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TheTideRisestheTideFallsByHenryWadsworthLongfellow
-IhopetoseeNiagaraFallsoneday.Whataboutgoingthere?
sometimes
in the day
a day
some day
Rainfallsfromcloudsforthesamereasonanythingfailsto
ThespectacularVictoriaFallslinkstwocountriesZimbab
TheLanternFestivalalsoknownasYuanxiaoFestivalorSha
falls for
falls out
falls on
falls off
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The2013SpringFestivalfalls______February.
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has no changes
not sure
ThespectacularVictoriaFallslinkstwocountriesZimbab
-IhopetoseeNiagaraFallsoneday.Whataboutgoingthere?
sometimes
in the day
a day
some day
阅读下面短文用方框内所给单词的适当形式填入空白处;每词限用一次anyoneluckydiekindp
任务型阅读YoumusthaveheardofNiagaraFallsafamouswaterfal
Anapple______intothewater.
fell
was fallen
falls
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Rarely_____________________.
the temperature falls below zero here
falls the temperature below zero here
does the temperature fall below zero here
has the temperature fallen below zero here
任务型阅读YoumusthaveheardofNiagaraFallsafamouswaterfal
Jim______hisbikeandhurthisleftarmyesterday.
falls down
falls off
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fell down
Anythingdroppedfallstowardsthecenteroftheearthbeca
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gravity
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Acidfog______
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is not as frequent as acid rain
often falls in the region of Manchester, England
is as damaging as acid rain
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Theproblemtobetakenupandthepointatwhichthesearchforasolutionwillbeginarecustomarilyprescribedbytheinvestigator1asubjectparticipatinginan2onthinkingorbytheprogrammerforacomputer.3prevailingtechniquesof4inthepsychologyofthinkinghaveinvited5ofthemotivationalaspectsofthinking.Theconditionsthatdeterminewhenthepersonwillbegintothinkin6tosomeotheractivitywhathewillthinkaboutwhatdirectionhisthinkingwilltakeandwhenhewillregardhissearchforasolutionassuccessfullyterminatedorabandonitasnotworthpursuingfurther7arebeginningtoattractinvestigation.8muchthinkingisaimedat9endsspecialmotivationalproblemsareraisedby"disinterested"thinkinginwhichthe10ofananswertoaquestionisasourceofsatisfactioninitself. Forcomputerspecialiststhedetectionofamismatchbetweentheformulathattheprogramsofarhas11andsomeformulaorsetofrequirementsthat12asolutioniswhatimpelscontinuationofthesearchanddeterminesthedirectionitwill13. Neo-behavioristslikepsychoanalystshavemademuchofsecondary14valueandstimulusgeneralization;i.e.thetendencyofastimuluspatterntobecomeasourceofsatisfactionifitresemblesorhas15accompaniedsomeformofbiologicalgratification.Theinsufficiencyofthiskindofexplanationbecomesapparent16whentheimportanceofnoveltysurprisecomplexityincongruityambiguityand17isconsidered.Inconsistencybetweenbeliefsbetweenitemsofincomingsensoryinformationorbetweenone’sbeliefandanitemofsensoryinformation18canbeasourceofdiscomfortimpellinga19forresolutionthroughreorganizationofbelief20orthroughselectiveacquisitionofnewinformation. 9
Atsomepointduringtheireducationbiologystudentsaretoldaboutaconversationinapubthattookplaceover50yearsago.J.B.S.HaldaneaBritishgeneticistwasaskedwhetherhewouldlaydownhislifeforhiscountry.Afterdoingaquickcalculationonthebackofanapkinhesaidhewoulddosofortwobrothersoreightcousins.Inotherwordshewoulddietoprotecttheequivalentofhisgeneticcontributiontothenextgeneration.Thetheoryofkinselection—theideathatanimalscanpassontheirgenesbyhelpingtheircloserelatives—isbiology’sexplanationforseeminglyaltruisticacts.Anindividualcarryinggenesthatpromotealtruismmightbeexpectedtodieyoungerthanonewithselfishgenesandthustohaveareducedcontributiontothenextgeneration’sgeneticpool.Butifthesameindividualactsaltruisticallytoprotectitsrelativesgenesforaltruisticbehaviormightneverthelesspropagate.Actsofapparentaltruismtonon-relativescanalsobeexplainedawayinwhathasbecomeacottageindustrywithinbiology.Ananimalmightcarefortheoffspringofanotherthatitisunrelatedtobecauseithopestoobtainthesamebenefitsforitselflateronaphenomenonknownasreciprocalaltruism.Thehunterwhogenerouslyshareshisspoilswithothersmaybedoingsoinordertosignalhissuperiorstatustofemalesandultimatelyboosthisbreedingsuccess.Theseapparentlyselflessactsarethereforedisguisedactsofselfinterest.Alloftheseexamplesfiteconomists’argumentsthatHomosapiensisalsoHomoeconomicus—maximizingsomethingthateconomistscallutilityandbiologistsfitness.Butthereisaresiduumofhumanactivitythatdefiessuchexplanations:peoplecontributetocharitiesforthehomelessreturnlostwalletsdovoluntaryworkandtipwaitersinrestaurantstowhichtheydonotplantoreturn.Botheconomicrationalismandnaturalselectionofferfewexplanationsforsuchrandomactsofkindness.Norcantheyeasilyexplaintheopposite:spitefulbehaviorwhensomeoneharmshisowninterestinordertodamagethatofanother.Butpeoplearenowtryingtofindanswers.Whenanewphenomenonisrecognizedbyscienceanamealwayshelps.InapaperinHumanNatureDrFehrandhiscolleaguesargueforabehavioralpropensitytheycallstrongreciprocity.Thisnameisintendedtodistinguishitfromreciprocalaltruism.AccordingtoDrFehrapersonisastrongreciprocatorifheiswillingtosacrificeresourcestobekindtothosewhoarebeingkindandtopunishthosewhoarebeingunkind.Significantlystrongreciprocatorswillbehavethiswayevenifdoingsoprovidesnoprospectofmaterialrewardsinthefuture.ThestoryofJ.B.S.Haldaneismentionedinthetext
ThetitleofthebiographyTheAmericanCivilWarFightingfortheLadycouldhardlybemoreprovocative.ThomasKeneallyanAustralianwriterisunapologetic.InlabelingaherooftheAmericancivilwaranotoriousscoundrelbeswitchesthespotlightfromthebraveactionsofDanSicklesatthebattleofGettysburgtohisearlierpremeditatedmurderoftheloverofhisyoungandprettyItalian-AmericanwifeTeresa.ItisnotthemurderitselfthatdisgustsMrKeneallybutSickles’streatmentofhiswifeafterwardsandhowhisbehaviormirroredthehypocriticalmisogynyof19th-centuryAmerica.ThemurdervictimPhilipBartonKeyTeresaSickles’slovercamefromafamousoldsouthernfamily.HewasthenephewofthethenchiefjusticeoftheAmericanSupremeCourtandthesonofthewriterofthecountry’snationalanthem.SicklesaTammanyHallpoliticianinNewYorkturnedDemocraticcongressmaninWashingtonshotKeydeadin1859atacornerofLafayetteSquarewithinshoutingdistanceoftheWhiteHouse.Butthemurdertrialwasmelodramaticevenbythestandardsoftheday.WiththehelpofeightlawyersSickleswasfoundnotguiltyafterusingthenovelpleaoftemporaryinsanity.ThecountryatlargewasjustasforgivingviewingKey’smurderasagallantcrimeofpassion.WithinthreeyearsSickleswasageneralontheUnionistsideintheAmericancivilWarandasanewfriendofAbrahamandMaryLincolnafrequentsleepoverguestattheWhiteHouse.MrsSickleswaslessfortunate.Shewasshunnedbyfriendsshehadmadeasthewifeofarisingpolitician.HerhusbandaserialadultererwhosemanymistressesincludedQueenIsabellaⅡofSpainandthemadamofanindustrializedNewYorkwhorehouserefusedtobeseeninhercompany.LauratheSickles’sdaughterwasaninnocentvictimofherfather’svindictivenessandeventuallydiedofdrinkintheBowerydistrictofNewYork.Sickles’sboldactionsatGettysburgareintheirownwayjustascontroversial.ArgumentcontinuestorageamongscholarsastowhetherhehelpedtheUniontovictoryornearlycauseditsdefeatwhenhemovedhisforcesoutoflinetooccupywhathethoughtwasbetterground.JamesLongstreettheConfederategeneralwholedtheattackagainstthenewpositionwasinnodoubtaboutthebrillianceofthemove.MrKeneallyisbetterknownasanovelist.Hereheshowshimselfjustasadeptatbiographyandachievesbothhismainaims.HerestoresthereputationofTeresaSicklesthisbeautifulpleasantandintelligentgirlandbreathesfullandcontroversiallifeintoafamousmilitaryengagement.Keneally’sbiographyisintendedmainlyto
ThelongandprogressivereignofQueenVictoriacametoaclimaxatatimeofpeaceandplentywhentheBritishEmpireseemedtobeatthesummitofitspowerandsecurity.OfthediscordthatsoonfollowedweshallherenoteonlytwofactorswhichhadlargeinfluenceoncontemporaryEnglishliterature. ThefirstdisturbingfactorwasimperialismthereawakeningofadominatingspiritwhichhadseeminglybeenputtosleepbytheproclamationofanImperialFederation.46ItscomingwasheraldedbytheBoerWarinSouthAfricathroughwhichBritainblunderedtowhatwashopedtobeaneraofpeaceandgoodwill.Othernationspromptlymadesuchhopeavainwhistlinginthewind.JapaneseWarLordsbeganacareerofconquestwhichaimedtomakeJapanmasterofAsiaandEastIndies.Pacificislandsthathadforagessleptpeacefullywereturnedintofrowningnavalstations.47EventheUnitedStatesarousedbyaneasytriumphintheSpanishWarstartedonanimperialisticadventurebytakingcontrolofthePhilippinesthusmakinganimplacableenemyofJapan. Onlyanationthatentersonadangerouscoursewitheyeswideopenhasanychanceofasafewayoutandtheimperialisticnationswereallalikeblind.48AninevitableresultwastheFirstWarandthegreathorrorofaSecondWorldWarthetwodisastersbeingdifferentactsofthesametragedyofimperialismseparatedonlybyabreathingspell. Anotherfactorthatinfluencedliteraturefortheworsewasawidespreaddemandforsocialreformofeverykind;notslowandorderlyreformwhichisprogressbutimmediateanduncontrolledreformwhichbreedsaspiritofrebellionanddespair.BeforetheVictorianagehadcometoanendEnglishliteratureappearedtohavelosttouchwithhealthyEnglishlife.ManywritersechoedthesorrowfulcryofJamesThomsoninhisCityofDreadfulNightorbabbledof"artforart’ssake"withOscarWilde.49GroominhissurveyoftheperiodnotesthatwritershadmostlyacriticalattitudetowardmoralsandreligionChurchandStateasreliesfrom"thedeadhandoftraditionalbeliefs."50SmallwonderthatGermanandJapanesewar-advocatesregardedEnglishmenasadecadentracewhenthesameoraworseopinionwasdailyreadinthenovelsofSamuelButlerandnightlyheardintheplaysofBernardShaw. EventheUnitedStatesarousedbyaneasytriumphintheSpanishWarstartedonanimperialisticadventurebytakingcontrolofthePhilippinesthusmakinganimplacableenemyofJapan.
Atsomepointduringtheireducationbiologystudentsaretoldaboutaconversationinapubthattookplaceover50yearsago.J.B.S.HaldaneaBritishgeneticistwasaskedwhetherhewouldlaydownhislifeforhiscountry.Afterdoingaquickcalculationonthebackofanapkinhesaidhewoulddosofortwobrothersoreightcousins.Inotherwordshewoulddietoprotecttheequivalentofhisgeneticcontributiontothenextgeneration.Thetheoryofkinselection—theideathatanimalscanpassontheirgenesbyhelpingtheircloserelatives—isbiology’sexplanationforseeminglyaltruisticacts.Anindividualcarryinggenesthatpromotealtruismmightbeexpectedtodieyoungerthanonewithselfishgenesandthustohaveareducedcontributiontothenextgeneration’sgeneticpool.Butifthesameindividualactsaltruisticallytoprotectitsrelativesgenesforaltruisticbehaviormightneverthelesspropagate.Actsofapparentaltruismtonon-relativescanalsobeexplainedawayinwhathasbecomeacottageindustrywithinbiology.Ananimalmightcarefortheoffspringofanotherthatitisunrelatedtobecauseithopestoobtainthesamebenefitsforitselflateronaphenomenonknownasreciprocalaltruism.Thehunterwhogenerouslyshareshisspoilswithothersmaybedoingsoinordertosignalhissuperiorstatustofemalesandultimatelyboosthisbreedingsuccess.Theseapparentlyselflessactsarethereforedisguisedactsofselfinterest.Alloftheseexamplesfiteconomists’argumentsthatHomosapiensisalsoHomoeconomicus—maximizingsomethingthateconomistscallutilityandbiologistsfitness.Butthereisaresiduumofhumanactivitythatdefiessuchexplanations:peoplecontributetocharitiesforthehomelessreturnlostwalletsdovoluntaryworkandtipwaitersinrestaurantstowhichtheydonotplantoreturn.Botheconomicrationalismandnaturalselectionofferfewexplanationsforsuchrandomactsofkindness.Norcantheyeasilyexplaintheopposite:spitefulbehaviorwhensomeoneharmshisowninterestinordertodamagethatofanother.Butpeoplearenowtryingtofindanswers.Whenanewphenomenonisrecognizedbyscienceanamealwayshelps.InapaperinHumanNatureDrFehrandhiscolleaguesargueforabehavioralpropensitytheycallstrongreciprocity.Thisnameisintendedtodistinguishitfromreciprocalaltruism.AccordingtoDrFehrapersonisastrongreciprocatorifheiswillingtosacrificeresourcestobekindtothosewhoarebeingkindandtopunishthosewhoarebeingunkind.Significantlystrongreciprocatorswillbehavethiswayevenifdoingsoprovidesnoprospectofmaterialrewardsinthefuture.ItcanbeinferredfromParagraph4that
CanthisbetherighttimetoinvestinluxurygoodsMiucciaPradawasobviouslybitinghernails.ThegranddaughterofthefounderoftheItalianfashiongrouphasjustopenedspectacularnewstoresinquicksuccessioninNewYorkandLondon.Withitsmagicmirrorssilverdisplaysandcomputer-controlledchangingroomsPrada’stwo-month-oldshopinManhattancostastaggering＄40msitsjustamilefromGroundZeroandsellspracticallynothing.Theluxury-goodsbusinesshasbeenindespairinhastysuccessionagainstabackgroundofaweakeningglobaleconomyanenduringslumpinJapanesespendingandtheSeptember11thterroristattacks.TheJapanesewhousedtobuyathirdoftheworld’sluxurygoodscuttheirforeigntravelinhalfaftertheattacksandtightenedtheirLouisVuittonpurse-strings.AtthesametimewealthyAmericansstoppedflyingwhichhasadramaticeffectontheluxury-goodspurveyorsofLondonParisandRome.AthometooAmericans’attitudestoluxurychangedatleasttemporarily.Conspicuousabstentionreplacedgreedyconsumerismamongthefast-growingyoungerbreedofnewlyrich.Thedeclineinjobsecuritythelowerbonusesinfinancialservicesandthestockmarketbustthatwipedoutmuchofthepaperwealthgeneratedinthelate1990sbredanewfrugality.Salesofexpensivejewelrywatchesandhandbags—theproductsthatmakethejuiciestprofitsforthebigluxury-goodsgroups—droppedsharply.Theimpacthasbeenmoststrikingamongthehandfuloflargequotedluxury-goodscompanies.France’sLouisVuittonMoetHennessyLVMHtheindustryleaderissuedfourprofitswarningsafterSeptember11thandendedupreportinga20%declineinoperatingprofitfor2001afterhavingrepeatedlypromiseditsinvestorsdouble-digitgrowth;andItaly’sGucciGroupthethirdlargestannouncedthisweekthatsecond-halfprofitsdroppedby33%.MeanwhileprivatelyheldPradahadtopostponeitsstockmarketflotationandwasforcedtosellarecentlyacquiredstakeinFendiaprestigiousItalianbagmakerinordertoreduceitsdebts.Luxuryisanunusualbusiness.Aluxurybrandcannotbeextendedindefinitely:ifitbecomestoocommonitisdevaluedasPierreCardinandRalphLaurenprovedbystickingtheirlabelsoneverythingfromT-shirtstopaint.Equallyabrandnamecanbeunderminedifitisnotadvertisedconsistentlyorifitisdisplayedandsoldpoorly.SagraMaceiradeRosenaluxury-goodsanalystatJ.P.MorganarguesthatLuxurycompaniesareprimarilyretailers.Inretailingthemostimportantthingisexecutionandexecutionisallaboutmanagement.Youmayhavethebestdesign-edproductbutifyoudon’tgetitintotherightkindofshopattherighttimeyouwillfail./Whichofthefollowingcanbestdescribetheconsumptionofluxurygoodsinthepresentsituation
Theproblemtobetakenupandthepointatwhichthesearchforasolutionwillbeginarecustomarilyprescribedbytheinvestigator1asubjectparticipatinginan2onthinkingorbytheprogrammerforacomputer.3prevailingtechniquesof4inthepsychologyofthinkinghaveinvited5ofthemotivationalaspectsofthinking.Theconditionsthatdeterminewhenthepersonwillbegintothinkin6tosomeotheractivitywhathewillthinkaboutwhatdirectionhisthinkingwilltakeandwhenhewillregardhissearchforasolutionassuccessfullyterminatedorabandonitasnotworthpursuingfurther7arebeginningtoattractinvestigation.8muchthinkingisaimedat9endsspecialmotivationalproblemsareraisedby"disinterested"thinkinginwhichthe10ofananswertoaquestionisasourceofsatisfactioninitself. Forcomputerspecialiststhedetectionofamismatchbetweentheformulathattheprogramsofarhas11andsomeformulaorsetofrequirementsthat12asolutioniswhatimpelscontinuationofthesearchanddeterminesthedirectionitwill13. Neo-behavioristslikepsychoanalystshavemademuchofsecondary14valueandstimulusgeneralization;i.e.thetendencyofastimuluspatterntobecomeasourceofsatisfactionifitresemblesorhas15accompaniedsomeformofbiologicalgratification.Theinsufficiencyofthiskindofexplanationbecomesapparent16whentheimportanceofnoveltysurprisecomplexityincongruityambiguityand17isconsidered.Inconsistencybetweenbeliefsbetweenitemsofincomingsensoryinformationorbetweenone’sbeliefandanitemofsensoryinformation18canbeasourceofdiscomfortimpellinga19forresolutionthroughreorganizationofbelief20orthroughselectiveacquisitionofnewinformation. 13
Atsomepointduringtheireducationbiologystudentsaretoldaboutaconversationinapubthattookplaceover50yearsago.J.B.S.HaldaneaBritishgeneticistwasaskedwhetherhewouldlaydownhislifeforhiscountry.Afterdoingaquickcalculationonthebackofanapkinhesaidhewoulddosofortwobrothersoreightcousins.Inotherwordshewoulddietoprotecttheequivalentofhisgeneticcontributiontothenextgeneration.Thetheoryofkinselection—theideathatanimalscanpassontheirgenesbyhelpingtheircloserelatives—isbiology’sexplanationforseeminglyaltruisticacts.Anindividualcarryinggenesthatpromotealtruismmightbeexpectedtodieyoungerthanonewithselfishgenesandthustohaveareducedcontributiontothenextgeneration’sgeneticpool.Butifthesameindividualactsaltruisticallytoprotectitsrelativesgenesforaltruisticbehaviormightneverthelesspropagate.Actsofapparentaltruismtonon-relativescanalsobeexplainedawayinwhathasbecomeacottageindustrywithinbiology.Ananimalmightcarefortheoffspringofanotherthatitisunrelatedtobecauseithopestoobtainthesamebenefitsforitselflateronaphenomenonknownasreciprocalaltruism.Thehunterwhogenerouslyshareshisspoilswithothersmaybedoingsoinordertosignalhissuperiorstatustofemalesandultimatelyboosthisbreedingsuccess.Theseapparentlyselflessactsarethereforedisguisedactsofselfinterest.Alloftheseexamplesfiteconomists’argumentsthatHomosapiensisalsoHomoeconomicus—maximizingsomethingthateconomistscallutilityandbiologistsfitness.Butthereisaresiduumofhumanactivitythatdefiessuchexplanations:peoplecontributetocharitiesforthehomelessreturnlostwalletsdovoluntaryworkandtipwaitersinrestaurantstowhichtheydonotplantoreturn.Botheconomicrationalismandnaturalselectionofferfewexplanationsforsuchrandomactsofkindness.Norcantheyeasilyexplaintheopposite:spitefulbehaviorwhensomeoneharmshisowninterestinordertodamagethatofanother.Butpeoplearenowtryingtofindanswers.Whenanewphenomenonisrecognizedbyscienceanamealwayshelps.InapaperinHumanNatureDrFehrandhiscolleaguesargueforabehavioralpropensitytheycallstrongreciprocity.Thisnameisintendedtodistinguishitfromreciprocalaltruism.AccordingtoDrFehrapersonisastrongreciprocatorifheiswillingtosacrificeresourcestobekindtothosewhoarebeingkindandtopunishthosewhoarebeingunkind.Significantlystrongreciprocatorswillbehavethiswayevenifdoingsoprovidesnoprospectofmaterialrewardsinthefuture.Aspointedoutinthetextreciprocalaltruismtheoryandstrongreciprocitytheoryare
Theproblemtobetakenupandthepointatwhichthesearchforasolutionwillbeginarecustomarilyprescribedbytheinvestigator1asubjectparticipatinginan2onthinkingorbytheprogrammerforacomputer.3prevailingtechniquesof4inthepsychologyofthinkinghaveinvited5ofthemotivationalaspectsofthinking.Theconditionsthatdeterminewhenthepersonwillbegintothinkin6tosomeotheractivitywhathewillthinkaboutwhatdirectionhisthinkingwilltakeandwhenhewillregardhissearchforasolutionassuccessfullyterminatedorabandonitasnotworthpursuingfurther7arebeginningtoattractinvestigation.8muchthinkingisaimedat9endsspecialmotivationalproblemsareraisedby"disinterested"thinkinginwhichthe10ofananswertoaquestionisasourceofsatisfactioninitself. Forcomputerspecialiststhedetectionofamismatchbetweentheformulathattheprogramsofarhas11andsomeformulaorsetofrequirementsthat12asolutioniswhatimpelscontinuationofthesearchanddeterminesthedirectionitwill13. Neo-behavioristslikepsychoanalystshavemademuchofsecondary14valueandstimulusgeneralization;i.e.thetendencyofastimuluspatterntobecomeasourceofsatisfactionifitresemblesorhas15accompaniedsomeformofbiologicalgratification.Theinsufficiencyofthiskindofexplanationbecomesapparent16whentheimportanceofnoveltysurprisecomplexityincongruityambiguityand17isconsidered.Inconsistencybetweenbeliefsbetweenitemsofincomingsensoryinformationorbetweenone’sbeliefandanitemofsensoryinformation18canbeasourceofdiscomfortimpellinga19forresolutionthroughreorganizationofbelief20orthroughselectiveacquisitionofnewinformation. 3
ThetitleofthebiographyTheAmericanCivilWarFightingfortheLadycouldhardlybemoreprovocative.ThomasKeneallyanAustralianwriterisunapologetic.InlabelingaherooftheAmericancivilwaranotoriousscoundrelbeswitchesthespotlightfromthebraveactionsofDanSicklesatthebattleofGettysburgtohisearlierpremeditatedmurderoftheloverofhisyoungandprettyItalian-AmericanwifeTeresa.ItisnotthemurderitselfthatdisgustsMrKeneallybutSickles’streatmentofhiswifeafterwardsandhowhisbehaviormirroredthehypocriticalmisogynyof19th-centuryAmerica.ThemurdervictimPhilipBartonKeyTeresaSickles’slovercamefromafamousoldsouthernfamily.HewasthenephewofthethenchiefjusticeoftheAmericanSupremeCourtandthesonofthewriterofthecountry’snationalanthem.SicklesaTammanyHallpoliticianinNewYorkturnedDemocraticcongressmaninWashingtonshotKeydeadin1859atacornerofLafayetteSquarewithinshoutingdistanceoftheWhiteHouse.Butthemurdertrialwasmelodramaticevenbythestandardsoftheday.WiththehelpofeightlawyersSickleswasfoundnotguiltyafterusingthenovelpleaoftemporaryinsanity.ThecountryatlargewasjustasforgivingviewingKey’smurderasagallantcrimeofpassion.WithinthreeyearsSickleswasageneralontheUnionistsideintheAmericancivilWarandasanewfriendofAbrahamandMaryLincolnafrequentsleepoverguestattheWhiteHouse.MrsSickleswaslessfortunate.Shewasshunnedbyfriendsshehadmadeasthewifeofarisingpolitician.HerhusbandaserialadultererwhosemanymistressesincludedQueenIsabellaⅡofSpainandthemadamofanindustrializedNewYorkwhorehouserefusedtobeseeninhercompany.LauratheSickles’sdaughterwasaninnocentvictimofherfather’svindictivenessandeventuallydiedofdrinkintheBowerydistrictofNewYork.Sickles’sboldactionsatGettysburgareintheirownwayjustascontroversial.ArgumentcontinuestorageamongscholarsastowhetherhehelpedtheUniontovictoryornearlycauseditsdefeatwhenhemovedhisforcesoutoflinetooccupywhathethoughtwasbetterground.JamesLongstreettheConfederategeneralwholedtheattackagainstthenewpositionwasinnodoubtaboutthebrillianceofthemove.MrKeneallyisbetterknownasanovelist.Hereheshowshimselfjustasadeptatbiographyandachievesbothhismainaims.HerestoresthereputationofTeresaSicklesthisbeautifulpleasantandintelligentgirlandbreathesfullandcontroversiallifeintoafamousmilitaryengagement.Thistextappearstobeadigestof
Inascience-fictionmoviecalledSpeciesamysterioussignalfromouterspaceturnsouttodescribethegenomeofanunknownorganism.WhentheinevitablemadscientistsynthesizestheDNAdescribedbytheinstructionsthecreaturehebreedsfromitturnsouttoresembleNatashaHenstridgeanathleticactress.UnfortunatelythealienharborswithinherdelicateformthedestructivepowersofaPanzerdivisionanditallendsbadlyfortherashgeneticistandhislaboratory.GlenEvanschiefexecutiveofEgeaBiosciencesinSanDiegoCaliforniaacknowledgesregretfullythatdespiteseekinghisexpertopinion—inreturnforwhichhewaspresentedwiththeposterofthestrikingMrHenstridgethathangsonhisofficewall—theproducersofSpeciesdidnothewverycloselytohissuggestionsaboutthefeasibilityoftheirscriptideas.Stilltheyhadcometotherightman.DrEvansbelievesthathisfirmwillsoonbeabletocreateifnotanaliensuccubusatleastatinybiologicalmachinemadeofartificialproteinsthatcouldmimicthebehaviorofalivingcell.MakingsuchproteinswillrequiretheabilitytosynthesizelongstretchesofDNA.ExistingtechnologyforsynthesizingDNAcanmanagetomakegenesthatencodeafewdozenaminoacidsbutthisistooshorttoproduceanyinterestingproteins.Egea’stechnologybycontrastwouldallowbiologiststomanufacturegeneswholesale.Thefirm’sscientistscanmakegeneslongenoughtoencode6000aminoacids.Theyaimtosynthesizeagenefor30000aminoacidswithintwoyears.Usingalibraryoftheroughly1500possiblemotifsorfoldsthataproteincanadoptEgea’sscientistsemploycomputerstodesignnewproteinsthatarelikelytohavedesirableshapesandproperties.TosynthesizetheDNAthatencodestheseproteinsEgeausesamachineithasdubbedthegenewriter.DrEvanslikensthisdevicetoaword-processorforDNAonwhichyoucantypeinthesequenceoflettersdefiningapieceofDNAandgetthatmoleculeout.AsEgeaextendsthelengthofDNAitcansynthesizeDrEvansenvisagesencodingnotjustproteinsbutentirebiochemicalpathwayswhichareteamsofproteinsthatconductmetabolicprocesses.Acollectionofsuchmoleculescouldconceivablyfunctionasaminiaturemachinethatwouldoperateinthebodyandattackdiseasejustasthebody’sowndefensivecellsdo.PerhapsDrEvansandhiscolleaguesoughttogetintouchwiththeirfriendsinHollywood.ElenEvans’technologyofnewproteindesignmayproveuseful
ThetitleofthebiographyTheAmericanCivilWarFightingfortheLadycouldhardlybemoreprovocative.ThomasKeneallyanAustralianwriterisunapologetic.InlabelingaherooftheAmericancivilwaranotoriousscoundrelbeswitchesthespotlightfromthebraveactionsofDanSicklesatthebattleofGettysburgtohisearlierpremeditatedmurderoftheloverofhisyoungandprettyItalian-AmericanwifeTeresa.ItisnotthemurderitselfthatdisgustsMrKeneallybutSickles’streatmentofhiswifeafterwardsandhowhisbehaviormirroredthehypocriticalmisogynyof19th-centuryAmerica.ThemurdervictimPhilipBartonKeyTeresaSickles’slovercamefromafamousoldsouthernfamily.HewasthenephewofthethenchiefjusticeoftheAmericanSupremeCourtandthesonofthewriterofthecountry’snationalanthem.SicklesaTammanyHallpoliticianinNewYorkturnedDemocraticcongressmaninWashingtonshotKeydeadin1859atacornerofLafayetteSquarewithinshoutingdistanceoftheWhiteHouse.Butthemurdertrialwasmelodramaticevenbythestandardsoftheday.WiththehelpofeightlawyersSickleswasfoundnotguiltyafterusingthenovelpleaoftemporaryinsanity.ThecountryatlargewasjustasforgivingviewingKey’smurderasagallantcrimeofpassion.WithinthreeyearsSickleswasageneralontheUnionistsideintheAmericancivilWarandasanewfriendofAbrahamandMaryLincolnafrequentsleepoverguestattheWhiteHouse.MrsSickleswaslessfortunate.Shewasshunnedbyfriendsshehadmadeasthewifeofarisingpolitician.HerhusbandaserialadultererwhosemanymistressesincludedQueenIsabellaⅡofSpainandthemadamofanindustrializedNewYorkwhorehouserefusedtobeseeninhercompany.LauratheSickles’sdaughterwasaninnocentvictimofherfather’svindictivenessandeventuallydiedofdrinkintheBowerydistrictofNewYork.Sickles’sboldactionsatGettysburgareintheirownwayjustascontroversial.ArgumentcontinuestorageamongscholarsastowhetherhehelpedtheUniontovictoryornearlycauseditsdefeatwhenhemovedhisforcesoutoflinetooccupywhathethoughtwasbetterground.JamesLongstreettheConfederategeneralwholedtheattackagainstthenewpositionwasinnodoubtaboutthebrillianceofthemove.MrKeneallyisbetterknownasanovelist.Hereheshowshimselfjustasadeptatbiographyandachievesbothhismainaims.HerestoresthereputationofTeresaSicklesthisbeautifulpleasantandintelligentgirlandbreathesfullandcontroversiallifeintoafamousmilitaryengagement.ThecaseofMrsSickles’unfortunatestoryismentionedtoillustrate
Theproblemtobetakenupandthepointatwhichthesearchforasolutionwillbeginarecustomarilyprescribedbytheinvestigator1asubjectparticipatinginan2onthinkingorbytheprogrammerforacomputer.3prevailingtechniquesof4inthepsychologyofthinkinghaveinvited5ofthemotivationalaspectsofthinking.Theconditionsthatdeterminewhenthepersonwillbegintothinkin6tosomeotheractivitywhathewillthinkaboutwhatdirectionhisthinkingwilltakeandwhenhewillregardhissearchforasolutionassuccessfullyterminatedorabandonitasnotworthpursuingfurther7arebeginningtoattractinvestigation.8muchthinkingisaimedat9endsspecialmotivationalproblemsareraisedby"disinterested"thinkinginwhichthe10ofananswertoaquestionisasourceofsatisfactioninitself. Forcomputerspecialiststhedetectionofamismatchbetweentheformulathattheprogramsofarhas11andsomeformulaorsetofrequirementsthat12asolutioniswhatimpelscontinuationofthesearchanddeterminesthedirectionitwill13. Neo-behavioristslikepsychoanalystshavemademuchofsecondary14valueandstimulusgeneralization;i.e.thetendencyofastimuluspatterntobecomeasourceofsatisfactionifitresemblesorhas15accompaniedsomeformofbiologicalgratification.Theinsufficiencyofthiskindofexplanationbecomesapparent16whentheimportanceofnoveltysurprisecomplexityincongruityambiguityand17isconsidered.Inconsistencybetweenbeliefsbetweenitemsofincomingsensoryinformationorbetweenone’sbeliefandanitemofsensoryinformation18canbeasourceofdiscomfortimpellinga19forresolutionthroughreorganizationofbelief20orthroughselectiveacquisitionofnewinformation. 1
TheTuscantownofVincibirthplaceofLeonardoandhometoamuseumofhismachinesshouldfittinglyputonashowofthetelevision-robotsculpturesofNamJunPaik.ThisKorean-bornAmericanartistandtheRenaissancemasterarekindredspirits:LeonardosawhumanisticpotentialinhisscientificexperimentsMrPaikendeavorstoharnessmediatechnologyforartisticpurposes.Apioneerofvideoartinthelate1960shetreatstelevisionasaspaceforartimagesandasmaterialforrobotsandinteractivesculptures.MrPaikwasnotalone.Heandfellowartistspickedonthevideocamerasbecausetheyofferedaneasywaytorecordtheirperformanceart.Nowtomarkvideoart’scomingofageNewYork’sMuseumofModernArtislookingbackattheireffortsinafilmseriescalledTheFirstDecade.ItcelebratestheearlydaysofvideobyscreeningthearchivesofElectronicArtsIntermixEAIoneoftheworld’sleadingdistributorsofvideoandnewmediaartfounded30yearsago.OneofEAI’smostfamousalumniisBillViola.Partofthesecondgenerationofvideoartistswhoemergedinthe1970sMrViolaexperimentedwithvideo’sexpressivepotential.Hiscameraexploresreligiousritualanduniversalideas.TheViolashowattheDeutscheGuggenheiminBerlinshowsusmoving-imagefrescoesthatcoverthegallerywallsandenveloptheviewerinallembracingcyclesoflifeanddeath.OnenewstarisaCalifornianDougAitkenwhotookoverLondon’sSerpentineGallerylastOctoberwithaninstallationcalledNewOcean.SomesayMrAitkenistovideowhatJacksonPollockwastopainting.Hedripshisimagesfromfloortoceilingcreatingsequencesofroomsinwhichthespacesurroundstheviewerinhallucinatoryimagesofsoundandlight.AttheSerpentineMrAitkencreatedacollageofmovingimagesonthethemeofwater’sflowaroundtheplanetasaforceoflife.Iwantedtocreateanewtopographyinthisworkaliquidimagetoshowaworldthatneverstandsstillhesays.Theboundarybetweenthephysicalworldandtheworldofimagesandinformationhethinksisblurring.Theinterplayofillusionandrealitysoundandimagereferencestoarthistorypoliticsfilmandtelevisioninthisartformthatisbarely30yearsoldcanmakevideoartdifficulttodefine.Manycallitfilm-basedormoving-imagearttoincludeartistswhoworkwithothercinematicmedia.Atitsbesttheappealofvideoartliesinitsversatilityitspowertocapturethepassingoftimeandonitsabilitytocommunicatebothinsideandoutsidegallerywalls.ThevideoscreatedbyDoughAitkenisusedtoshowacombinationof
OnaweekdaynightthisJanuarythousandsofflag-wavingyouthspackedOlayaStreetRiyadh’smainshoppingstriptocheeramemorableSaudivictoryintheGCCCupfootballfinal.Onecarrockmusicblaringfromitsstereosquealedtoastopblockinganintersection.Thepassengersleaptoutclamberedontotheroofanddancedwildlyinfrontofthehonkingcrowd.Havingparalyzedthetrafficacrosshalfthecitytheyspedoffbeforethepolicecouldcatchthem.SuchpublicoccasionwasonceunthinkableintherigidconformistkingdombutnowyoungpeoplethereandinotherGulfstatesareincreasinglywillingtochallengeauthority.Thatdoesnotmakethemrebels:respectforeldersforreligiousdutyandformaintainingfamilybondsremainpre-eminentvaluesandpremaritalsexisgenerallyoutofthequestion.Yetdemographyisbeginningtoputpressureonultra-conservativenorms.Afterall60%oftheGulf’snativepopulationisundertheageof25.Withmanymoreofitscitizensinschoolthanintheworkforcetheregionfacesatleastagenerationofrocketingdemandforemployment.IneverysingleGCCcountrythenativeworkforcewilldoubleby2020.InSaudiArabiaitwillgrowfrom3.3mnowtoover8m.Thetaskofmanagingthissurgewouldbedauntingenoughforanysocietybutisparticularlyforbiddinginthisregionforseveralreasons.ThefirstisthattheGulfsuffersfromalopsidedlaborstructure.Thisgoesbacktothe1970swhenballooningoilincomesallowedgovernmentstoimportmillionsofforeignworkersandtodispensecozyjobstothelocals.Theresultisatwo-tierworkforcewithoutsidersworkingmostlyintheprivatesectorandnativesmonopolizingthestatebureaucracy.Privatefirmsareasproductiveasany.Butwithinthegovernmentclaimsonestudyworkersareworthonlyaquarterofwhattheygetpaid.Similarlyintheeducationsector30yearsspentkeepingpacewithsoaringstudentnumbershastakenaheavytollonstandards.TheSaudischoolsystemforinstancetodayhastocopewith5mstudentseighttimesmorethanin1970.AndmanyGulfcountriesadaptedtheircurriculafromEgyptianmodelsthatarenowthoroughlydiscredited.Theycontinuetofavorrotelearningoffactsintendedtoinstillpatriotismorreligiousvalues.Evenworsethesystemasawholediscouragesintellectualcuriosity.Itchannelsstudentsintoacquiringprestigedegreesratherthangainingmarketableskills.Ofthe120000graduatesthatSaudiuniversitiesproducedbetween1995and1999only10000hadstudiedtechnicalsubjectssuchasarchitectureorengineering.Theyaccountedforonly2%ofthetotalnumberofSaudisenteringthejobmarket.Whatisthesectionfollowingthistextmostlikelytodealwith
[A]ThestrainofHIVthatwasdiscoveredinSydneyintriguesscientistsbecauseitcontainsstrikingabnormalitiesinagenethatisbelievedtostimulateviralduplication.Infactthevirusismissingsomuchofthisparticulargene-knownasneffornegativefactor—thatitishardtoimaginehowthegenecouldperformanyusefulfunction.AndsureenoughwhiletheSydneyvirusretainstheabilitytoinfectTcells—whitebloodcellsthatarecriticaltotheimmunesystem’sabilitytowardoffinfection—itmakessofewcopiesofitselfthatthemostpowerfulmoleculartoolscanbarelydetectitspresence. [B]Ifthisspeculationprovesrightitwillmarkamilestoneinthebattletocontainthelate-20thcentury’smostterribleepidemic.ForinadditiontoexplainingwhythissmallgroupofpeopleinfectedwithHIVhasnotbecomesickthediscoveryofaviralstrainthatworkslikeavaccinewouldhavefarreachingimplications."Whattheseresultssuggest"saysDr.BarneyGrahamofTennessee’sVanderbiltUniversity"isthatHIVisvulnerableandthatitispossibletostimulateeffectiveimmunityagainstit." [C]Butassixyearsstretchedto10thento14theanxietyofhealthofficialsgavewaytoastonishment.Althoughtwooftherecipientshavediedfromothercausesnotoneoftheman’scontaminatedbloodhascomedownwithAIDS.Moretellingstillthedonorisalsohealthy.InfacthisimmunesystemremainsasrobustasifhehadnevertangledwithHIVatall.Whatcouldexplainsuchunexpectedgoodfortune [D]Attheveryleastthenefgeneoffersanattractivetargetfordrugdevelopers.IfitsactivitycanbeblockedsuggestsDeaconresearchersmightbeabletobringtheprogressionofdiseaseundercontroleveninpeoplewhohavedevelopedfullblownAIDS.TheneedforbetterAIDS-fightingdrugswasunderscoredlastweekbytheactionsofaU.S.FoodandDrugAdministrationadvisorypanelwhichrecommendedspeedyapprovaloftwonewAIDSdrugs.AlthoughFDAcommissionerDavidKesslerwasquicktopraisethenewdrugsneithermedicationcanpreventorcureAIDSonceithastakenhold.Whatscientistsreallywantisavaccinethatcanpreventinfectionaltogether.Andthat’swhatmakestheSydneyvirussopromisingandsocontroversial. [E]AteamofAustralianscientistshasfinallysolvedthemystery.ThevirusthatthedonorcontractedandthenpassedontheteamreportedlastweekinthejournalSciencecontainsflawsinitsgeneticscriptthatappeartohaverendereditharmless."Notonlyhavetherecipientsandthedonornotprogressedtodiseasefor15years"marvelsmolecularbiologistNicholasDeaconofAustralia’sMacfarlaneBurnetCentreforMedicalResearch"butthepredictionisthattheyneverwill."Deaconspeculatesthatthis"impotent"HIVmayevenbeanaturalinoculantthatprotectsitscarriersagainstmorevirulentstrainsofthevirus. [F]ButfewscientistsareenthusiasticabouttestingthepropositionbyinjectingHIVhoweverweakened—intomillionsofpeoplewhohaveneverbeeninfected.AfteralltheynoteHIVisaretrovirusaclassofinfectiousagentsknownfortheiralarmingabilitytointegratetheirowngenesintotheDNAofthecellstheyinfect.Thusonceittakeseffectaretrovirusinfectionispermanent. [G]About15yearsagoawell-meaningmandonatedbloodtotheRedCrossinSydneyAustralianotknowinghehasbeenexposedtoHIV-1thevirusthatcausesAIDS.Muchlaterpublichealthofficialslearnedthatsomeofthepeoplewhogottransfusionscontaininghisbloodhadbecomeinfectedwiththesamevirus;presumablytheywerealmostsuretodie. Order: 43
ThelongandprogressivereignofQueenVictoriacametoaclimaxatatimeofpeaceandplentywhentheBritishEmpireseemedtobeatthesummitofitspowerandsecurity.OfthediscordthatsoonfollowedweshallherenoteonlytwofactorswhichhadlargeinfluenceoncontemporaryEnglishliterature. ThefirstdisturbingfactorwasimperialismthereawakeningofadominatingspiritwhichhadseeminglybeenputtosleepbytheproclamationofanImperialFederation.46ItscomingwasheraldedbytheBoerWarinSouthAfricathroughwhichBritainblunderedtowhatwashopedtobeaneraofpeaceandgoodwill.Othernationspromptlymadesuchhopeavainwhistlinginthewind.JapaneseWarLordsbeganacareerofconquestwhichaimedtomakeJapanmasterofAsiaandEastIndies.Pacificislandsthathadforagessleptpeacefullywereturnedintofrowningnavalstations.47EventheUnitedStatesarousedbyaneasytriumphintheSpanishWarstartedonanimperialisticadventurebytakingcontrolofthePhilippinesthusmakinganimplacableenemyofJapan. Onlyanationthatentersonadangerouscoursewitheyeswideopenhasanychanceofasafewayoutandtheimperialisticnationswereallalikeblind.48AninevitableresultwastheFirstWarandthegreathorrorofaSecondWorldWarthetwodisastersbeingdifferentactsofthesametragedyofimperialismseparatedonlybyabreathingspell. Anotherfactorthatinfluencedliteraturefortheworsewasawidespreaddemandforsocialreformofeverykind;notslowandorderlyreformwhichisprogressbutimmediateanduncontrolledreformwhichbreedsaspiritofrebellionanddespair.BeforetheVictorianagehadcometoanendEnglishliteratureappearedtohavelosttouchwithhealthyEnglishlife.ManywritersechoedthesorrowfulcryofJamesThomsoninhisCityofDreadfulNightorbabbledof"artforart’ssake"withOscarWilde.49GroominhissurveyoftheperiodnotesthatwritershadmostlyacriticalattitudetowardmoralsandreligionChurchandStateasreliesfrom"thedeadhandoftraditionalbeliefs."50SmallwonderthatGermanandJapanesewar-advocatesregardedEnglishmenasadecadentracewhenthesameoraworseopinionwasdailyreadinthenovelsofSamuelButlerandnightlyheardintheplaysofBernardShaw. GroominhissurveyoftheperiodnotesthatwritershadmostlyacriticalattitudetowardmoralsandreligionChurchandStateasreliesfromthedeadhandoftraditionalbeliefs.
Theproblemtobetakenupandthepointatwhichthesearchforasolutionwillbeginarecustomarilyprescribedbytheinvestigator1asubjectparticipatinginan2onthinkingorbytheprogrammerforacomputer.3prevailingtechniquesof4inthepsychologyofthinkinghaveinvited5ofthemotivationalaspectsofthinking.Theconditionsthatdeterminewhenthepersonwillbegintothinkin6tosomeotheractivitywhathewillthinkaboutwhatdirectionhisthinkingwilltakeandwhenhewillregardhissearchforasolutionassuccessfullyterminatedorabandonitasnotworthpursuingfurther7arebeginningtoattractinvestigation.8muchthinkingisaimedat9endsspecialmotivationalproblemsareraisedby"disinterested"thinkinginwhichthe10ofananswertoaquestionisasourceofsatisfactioninitself. Forcomputerspecialiststhedetectionofamismatchbetweentheformulathattheprogramsofarhas11andsomeformulaorsetofrequirementsthat12asolutioniswhatimpelscontinuationofthesearchanddeterminesthedirectionitwill13. Neo-behavioristslikepsychoanalystshavemademuchofsecondary14valueandstimulusgeneralization;i.e.thetendencyofastimuluspatterntobecomeasourceofsatisfactionifitresemblesorhas15accompaniedsomeformofbiologicalgratification.Theinsufficiencyofthiskindofexplanationbecomesapparent16whentheimportanceofnoveltysurprisecomplexityincongruityambiguityand17isconsidered.Inconsistencybetweenbeliefsbetweenitemsofincomingsensoryinformationorbetweenone’sbeliefandanitemofsensoryinformation18canbeasourceofdiscomfortimpellinga19forresolutionthroughreorganizationofbelief20orthroughselectiveacquisitionofnewinformation. 7
Theproblemtobetakenupandthepointatwhichthesearchforasolutionwillbeginarecustomarilyprescribedbytheinvestigator1asubjectparticipatinginan2onthinkingorbytheprogrammerforacomputer.3prevailingtechniquesof4inthepsychologyofthinkinghaveinvited5ofthemotivationalaspectsofthinking.Theconditionsthatdeterminewhenthepersonwillbegintothinkin6tosomeotheractivitywhathewillthinkaboutwhatdirectionhisthinkingwilltakeandwhenhewillregardhissearchforasolutionassuccessfullyterminatedorabandonitasnotworthpursuingfurther7arebeginningtoattractinvestigation.8muchthinkingisaimedat9endsspecialmotivationalproblemsareraisedby"disinterested"thinkinginwhichthe10ofananswertoaquestionisasourceofsatisfactioninitself. Forcomputerspecialiststhedetectionofamismatchbetweentheformulathattheprogramsofarhas11andsomeformulaorsetofrequirementsthat12asolutioniswhatimpelscontinuationofthesearchanddeterminesthedirectionitwill13. Neo-behavioristslikepsychoanalystshavemademuchofsecondary14valueandstimulusgeneralization;i.e.thetendencyofastimuluspatterntobecomeasourceofsatisfactionifitresemblesorhas15accompaniedsomeformofbiologicalgratification.Theinsufficiencyofthiskindofexplanationbecomesapparent16whentheimportanceofnoveltysurprisecomplexityincongruityambiguityand17isconsidered.Inconsistencybetweenbeliefsbetweenitemsofincomingsensoryinformationorbetweenone’sbeliefandanitemofsensoryinformation18canbeasourceofdiscomfortimpellinga19forresolutionthroughreorganizationofbelief20orthroughselectiveacquisitionofnewinformation. 11
[A]ThestrainofHIVthatwasdiscoveredinSydneyintriguesscientistsbecauseitcontainsstrikingabnormalitiesinagenethatisbelievedtostimulateviralduplication.Infactthevirusismissingsomuchofthisparticulargene-knownasneffornegativefactor—thatitishardtoimaginehowthegenecouldperformanyusefulfunction.AndsureenoughwhiletheSydneyvirusretainstheabilitytoinfectTcells—whitebloodcellsthatarecriticaltotheimmunesystem’sabilitytowardoffinfection—itmakessofewcopiesofitselfthatthemostpowerfulmoleculartoolscanbarelydetectitspresence. [B]Ifthisspeculationprovesrightitwillmarkamilestoneinthebattletocontainthelate-20thcentury’smostterribleepidemic.ForinadditiontoexplainingwhythissmallgroupofpeopleinfectedwithHIVhasnotbecomesickthediscoveryofaviralstrainthatworkslikeavaccinewouldhavefarreachingimplications."Whattheseresultssuggest"saysDr.BarneyGrahamofTennessee’sVanderbiltUniversity"isthatHIVisvulnerableandthatitispossibletostimulateeffectiveimmunityagainstit." [C]Butassixyearsstretchedto10thento14theanxietyofhealthofficialsgavewaytoastonishment.Althoughtwooftherecipientshavediedfromothercausesnotoneoftheman’scontaminatedbloodhascomedownwithAIDS.Moretellingstillthedonorisalsohealthy.InfacthisimmunesystemremainsasrobustasifhehadnevertangledwithHIVatall.Whatcouldexplainsuchunexpectedgoodfortune [D]Attheveryleastthenefgeneoffersanattractivetargetfordrugdevelopers.IfitsactivitycanbeblockedsuggestsDeaconresearchersmightbeabletobringtheprogressionofdiseaseundercontroleveninpeoplewhohavedevelopedfullblownAIDS.TheneedforbetterAIDS-fightingdrugswasunderscoredlastweekbytheactionsofaU.S.FoodandDrugAdministrationadvisorypanelwhichrecommendedspeedyapprovaloftwonewAIDSdrugs.AlthoughFDAcommissionerDavidKesslerwasquicktopraisethenewdrugsneithermedicationcanpreventorcureAIDSonceithastakenhold.Whatscientistsreallywantisavaccinethatcanpreventinfectionaltogether.Andthat’swhatmakestheSydneyvirussopromisingandsocontroversial. [E]AteamofAustralianscientistshasfinallysolvedthemystery.ThevirusthatthedonorcontractedandthenpassedontheteamreportedlastweekinthejournalSciencecontainsflawsinitsgeneticscriptthatappeartohaverendereditharmless."Notonlyhavetherecipientsandthedonornotprogressedtodiseasefor15years"marvelsmolecularbiologistNicholasDeaconofAustralia’sMacfarlaneBurnetCentreforMedicalResearch"butthepredictionisthattheyneverwill."Deaconspeculatesthatthis"impotent"HIVmayevenbeanaturalinoculantthatprotectsitscarriersagainstmorevirulentstrainsofthevirus. [F]ButfewscientistsareenthusiasticabouttestingthepropositionbyinjectingHIVhoweverweakened—intomillionsofpeoplewhohaveneverbeeninfected.AfteralltheynoteHIVisaretrovirusaclassofinfectiousagentsknownfortheiralarmingabilitytointegratetheirowngenesintotheDNAofthecellstheyinfect.Thusonceittakeseffectaretrovirusinfectionispermanent. [G]About15yearsagoawell-meaningmandonatedbloodtotheRedCrossinSydneyAustralianotknowinghehasbeenexposedtoHIV-1thevirusthatcausesAIDS.Muchlaterpublichealthofficialslearnedthatsomeofthepeoplewhogottransfusionscontaininghisbloodhadbecomeinfectedwiththesamevirus;presumablytheywerealmostsuretodie. Order: 41
[A]ThestrainofHIVthatwasdiscoveredinSydneyintriguesscientistsbecauseitcontainsstrikingabnormalitiesinagenethatisbelievedtostimulateviralduplication.Infactthevirusismissingsomuchofthisparticulargene-knownasneffornegativefactor—thatitishardtoimaginehowthegenecouldperformanyusefulfunction.AndsureenoughwhiletheSydneyvirusretainstheabilitytoinfectTcells—whitebloodcellsthatarecriticaltotheimmunesystem’sabilitytowardoffinfection—itmakessofewcopiesofitselfthatthemostpowerfulmoleculartoolscanbarelydetectitspresence. [B]Ifthisspeculationprovesrightitwillmarkamilestoneinthebattletocontainthelate-20thcentury’smostterribleepidemic.ForinadditiontoexplainingwhythissmallgroupofpeopleinfectedwithHIVhasnotbecomesickthediscoveryofaviralstrainthatworkslikeavaccinewouldhavefarreachingimplications."Whattheseresultssuggest"saysDr.BarneyGrahamofTennessee’sVanderbiltUniversity"isthatHIVisvulnerableandthatitispossibletostimulateeffectiveimmunityagainstit." [C]Butassixyearsstretchedto10thento14theanxietyofhealthofficialsgavewaytoastonishment.Althoughtwooftherecipientshavediedfromothercausesnotoneoftheman’scontaminatedbloodhascomedownwithAIDS.Moretellingstillthedonorisalsohealthy.InfacthisimmunesystemremainsasrobustasifhehadnevertangledwithHIVatall.Whatcouldexplainsuchunexpectedgoodfortune [D]Attheveryleastthenefgeneoffersanattractivetargetfordrugdevelopers.IfitsactivitycanbeblockedsuggestsDeaconresearchersmightbeabletobringtheprogressionofdiseaseundercontroleveninpeoplewhohavedevelopedfullblownAIDS.TheneedforbetterAIDS-fightingdrugswasunderscoredlastweekbytheactionsofaU.S.FoodandDrugAdministrationadvisorypanelwhichrecommendedspeedyapprovaloftwonewAIDSdrugs.AlthoughFDAcommissionerDavidKesslerwasquicktopraisethenewdrugsneithermedicationcanpreventorcureAIDSonceithastakenhold.Whatscientistsreallywantisavaccinethatcanpreventinfectionaltogether.Andthat’swhatmakestheSydneyvirussopromisingandsocontroversial. [E]AteamofAustralianscientistshasfinallysolvedthemystery.ThevirusthatthedonorcontractedandthenpassedontheteamreportedlastweekinthejournalSciencecontainsflawsinitsgeneticscriptthatappeartohaverendereditharmless."Notonlyhavetherecipientsandthedonornotprogressedtodiseasefor15years"marvelsmolecularbiologistNicholasDeaconofAustralia’sMacfarlaneBurnetCentreforMedicalResearch"butthepredictionisthattheyneverwill."Deaconspeculatesthatthis"impotent"HIVmayevenbeanaturalinoculantthatprotectsitscarriersagainstmorevirulentstrainsofthevirus. [F]ButfewscientistsareenthusiasticabouttestingthepropositionbyinjectingHIVhoweverweakened—intomillionsofpeoplewhohaveneverbeeninfected.AfteralltheynoteHIVisaretrovirusaclassofinfectiousagentsknownfortheiralarmingabilitytointegratetheirowngenesintotheDNAofthecellstheyinfect.Thusonceittakeseffectaretrovirusinfectionispermanent. [G]About15yearsagoawell-meaningmandonatedbloodtotheRedCrossinSydneyAustralianotknowinghehasbeenexposedtoHIV-1thevirusthatcausesAIDS.Muchlaterpublichealthofficialslearnedthatsomeofthepeoplewhogottransfusionscontaininghisbloodhadbecomeinfectedwiththesamevirus;presumablytheywerealmostsuretodie. Order: 45
Itmayturnoutthatthedigitaldivide—oneofthemostfashionablepoliticalslogansofrecentyears—islargelyfiction.Asyouwillrecalltheargumentwentwellbeyondtheunsurprisingnotionthattherichwouldownmorecomputersthanthepoor.Thedisturbingpartofthetheorywasthatsocietywasdividingitselfintogroupsoftechnologyhavesandhave-notsandthatthissegregationwouldinturnworsenalreadylargeeconomicinequalities.Itisthisargumentthatiseitheruntrueorwildlyexaggerated.Weshouldalwayshavebeensuspicious.Afterallcomputershavespreadquicklybecausetheyhavebecomecheapertobuyandeasiertouse.Fallingpricesandskillrequirementssuggestthatthedigitaldividewouldspontaneouslyshrink—andsoithas.Nowanewstudyfurtherdiscreditsthedigitaldivide.ThestudybyeconomistDavidCardoftheUniversityofCaliforniaBerkeleychallengesthenotionthatcomputershavesignificantlyworsenedwageinequality.Thelogicofhowthissupposedlyhappensisstraightforward:computersraisethedemandforhigh-skilledworkersincreasingtheirwages.Meanwhilecomputerization—byautomatingmanyroutinetasks—reducesthedemandforlow-skilledworkersandtherebytheirwages.Thegapbetweenthetwowidens.Superficiallywagestatisticssupportthetheory.Considertheratiobetweenworkersnearthetopofthewagedistributionandthosenearthebottom.Computerizationincreased;sodidthewagegap.ButwaitpointoutCardandDiNardo.Thetroublewithblamingcomputersisthattheworseningofinequalityoccurredprimarilyintheearly1980s.Withcomputerusegrowingthewagegapshouldhavecontinuedtoexpandifitwasbeingdrivenbyashiftingdemandforskills.IndeedCardandDiNardofindmuchdetailedevidencethatcontradictsthetheory.TheyconcludethatcomputerizationdoesnotexplaintheriseinU.S.wageinequalityinthelastquarterofthe20thcentury.Thepopularperceptionofcomputers’impactonwagesishugelyoverblown.Lotsofotherinfluencescountforasmuchormore.Theworseningofwageinequalityintheearly1980sforexamplealmostcertainlyreflectedthedeep1981—1982recessionandthefallofinflation.Companiesfoundithardertoraiseprices.Tosurvivetheyconcludedthattheyhadtoholddownthewagesoftheirleastskilledleastmobileandyoungestworkers.Thedigitaldividesuggestedasimplesolutioncomputersforacomplexproblempoverty.Withmorecomputeraccessthepoorcouldescapetheirlot.Butcomputersneverwerethesourceofanyone’spovertyandasforescapingwhatpeopledoforthemselvesmattersmorethanwhattechnologycandoforthem.Itisgenerallybelievedthatthedigitaldivideissomething
TheTuscantownofVincibirthplaceofLeonardoandhometoamuseumofhismachinesshouldfittinglyputonashowofthetelevision-robotsculpturesofNamJunPaik.ThisKorean-bornAmericanartistandtheRenaissancemasterarekindredspirits:LeonardosawhumanisticpotentialinhisscientificexperimentsMrPaikendeavorstoharnessmediatechnologyforartisticpurposes.Apioneerofvideoartinthelate1960shetreatstelevisionasaspaceforartimagesandasmaterialforrobotsandinteractivesculptures.MrPaikwasnotalone.Heandfellowartistspickedonthevideocamerasbecausetheyofferedaneasywaytorecordtheirperformanceart.Nowtomarkvideoart’scomingofageNewYork’sMuseumofModernArtislookingbackattheireffortsinafilmseriescalledTheFirstDecade.ItcelebratestheearlydaysofvideobyscreeningthearchivesofElectronicArtsIntermixEAIoneoftheworld’sleadingdistributorsofvideoandnewmediaartfounded30yearsago.OneofEAI’smostfamousalumniisBillViola.Partofthesecondgenerationofvideoartistswhoemergedinthe1970sMrViolaexperimentedwithvideo’sexpressivepotential.Hiscameraexploresreligiousritualanduniversalideas.TheViolashowattheDeutscheGuggenheiminBerlinshowsusmoving-imagefrescoesthatcoverthegallerywallsandenveloptheviewerinallembracingcyclesoflifeanddeath.OnenewstarisaCalifornianDougAitkenwhotookoverLondon’sSerpentineGallerylastOctoberwithaninstallationcalledNewOcean.SomesayMrAitkenistovideowhatJacksonPollockwastopainting.Hedripshisimagesfromfloortoceilingcreatingsequencesofroomsinwhichthespacesurroundstheviewerinhallucinatoryimagesofsoundandlight.AttheSerpentineMrAitkencreatedacollageofmovingimagesonthethemeofwater’sflowaroundtheplanetasaforceoflife.Iwantedtocreateanewtopographyinthisworkaliquidimagetoshowaworldthatneverstandsstillhesays.Theboundarybetweenthephysicalworldandtheworldofimagesandinformationhethinksisblurring.Theinterplayofillusionandrealitysoundandimagereferencestoarthistorypoliticsfilmandtelevisioninthisartformthatisbarely30yearsoldcanmakevideoartdifficulttodefine.Manycallitfilm-basedormoving-imagearttoincludeartistswhoworkwithothercinematicmedia.Atitsbesttheappealofvideoartliesinitsversatilityitspowertocapturethepassingoftimeandonitsabilitytocommunicatebothinsideandoutsidegallerywalls.Towardthenovelliteraryideatheauthor’sattitudeseemstobethatof
CanthisbetherighttimetoinvestinluxurygoodsMiucciaPradawasobviouslybitinghernails.ThegranddaughterofthefounderoftheItalianfashiongrouphasjustopenedspectacularnewstoresinquicksuccessioninNewYorkandLondon.Withitsmagicmirrorssilverdisplaysandcomputer-controlledchangingroomsPrada’stwo-month-oldshopinManhattancostastaggering＄40msitsjustamilefromGroundZeroandsellspracticallynothing.Theluxury-goodsbusinesshasbeenindespairinhastysuccessionagainstabackgroundofaweakeningglobaleconomyanenduringslumpinJapanesespendingandtheSeptember11thterroristattacks.TheJapanesewhousedtobuyathirdoftheworld’sluxurygoodscuttheirforeigntravelinhalfaftertheattacksandtightenedtheirLouisVuittonpurse-strings.AtthesametimewealthyAmericansstoppedflyingwhichhasadramaticeffectontheluxury-goodspurveyorsofLondonParisandRome.AthometooAmericans’attitudestoluxurychangedatleasttemporarily.Conspicuousabstentionreplacedgreedyconsumerismamongthefast-growingyoungerbreedofnewlyrich.Thedeclineinjobsecuritythelowerbonusesinfinancialservicesandthestockmarketbustthatwipedoutmuchofthepaperwealthgeneratedinthelate1990sbredanewfrugality.Salesofexpensivejewelrywatchesandhandbags—theproductsthatmakethejuiciestprofitsforthebigluxury-goodsgroups—droppedsharply.Theimpacthasbeenmoststrikingamongthehandfuloflargequotedluxury-goodscompanies.France’sLouisVuittonMoetHennessyLVMHtheindustryleaderissuedfourprofitswarningsafterSeptember11thandendedupreportinga20%declineinoperatingprofitfor2001afterhavingrepeatedlypromiseditsinvestorsdouble-digitgrowth;andItaly’sGucciGroupthethirdlargestannouncedthisweekthatsecond-halfprofitsdroppedby33%.MeanwhileprivatelyheldPradahadtopostponeitsstockmarketflotationandwasforcedtosellarecentlyacquiredstakeinFendiaprestigiousItalianbagmakerinordertoreduceitsdebts.Luxuryisanunusualbusiness.Aluxurybrandcannotbeextendedindefinitely:ifitbecomestoocommonitisdevaluedasPierreCardinandRalphLaurenprovedbystickingtheirlabelsoneverythingfromT-shirtstopaint.Equallyabrandnamecanbeunderminedifitisnotadvertisedconsistentlyorifitisdisplayedandsoldpoorly.SagraMaceiradeRosenaluxury-goodsanalystatJ.P.MorganarguesthatLuxurycompaniesareprimarilyretailers.Inretailingthemostimportantthingisexecutionandexecutionisallaboutmanagement.Youmayhavethebestdesign-edproductbutifyoudon’tgetitintotherightkindofshopattherighttimeyouwillfail./Whenmentioningdouble-digitgrowthParagraph4theauthoristalkingabout
Theproblemtobetakenupandthepointatwhichthesearchforasolutionwillbeginarecustomarilyprescribedbytheinvestigator1asubjectparticipatinginan2onthinkingorbytheprogrammerforacomputer.3prevailingtechniquesof4inthepsychologyofthinkinghaveinvited5ofthemotivationalaspectsofthinking.Theconditionsthatdeterminewhenthepersonwillbegintothinkin6tosomeotheractivitywhathewillthinkaboutwhatdirectionhisthinkingwilltakeandwhenhewillregardhissearchforasolutionassuccessfullyterminatedorabandonitasnotworthpursuingfurther7arebeginningtoattractinvestigation.8muchthinkingisaimedat9endsspecialmotivationalproblemsareraisedby"disinterested"thinkinginwhichthe10ofananswertoaquestionisasourceofsatisfactioninitself. Forcomputerspecialiststhedetectionofamismatchbetweentheformulathattheprogramsofarhas11andsomeformulaorsetofrequirementsthat12asolutioniswhatimpelscontinuationofthesearchanddeterminesthedirectionitwill13. Neo-behavioristslikepsychoanalystshavemademuchofsecondary14valueandstimulusgeneralization;i.e.thetendencyofastimuluspatterntobecomeasourceofsatisfactionifitresemblesorhas15accompaniedsomeformofbiologicalgratification.Theinsufficiencyofthiskindofexplanationbecomesapparent16whentheimportanceofnoveltysurprisecomplexityincongruityambiguityand17isconsidered.Inconsistencybetweenbeliefsbetweenitemsofincomingsensoryinformationorbetweenone’sbeliefandanitemofsensoryinformation18canbeasourceofdiscomfortimpellinga19forresolutionthroughreorganizationofbelief20orthroughselectiveacquisitionofnewinformation. 5
Theproblemtobetakenupandthepointatwhichthesearchforasolutionwillbeginarecustomarilyprescribedbytheinvestigator1asubjectparticipatinginan2onthinkingorbytheprogrammerforacomputer.3prevailingtechniquesof4inthepsychologyofthinkinghaveinvited5ofthemotivationalaspectsofthinking.Theconditionsthatdeterminewhenthepersonwillbegintothinkin6tosomeotheractivitywhathewillthinkaboutwhatdirectionhisthinkingwilltakeandwhenhewillregardhissearchforasolutionassuccessfullyterminatedorabandonitasnotworthpursuingfurther7arebeginningtoattractinvestigation.8muchthinkingisaimedat9endsspecialmotivationalproblemsareraisedby"disinterested"thinkinginwhichthe10ofananswertoaquestionisasourceofsatisfactioninitself. Forcomputerspecialiststhedetectionofamismatchbetweentheformulathattheprogramsofarhas11andsomeformulaorsetofrequirementsthat12asolutioniswhatimpelscontinuationofthesearchanddeterminesthedirectionitwill13. Neo-behavioristslikepsychoanalystshavemademuchofsecondary14valueandstimulusgeneralization;i.e.thetendencyofastimuluspatterntobecomeasourceofsatisfactionifitresemblesorhas15accompaniedsomeformofbiologicalgratification.Theinsufficiencyofthiskindofexplanationbecomesapparent16whentheimportanceofnoveltysurprisecomplexityincongruityambiguityand17isconsidered.Inconsistencybetweenbeliefsbetweenitemsofincomingsensoryinformationorbetweenone’sbeliefandanitemofsensoryinformation18canbeasourceofdiscomfortimpellinga19forresolutionthroughreorganizationofbelief20orthroughselectiveacquisitionofnewinformation. 15
Inascience-fictionmoviecalledSpeciesamysterioussignalfromouterspaceturnsouttodescribethegenomeofanunknownorganism.WhentheinevitablemadscientistsynthesizestheDNAdescribedbytheinstructionsthecreaturehebreedsfromitturnsouttoresembleNatashaHenstridgeanathleticactress.UnfortunatelythealienharborswithinherdelicateformthedestructivepowersofaPanzerdivisionanditallendsbadlyfortherashgeneticistandhislaboratory.GlenEvanschiefexecutiveofEgeaBiosciencesinSanDiegoCaliforniaacknowledgesregretfullythatdespiteseekinghisexpertopinion—inreturnforwhichhewaspresentedwiththeposterofthestrikingMrHenstridgethathangsonhisofficewall—theproducersofSpeciesdidnothewverycloselytohissuggestionsaboutthefeasibilityoftheirscriptideas.Stilltheyhadcometotherightman.DrEvansbelievesthathisfirmwillsoonbeabletocreateifnotanaliensuccubusatleastatinybiologicalmachinemadeofartificialproteinsthatcouldmimicthebehaviorofalivingcell.MakingsuchproteinswillrequiretheabilitytosynthesizelongstretchesofDNA.ExistingtechnologyforsynthesizingDNAcanmanagetomakegenesthatencodeafewdozenaminoacidsbutthisistooshorttoproduceanyinterestingproteins.Egea’stechnologybycontrastwouldallowbiologiststomanufacturegeneswholesale.Thefirm’sscientistscanmakegeneslongenoughtoencode6000aminoacids.Theyaimtosynthesizeagenefor30000aminoacidswithintwoyears.Usingalibraryoftheroughly1500possiblemotifsorfoldsthataproteincanadoptEgea’sscientistsemploycomputerstodesignnewproteinsthatarelikelytohavedesirableshapesandproperties.TosynthesizetheDNAthatencodestheseproteinsEgeausesamachineithasdubbedthegenewriter.DrEvanslikensthisdevicetoaword-processorforDNAonwhichyoucantypeinthesequenceoflettersdefiningapieceofDNAandgetthatmoleculeout.AsEgeaextendsthelengthofDNAitcansynthesizeDrEvansenvisagesencodingnotjustproteinsbutentirebiochemicalpathwayswhichareteamsofproteinsthatconductmetabolicprocesses.Acollectionofsuchmoleculescouldconceivablyfunctionasaminiaturemachinethatwouldoperateinthebodyandattackdiseasejustasthebody’sowndefensivecellsdo.PerhapsDrEvansandhiscolleaguesoughttogetintouchwiththeirfriendsinHollywood.Theexpressionhewverycloselytocanbebestreplacedby
Theproblemtobetakenupandthepointatwhichthesearchforasolutionwillbeginarecustomarilyprescribedbytheinvestigator1asubjectparticipatinginan2onthinkingorbytheprogrammerforacomputer.3prevailingtechniquesof4inthepsychologyofthinkinghaveinvited5ofthemotivationalaspectsofthinking.Theconditionsthatdeterminewhenthepersonwillbegintothinkin6tosomeotheractivitywhathewillthinkaboutwhatdirectionhisthinkingwilltakeandwhenhewillregardhissearchforasolutionassuccessfullyterminatedorabandonitasnotworthpursuingfurther7arebeginningtoattractinvestigation.8muchthinkingisaimedat9endsspecialmotivationalproblemsareraisedby"disinterested"thinkinginwhichthe10ofananswertoaquestionisasourceofsatisfactioninitself. Forcomputerspecialiststhedetectionofamismatchbetweentheformulathattheprogramsofarhas11andsomeformulaorsetofrequirementsthat12asolutioniswhatimpelscontinuationofthesearchanddeterminesthedirectionitwill13. Neo-behavioristslikepsychoanalystshavemademuchofsecondary14valueandstimulusgeneralization;i.e.thetendencyofastimuluspatterntobecomeasourceofsatisfactionifitresemblesorhas15accompaniedsomeformofbiologicalgratification.Theinsufficiencyofthiskindofexplanationbecomesapparent16whentheimportanceofnoveltysurprisecomplexityincongruityambiguityand17isconsidered.Inconsistencybetweenbeliefsbetweenitemsofincomingsensoryinformationorbetweenone’sbeliefandanitemofsensoryinformation18canbeasourceofdiscomfortimpellinga19forresolutionthroughreorganizationofbelief20orthroughselectiveacquisitionofnewinformation. 19
Directions:Supposeyouareacollegestudentonaschoolcampusoranemployeeinacompany.Recentlyyounoticedthatsomepeopleneverpaidattentiontothesignsonagarbagecanthatsayitisdesirabletodealwithwastesseparately.Nowyouaregoingtomakeaconservationcampaignspeechataparty.Andyourspeechshouldinclude:1thepresentsituation2andyoursuggestions.Writeyourletterinnolessthan100words.WriteitneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.DonotsignyourownnameattheendoftheletteruseLiMinginstead.Donotwritetheaddress.
Theproblemtobetakenupandthepointatwhichthesearchforasolutionwillbeginarecustomarilyprescribedbytheinvestigator1asubjectparticipatinginan2onthinkingorbytheprogrammerforacomputer.3prevailingtechniquesof4inthepsychologyofthinkinghaveinvited5ofthemotivationalaspectsofthinking.Theconditionsthatdeterminewhenthepersonwillbegintothinkin6tosomeotheractivitywhathewillthinkaboutwhatdirectionhisthinkingwilltakeandwhenhewillregardhissearchforasolutionassuccessfullyterminatedorabandonitasnotworthpursuingfurther7arebeginningtoattractinvestigation.8muchthinkingisaimedat9endsspecialmotivationalproblemsareraisedby"disinterested"thinkinginwhichthe10ofananswertoaquestionisasourceofsatisfactioninitself. Forcomputerspecialiststhedetectionofamismatchbetweentheformulathattheprogramsofarhas11andsomeformulaorsetofrequirementsthat12asolutioniswhatimpelscontinuationofthesearchanddeterminesthedirectionitwill13. Neo-behavioristslikepsychoanalystshavemademuchofsecondary14valueandstimulusgeneralization;i.e.thetendencyofastimuluspatterntobecomeasourceofsatisfactionifitresemblesorhas15accompaniedsomeformofbiologicalgratification.Theinsufficiencyofthiskindofexplanationbecomesapparent16whentheimportanceofnoveltysurprisecomplexityincongruityambiguityand17isconsidered.Inconsistencybetweenbeliefsbetweenitemsofincomingsensoryinformationorbetweenone’sbeliefandanitemofsensoryinformation18canbeasourceofdiscomfortimpellinga19forresolutionthroughreorganizationofbelief20orthroughselectiveacquisitionofnewinformation. 17
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