’sviolence./
1Materialculturereferstothetouchablematerialthings—physicalobjectsthatcanbeseenheldfeltused—thatacultureproduces.Examiningaculture’stoolsandtechnologycantellusaboutthegroup’shistoryandwayoflife.Similarlyresearchintothematerialcultureofmusiccanhelpustounderstandthemusic-culture.Themostvividbodyofthingsinitofcoursearemusicalinstruments.2Wecannothearforourselvestheactualsoundofanymusicalperformancebeforethe1870swhenthephonographwasinventedsowerelyoninstrumentsforimportantinformationaboutmusic-culturesintheremotepastandtheirdevelopment.Herewehavetwokindsofevidence:instrumentswellpreservedandinstrumentspicturedinart.ThroughthestudyofinstrumentsaswellaspaintingswrittendocumentsandsoonwecanexplorethemovementofmusicfromtheNearEasttoChinaoverathousandyearsagoorwecanoutlinethespreadofNearEasterninfluencetoEuropethatresultedinthedevelopmentofmostoftheinstrumentsonthesymphonyorchestra.Sheetmusicorprintedmusictooismaterialculture.Scholarsoncedefinedfolkmusic-culturesasthoseinwhichpeoplelearnandsingmusicbyearratherthanfromprintbutresearchshowsmutualinfluenceamongoralandwrittensourcesduringthepastfewcenturiesinEuropeBritainandAmerica.Printedversionslimitvarietybecausetheytendtostandardizeanysongyettheystimulatepeopletocreatenewanddifferentsongs.3Besidestheabilitytoreadmusicnotationhasafar-reachingeffectonmusiciansandwhenitbecomeswidespreadonthemusic-cultureasawhole.Musicisdeep-rootedintheculturalbackgroundthatfostersit.Wenowpaymoreandmoreattentiontotraditionalorethnicfeaturesinfolkmusicandarewillingtopreservethefolkmusicaswedowithmanytraditionalculturalheritage.Musiciansallovertheworldarebusywithrecordingclassicmusicintheircountryforthesakeoftheiruniqueculture.4Asalwayspeople’saspirationwillalwaysfocusontheirindividualityratherthanuniversalfeaturesthataresharedbyallculturesalike.5Onemoreimportantpartofmusic’smaterialcultureshouldbesingledout:theinfluenceoftheelectronicmedia—radiorecordplayertaperecorderandtelevisionwiththefuturepromisingtalkingandsingingcomputersandotherdevelopments.Thisisallpartoftheinformation-revolutionatwentiethcenturyphenomenonasimportantastheindustrialrevolutioninthenineteenth.Theseelectronicmediaarenotjustlimitedtomodemnations;theyhaveaffectedmusic-culturesallovertheglobe.
1WiththeextensionofdemocraticrightsinthefirsthalfofthenineteenthcenturyandtheensuingdeclineoftheFederalistestablishmentanewconceptionofeducationbegantoemerge.Educationwasnolongeraconfirmationofapre-existingstatusbutaninstrumentintheacquisitionofhigherstatus.Foranewgenerationofupwardlymobilestudentsthegoalofeducationwasnottopreparethemtolivecomfortablyintheworldintowhichtheyhadbeenbornbuttoteachnewvirtuesandskillsthatwouldpropelthemintoadifferentandbetterworld.2Educationbecametraining;andthestudentwasnolongerthegentleman-in-waitingbutthe.journeymanapprenticeforupwardmobility.Inthenineteenthcenturyacollegeeducationbegantobeseenasawaytogetaheadintheworld.Thefoundingoftheland-grantcollegesopenedthedoorsofhighereducationtopoorbutaspiringboysfromnon-Anglo-Saxonworking-classandlower-middle-classbackgrounds.3Themythofthepoorboywhoworkedhiswaythroughcollegetosuccessdrewmillionsofpoorboystothenewcampuses.Andwiththisshifteducationbecamemorevocational:itsobjectwastheacquisitionofpracticalskillsandusefulinformation.4Forthegentleman-in-waitingvirtueconsistedaboveallingraceandstyleindoingwellwhatwasappropriatetohisposition;educationwasmerelyawayofacquiringpolish.Andvicewasmanifestedingracelessnessawkwardnessinbehavinginappropriatelydiscourteouslyorostentatiously.Fortheapprenticehowevervirtuewasevidencedinsuccessthroughhardwork.Therequisitequalitiesofcharacterwerenotgraceorstylebutdrivedeterminationandasharpeyeforopportunity.Whilecasualliberalityandevenprodigalitycharacterizedthegentlemanfrugalitythriftandself-controlcametodistinguishthenewapprentice.5Andwhilethegentlemandidnotaspiretoahigherstationbecausehisstationwasalreadyhightheapprenticewascontinuallybecomingstrivingstrugglingupward.Failurefortheapprenticemeantstandingstillnotrising.
1Materialculturereferstothetouchablematerialthings—physicalobjectsthatcanbeseenheldfeltused—thatacultureproduces.Examiningaculture’stoolsandtechnologycantellusaboutthegroup’shistoryandwayoflife.Similarlyresearchintothematerialcultureofmusiccanhelpustounderstandthemusic-culture.Themostvividbodyofthingsinitofcoursearemusicalinstruments.2Wecannothearforourselvestheactualsoundofanymusicalperformancebeforethe1870swhenthephonographwasinventedsowerelyoninstrumentsforimportantinformationaboutmusic-culturesintheremotepastandtheirdevelopment.Herewehavetwokindsofevidence:instrumentswellpreservedandinstrumentspicturedinart.ThroughthestudyofinstrumentsaswellaspaintingswrittendocumentsandsoonwecanexplorethemovementofmusicfromtheNearEasttoChinaoverathousandyearsagoorwecanoutlinethespreadofNearEasterninfluencetoEuropethatresultedinthedevelopmentofmostoftheinstrumentsonthesymphonyorchestra.Sheetmusicorprintedmusictooismaterialculture.Scholarsoncedefinedfolkmusic-culturesasthoseinwhichpeoplelearnandsingmusicbyearratherthanfromprintbutresearchshowsmutualinfluenceamongoralandwrittensourcesduringthepastfewcenturiesinEuropeBritainandAmerica.Printedversionslimitvarietybecausetheytendtostandardizeanysongyettheystimulatepeopletocreatenewanddifferentsongs.3Besidestheabilitytoreadmusicnotationhasafar-reachingeffectonmusiciansandwhenitbecomeswidespreadonthemusic-cultureasawhole.Musicisdeep-rootedintheculturalbackgroundthatfostersit.Wenowpaymoreandmoreattentiontotraditionalorethnicfeaturesinfolkmusicandarewillingtopreservethefolkmusicaswedowithmanytraditionalculturalheritage.Musiciansallovertheworldarebusywithrecordingclassicmusicintheircountryforthesakeoftheiruniqueculture.4Asalwayspeople’saspirationwillalwaysfocusontheirindividualityratherthanuniversalfeaturesthataresharedbyallculturesalike.5Onemoreimportantpartofmusic’smaterialcultureshouldbesingledout:theinfluenceoftheelectronicmedia—radiorecordplayertaperecorderandtelevisionwiththefuturepromisingtalkingandsingingcomputersandotherdevelopments.Thisisallpartoftheinformation-revolutionatwentiethcenturyphenomenonasimportantastheindustrialrevolutioninthenineteenth.Theseelectronicmediaarenotjustlimitedtomodemnations;theyhaveaffectedmusic-culturesallovertheglobe.
TheinclusionofallchildrenandyouthispartofageneralintegrativetrendthathasacceleratedsinceWorldWarII.Itrelatestosomenewerdevelopmentsaswell.Concernfortheearth’sendangeredenvironmenthasbecomecentralemphasizinginbothintellectualandsociallifetheneedforcooperationratherthancompetitiontheimportanceofunderstandinginterrelationshipsoftheecosystemandtheideathatecologycanbeusedasanorganizingconcept.Inadifferentveintherapiddevelopmentofmicroelectronicsparticularlytheuseofcomputersformultiplefunctionsineducationgoesforbeyondpossibilitiesofearliertechnologicaladvances.1Althoughtechnologyisthoughtofbysomeasantagonistictohumanisticconcernsothersarguethatitmakescommunicationandcomprehensionavailabletoawiderpopulationandencouragessystemthinkingbothultimatelyintegrativeeffects.Thepolarizationofopinionontechnology’seffectsandmostotherimportantissuesisaproblemineducationalpolicydetermination.2Inadditiontothedifficultiesofgoverningincreasinglylargeanddiverseeducationsystemsaswellasthoseofmeetingthenever-endingdemandsofexpandingeducationthechroniclackofconsensusmakesthesystemunabletorespondsatisfactorilytopubliccriticismandunabletoplanforsubstantivelong-rangedevelopment.3Thepoliticalandadministrativeresponsessofarhavebeentoattendtoshort-runefficiencybyimprovingmanagementtechniquesandtoadoptpolarresponsestoaccommodatepolarcriticisms.Thuscommunityandcommunityschoolshavebeenemphasizedalongwithcentralcontrolandstandardizationandinstitutionalalternativeshavebeenopenedwhilethestructureofmaininstitutionshasbecomemorearticulated.Forexamplethefocusofattentionhasbeenplacedonthetransitionstageswhichearlierwerevirtuallyignored:fromhometoschoolfromprimarytosecondarytouppersecondaryfromschooltowork.Tertiaryinstitutionshavebeenreconceivedaspartofaunifiedlevel;testinghasbecomemoresophisticatedandcredentialshavebecomemoredifferentiatedeitherbycertificateorbytranscript.Alternativeteachingstrategieshavebeenencouragedintheorybutbasiccurriculumuniformityhaseffectivelyrestrictedthepracticeofnewmethods.Generaleducationisstillmainlyabstractandsubjectmatterthoughinternallymoredynamicstillrestsonlanguagemathematicsandscience.Therehasbeenanincreasingrelianceontheconstructionofsubjectmattertoguidethemethodofteaching.4Teachersareentrustedwithagreatervarietyoftasksbuttheyarelesstrustedwithknowledgeleadingpoliticalauthoritiestocallforupgradingofteachertrainingteacherinservicetrainingandregularassessmentofteacherperformance.5Recentreformeffortshavebeenfocusedonintegratinggeneralandvocationaleducationandonencouraginglifelongorrecurrenteducationtomeetchangingindividualandsocialneeds.Thusnotonlyhasthenumberofstudentsandinstitutionsincreasedasaresultofinclusionpoliciesbutthescopeofeducationhasalsoexpanded.Thistremendousgrowthhoweverhasraisednewquestionsabouttheproperfunctionsoftheschoolandtheeffectivenessforlifeworkorintellectualadvancementofpresentprogramsandmeansofinstruction.
Personalityistoalargeextentinherent—A-typeparentsusuallybringaboutA-typeoffspring.1Buttheenvironmentmustalsohaveaprofoundeffectsinceifcompetitionisimportanttotheparentsitislikelytobecomeamajorfactorinthelivesoftheirchildren.OneplacewherechildrensoakupAcharacteristicsisschoolwhichisbyitsverynatureahighlycompetitiveinstitution.Toomanyschoolsadoptthewinatallcostsmoralstandardandmeasuretheirsuccessbysportingachievements.2Thecurrentpassionformakingchildrencompeteagainsttheirclassmatesoragainsttheclockproducesatwo-layersysteminwhichcompetitiveA-typesseeminsomewaybetterthantheirB-typefellows.Beingtookeentowincanhavedangerousconsequences:rememberthatPheidippidesthefirstmarathonrunnerdroppeddeadsecondsaftersaying:Rejoiceweconquer!Byfartheworstformofcompetitioninschoolsisthedisproportionateemphasisonexaminations.Itisarareschoolthatallowspupilstoconcentrateonthosethingstheydowell.3Themeritsofcompetitionbyexaminationaresomewhatquestionablebutcompetitioninthecertainknowledgeoffailureispositivelyharmful.ObviouslyitisneitherpracticalnordesirablethatallAyoungsterschangeintoB’s.4Theworldneedstypesandschoolshaveanimportantdutytotrytofitachild’spersonalitytohispossiblefutureemployment.Itistopmanagement.Ifthepreoccupationofschoolswithacademicworkwaslessenedmoretimemightbespentteachingchildrensurervalues.5Perhapsselectionforthecaringprofessionsespeciallymedicinecouldbemadelessbygoodgradesinchemistryandmorebysuchconsiderationsassensitivityandsympathy.ItissurelyamistaketochooseourdoctorsexclusivelyfromA-typestock.B’sareimportantandshouldbeencouraged.
WhereintheworldisthelargestnumberofdifferentlanguagesspokenMostlinguistswouldprobablyplumpforNewGuineaanislandthathas830recognizedtonguesscatteredarounditsisolatedjungle-coveredvalleys.Butaplaceontheothersideoftheworldrunsitclose.ThefiveboroughsofNewYorkCityarereckonedtobehometospeakersofaround800languages.Manyofthemclosetoextinction.1NewYorkisalsohomeofcoursetoalotofacademiclinguistsandthreeofthemhavegottogethertocreateanorganizationcalledtheEndangeredLanguageAllianceELAwhichisferretingoutspeakersofunusualtonguesfromthecity’shuddledimmigrantmasses.TheELAwhichwassetuplastyearbyDanielKaufmanJulietteBlevinsandBobHolmanhasworkedindetailon12languagessinceitsinception.Ithascodifiedtheirgrammarstheirpronunciationsandtheirword-formationpatternsaswellastheirsongsandlegends.EachvolunteerspeakerofalanguageofinterestisfirsttestedwithwhatisknownasaSwadeshlist.Thisisasetof207high-frequencyslow-to-changewordssuchaspartsofthebodycolorsandbasicverbslikeeatdrinksleepandkill.TheSwadeshlistisintendedtoascertainanindividual’sfluencybeforeheistakenon.OncehehasbeenacceptedDrKauf-manandhiscolleaguesstartchippingawayatthelanguage’sphonologythesoundsofwhichitiscomposedanditssyntaxhowitsmeaningischangedbytheorderofwordsandphrases.Thissortofanalysisisthebreadandbutteroflinguistics.Everysooftenthoughtheresearcherscomeacrossabitofjam.TheMahongwewordmanonoforexamplemeansIlikewhenspokensoftandflatandIdon’tlikewhenthefirstsyllableisatadsharperintone.Similarlymhazacouldbeeitherchestorcouncilhouse.InbothcasesthetwowordsarenearlyindistinguishabletoanEnglishspeakerbutyieldstarklydifferentpatternswhenrunthroughaspectrograph.2Manonoisaparticularlinguisticodditysinceitusesonlytonetodifferentiateanaffirmativefromanegative—aphenomenontheELAhassincediscoveredappliestoallverbsinMahongwe.Suchnicetiesareinterestingtoexperts.ButtheELAisattemptingtounderstandmorethanjustthenutsandboltsoflanguages.Itiscollectingstoriesandotherverbalmaterialspecifictotheculturesoftheparticipants.OnevolunteerforexamplewantstowriteastorybookforchildreninherlanguageShughniandalsoarecipebook.3ThatmeanscreatingawrittenformofthelanguagewhichtheresearchersdousingwhatisknownastheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet.4ManyofDr.Kaufman’sbetterfindshesays.havecomefromhangingoutatstreetcornerswithaclipboardonRooseveltAvenue—astreetintheboroughofQueensthathedescribesastheepicenteroftheepicenteroflinguisticNewYork.Howlongitwillremainsoismoot.Theworld’slanguageswhichnumberabout6900arereckonedtobedyingoutattherateofoneafortnight.ThereasonispreciselythesortofculturalmixingthatNewYorkepitomizes.5Thevalueoflearninganyparticularlanguageisincreasedbythenumberofpeoplewhoalreadyspeakitwhilethevalueofaminoritylanguageisdiminishedaspeopleabandonit.Tothoselanguagesthathathinotherwordsshallbegiven.Fromthosethathathnotshallthelastspeakerssoonbetakenaway
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