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Directions: Write an essay of 160--200 words based on the following drawing. In your essay, you sho...
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Directions:Inthispartyouaretowriteanessayof160—200
Directions: Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwrite
PartB Directions: Youarerequiredtowriteanessayont
Directions:Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwritean
Directions:Writeanessayof160-200wordsbasedonthefo
Directions:Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwritean
Directions: Writeanessayof160-200wordsbasedonthef
Directions: Studythepicturesabovecarefullyandwrit
Directions:Studythepicturesabovecarefullyandwritea
Directions:Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwritean
Directions: Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwrite
Directions:Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwritean
Directions: Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwrite
Directions:Writeanessayof160-200wordsbasedonthefo
Directions: Youarerequiredtowriteanessayoffthetop
Directions:Writeanessayof160-200wordsbasedonthefo
Directions:Studythetwopicturesabovecarefullyandwri
Directions:Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwritean
Directions:Writeanessayof160-200wordsbasedonthefol
Directions:Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwritean
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Itisawisefatherthatknowshisownchildbuttodayamancanboosthispaternalfatherlywisdom—oratleastconfirmthathe’sthekid’sdad.Allheneedstodoisshellout$30forpaternitytestingkitPTKathislocaldrugstore—andanother$120togettheresults. Morethan60000peoplehavepurchasedthePTKssincetheyfirstbecameavailablewithoutprescriptionslastyearaccordingtoDougFoggchiefoperatingofficerofIdentigenewhichmakestheover-the-counterkits.MorethantwodozencompaniessellDNAtestsdirectlytothepublicranginginpricefromafewhundreddollarstomorethan$2500. Amongthemostpopular:paternityandkinshiptestingwhichadoptedchildrencanusetofindtheirbiologicalrelativesandfamiliescanusetotrackdownkidsputupforadoption.DNAtestingisalsothelatestrageamongpassionategenealogists—andsupportsbusinessesthatoffertosearchforafamily’sgeographicroots. Mosttestsrequirecollectingcellsbyswabbingsalivainthemouthandsendingittothecompanyfortesting.AlltestsrequireapotentialcandidatewithwhomtocompareDNA. Butsomeobserversareskeptical."Thereisakindoffalseprecisionbeinghawkedbypeopleclaimingtheyaredoingancestrytesting"saysTroyDusteraNewYorkUniversitysociologist.Henotesthateachindividualhasmanyancestors—numberinginthehundredsjustafewcenturiesback.YetmostancestrytestingonlyconsidersasinglelineageeithertheYchromosomeinheritedthroughmeninafather’slineormitochondrialDNAwhichispasseddownonlyfrommothers.ThisDNAcanrevealgeneticinformationaboutonlyoneortwoancestorseventhoughforexamplejustthreegenerationsbackpeoplealsohavesixothergreat-grandparentsorfourgenerationsback14othergreat-great-grandparents. Criticsalsoarguethatcommercialgenetictestingisonlyasgoodasthereferencecollectionstowhichasampleiscompared.Databasesusedbysomecompaniesdon’trelyondatacollectedsystematicallybutratherlumptogetherinformationfromdifferentresearchprojects.ThismeansthataDNAdatabasemayhavealotofdatafromsomeregionsandnototherssoaperson’stestresultsmaydifferdependingonthecompanythatprocessestheresults.Inadditionthecomputerprogramsacompanyusestoestimaterelationshipsmaybepatentedandnotsubjecttopeerrevieworoutsideevaluation. Anappropriatetitleforthetextismostlikelytobe
ItmaybejustaswellforOxfordUniversity’sreputationthatthisweek’smeetingofCongregationits3552-stronggoverningbodywasheldinsecretfortheairofcivilizedrationalitythatisgenerallysupposedtopervadedonnishconversationhaslatelyturnedfractious.That’sbecausethevice-chancellorthenearestthingtheplacehastoachiefexecutivehasproposedthemostfundamentalreformstotheuniversitysincetheestablishmentofthecollegesystemin1249;andalotofthedonsandcollegesdon’tlikeit. ThetroublewithOxfordisthatitisunmanageable.Itsproblems-thedifficultyofrecruitinggooddonsandofgettingridofbadonesconcernsaboutacademicstandardsseveremoneyworriesatsomecolleges-allspringfromthat.JohnHoodwhowasrecruitedasvice-chancellorfromtheUniversityofAucklandandisnowprobablythemost-hatedantipodeaninBritishacademiclifereckonsheknowshowtosolvethisandhasproposedtoreducethepowerofdonsandcollegesandincreasethatofuniversityadministrators. Mr.Hoodisrightthattheuniversity’smanagementstructureneedsanoverhaul.Butradicalthoughhisproposalsseemtothoseinvolvedinthecurrentrowtheydonotgofarenough.ThedifficultyofmanagingOxfordstemsonlypartlyfromthenuttinessofitssystemofgovernance;themorefundamentalproblemliesinitsrelationshipwiththegovernment.That’swhyMr.Hoodshouldadoptanideathatwasonceregardedasteeteringonthelunaticfringeofradicalismbutthesedaysisdiscussedeveninpolitecircles.Theideaisindependence. Oxfordgetsaround￡5000$9500perundergraduateperyearfromthegovernment.Inreturnitacceptsthatitcanchargestudentsonly￡1150risingto￡3000nextyearontopofthat.Sinceitprobablycostsatleast￡10000ayeartoteachanundergraduatethatleavesOxfordwithadeficitof￡4000orsoperstudenttocoverfromitsownfunds. IfOxforddeclaredindependenceitwouldlosethe￡52mundergraduatesubsidyatleast.CoulditfilltheholeCertainly.America’stopuniversitieschargearound￡20000perstudentperyear.Thedifficultissuewouldnotbemoneyaloneitwouldbebalancingnumbersofnot-so-brilliantrichpeoplepayingtopwhackwiththeclevererpooreronestheywerecross-subsidising.America’stopuniversitiesmanageit:highfeesmeanbetterteachingwhichkeepscompetitionhotandacademicstandardshighwhileluringenoughdonationstoprovidebursariesforthepoor.ItshouldbeeasiertoextractmoneyfromalumniifOxfordwerenolongerstate-funded. Wecanseefromtheavailablestatisticsthatthe
Itishardtopredicthowscienceisgoingtoturnoutandifitisreallygoodscienceitisimpossibletopredict.Ifthethingstobefoundareactuallynewtheyarebydefinitionunknowninadvance.Youcannotmakechoicesinthismatter.46Youeitherhavescienceoryoudon’tandifyouhaveityouareobligedtoacceptthesurprisinganddisturbingpiecesofinformationalongwiththeneatandpromptlyusefulbits. TheonlysolidpieceofscientifictrothaboutwhichIfeeltotallyconfidentisthatweareprofoundlyignorantaboutnature.IndeedIregardthisasthemajordiscoveryofthepasthundredyearsofbiology.Itisinitswayanilluminatingpieceofnews.47Itwouldhaveamazedthebrightestmindsofthe18thcenturyEnlightenmenttobetoldbyanyofushowlittleweknowandhowbewilderingthewayaheadseems.48Itisthissuddenconfrontationwiththedepthandscopeofignorancethatrepresentsthemostsignificantcontributionofthe20thcenturysciencetothehumanintellect.Inearliertimesweeitherpretendedtounderstandhowthingsworkedorignoredtheproblemorsimplymadeupstoriestofillthegaps.Nowthatwehavebegunexploringinearnestwearegettingglimpsesofhowhugethequestionsareandhowfarfrombeinganswered.Becauseofthiswearedepressed.49Itisnotsobadbeingignorantifyouaretotallyignorant;thehardthingisknowinginsomedetailtherealityofignorancetheworstspotsandhereandtherethenot-so-badsportsbutnottruelightattheendofthetunnelnorevenanytunnelsthatcanyetbetrusted. Butwearemakingabeginningandthereoughttobesomesatisfaction.Thereareprobablynoquestionswecanthinkupthatcan’tbeansweredsoonerorlaterincludingeventhematterofconsciousness.50Tobesuretheremaywellbequestionswecan’tthinkupeverandthereforelimitstothereachofhumanintellectbutthatisanothermatter.Withinourlimitsweshouldbeabletoworkourwaythroughtoallouranswersifwekeepatitlongenoughandpayattention. 48Itisthissuddenconfrontationwiththedepthandscopeofignorancethatrepresentsthemostsignificantcontributionofthe20thcenturysciencetothehumanintellect.
LikemanyotheraspectsofthecomputerageYahoobeganasanidea1intoahobbyandlatelyhas2intoafull-timepassion.ThetwodevelopersofYahooDavidFiloandJerryYangPh.Dcandidates3ElectricalEngineeringatStanfordUniversitystartedtheirguideinApril1994asawaytokeep4oftheirpersonalinterestontheInternet.Beforelongthey5thattheirhomebrewedlistswerebecomingtoolongand6.GraduallytheybegantospendmoreandmoretimeonYahoo. During1994they7yahoointoacustomizeddatabasedesignedto8theneedsofthethousandsofusers9begantousetheservicethroughtheclosely10Internetcommunity.Theydevelopedcustomizedsoftwaretohelpthem11locateidentifyandeditmaterial12ontheInternet.ThenameYahoois13tostandfor"YetAnotherHierarchicalOfficiousOrale"butFiloandYanginsisttheyselectedthe14becausetheyconsideredthemselvesyahoos.Yahooitselffirst15onYang’sworkstation"akebono"whilethesearchenginewas16onFilo’scomputer"Konishiki". Inearly1995MarcAndersenco-founderofNetscapeCommunicationinMountainViewCaliforniainvitedFiloandYangtomovetheirfiles17tolargercomputers18atNetscape.AsaresultStanford’scomputernetworkreturnedto19andbothpartiesbenefited.TodayYahoo20organizedinformationontensofthousandsofcomputerslinkedtotheweb. 10
Itisawisefatherthatknowshisownchildbuttodayamancanboosthispaternalfatherlywisdom—oratleastconfirmthathe’sthekid’sdad.Allheneedstodoisshellout$30forpaternitytestingkitPTKathislocaldrugstore—andanother$120togettheresults. Morethan60000peoplehavepurchasedthePTKssincetheyfirstbecameavailablewithoutprescriptionslastyearaccordingtoDougFoggchiefoperatingofficerofIdentigenewhichmakestheover-the-counterkits.MorethantwodozencompaniessellDNAtestsdirectlytothepublicranginginpricefromafewhundreddollarstomorethan$2500. Amongthemostpopular:paternityandkinshiptestingwhichadoptedchildrencanusetofindtheirbiologicalrelativesandfamiliescanusetotrackdownkidsputupforadoption.DNAtestingisalsothelatestrageamongpassionategenealogists—andsupportsbusinessesthatoffertosearchforafamily’sgeographicroots. Mosttestsrequirecollectingcellsbyswabbingsalivainthemouthandsendingittothecompanyfortesting.AlltestsrequireapotentialcandidatewithwhomtocompareDNA. Butsomeobserversareskeptical."Thereisakindoffalseprecisionbeinghawkedbypeopleclaimingtheyaredoingancestrytesting"saysTroyDusteraNewYorkUniversitysociologist.Henotesthateachindividualhasmanyancestors—numberinginthehundredsjustafewcenturiesback.YetmostancestrytestingonlyconsidersasinglelineageeithertheYchromosomeinheritedthroughmeninafather’slineormitochondrialDNAwhichispasseddownonlyfrommothers.ThisDNAcanrevealgeneticinformationaboutonlyoneortwoancestorseventhoughforexamplejustthreegenerationsbackpeoplealsohavesixothergreat-grandparentsorfourgenerationsback14othergreat-great-grandparents. Criticsalsoarguethatcommercialgenetictestingisonlyasgoodasthereferencecollectionstowhichasampleiscompared.Databasesusedbysomecompaniesdon’trelyondatacollectedsystematicallybutratherlumptogetherinformationfromdifferentresearchprojects.ThismeansthataDNAdatabasemayhavealotofdatafromsomeregionsandnototherssoaperson’stestresultsmaydifferdependingonthecompanythatprocessestheresults.Inadditionthecomputerprogramsacompanyusestoestimaterelationshipsmaybepatentedandnotsubjecttopeerrevieworoutsideevaluation. InParagraphs1and2thetextshowsPTK’s
LikemanyotheraspectsofthecomputerageYahoobeganasanidea1intoahobbyandlatelyhas2intoafull-timepassion.ThetwodevelopersofYahooDavidFiloandJerryYangPh.Dcandidates3ElectricalEngineeringatStanfordUniversitystartedtheirguideinApril1994asawaytokeep4oftheirpersonalinterestontheInternet.Beforelongthey5thattheirhomebrewedlistswerebecomingtoolongand6.GraduallytheybegantospendmoreandmoretimeonYahoo. During1994they7yahoointoacustomizeddatabasedesignedto8theneedsofthethousandsofusers9begantousetheservicethroughtheclosely10Internetcommunity.Theydevelopedcustomizedsoftwaretohelpthem11locateidentifyandeditmaterial12ontheInternet.ThenameYahoois13tostandfor"YetAnotherHierarchicalOfficiousOrale"butFiloandYanginsisttheyselectedthe14becausetheyconsideredthemselvesyahoos.Yahooitselffirst15onYang’sworkstation"akebono"whilethesearchenginewas16onFilo’scomputer"Konishiki". Inearly1995MarcAndersenco-founderofNetscapeCommunicationinMountainViewCaliforniainvitedFiloandYangtomovetheirfiles17tolargercomputers18atNetscape.AsaresultStanford’scomputernetworkreturnedto19andbothpartiesbenefited.TodayYahoo20organizedinformationontensofthousandsofcomputerslinkedtotheweb. 4
Studiesfrom10nationsrevealthattheratesofdepressionamongwomenaretwiceashighastheyareamongmen.Dowomenhaveabiologicalbentfordepressionoraresocialdoublestandardsthemajorcause Mentalhealthworkershavelongnoticedamongtheclinicallydepressedwomentakeupabiggerproportion.Untilrecentlythoughitwasunclearwhethermorewomenthanmenwereillorinsteadwhethermorewomensoughthelp.Infactamountingcollectionofstudieshasconfirmedthatmajordepressionistwiceascommonamongwomenasitisamongmen."Thisisoneofthemostconsistentfindingswehaveeverhad"saysMyrnaM.WeissmanofColumbiaUniversity. Scientistssearchingforexplanationsarechallengedbythefactthatavarietyofcuespromptdepressionindifferentpeople.Sortingoutwhichfactorsmighthaveagreaterinfluenceonwomenhasnotprovedeasy.Bothsexesstandanequalchanceofinheritingmajordepressionsogenesaremostlikelynottoblame.Yethormonesandsleepcycles--whichdifferdramaticallybetweenthesexescanaltermood.Alsomanyworkershaveproposedthatsocialdiscriminationmightputwomenunderhighlevelsofstress. In1990aninternationalgroupexaminesmooddisorders.Inthe10nationsreviewedsofartheteamhasfoundthatamonggenerationsreachingmaturityafter1945depressionseemstobeontheriseandoccursatayoungerage.Althoughoverallincidencevariesregionally"everywheretheratesofdepressionamongwomenareabouttwiceashighastheyareamongmen"Weissmansays. Incontrastlifetimeratesformanic-depressiveillnessdonotdifferaccordingtosexorculture.MarkS.GeorgeandhiscolleaguesattheNationalInstituteofMentalHealthNIMHrecentlystudiedwhichregionsofthebrainhavegreaterbloodflowduringperiodsofdepression.Georgefoundthat"thebrainactivityofthemenandwomenofdepressionlookedverydifferent."Hehassincecomparedfeelingsofangeranxietyandhappinessfindingnosuchbigadifference. BecauseoneinfiveAmericanwomenhasahistoryofdepressionespeciallyastheyoftenpursuetherapyfromothersourcessometimesontopofananti-depressantclinic.SaysLeibenluft:"Itisremarkablehowlittleworkhasbeendoneonthissubject. Whatdidtheinternationalgroupfindoutaboutmooddisorder
LikemanyotheraspectsofthecomputerageYahoobeganasanidea1intoahobbyandlatelyhas2intoafull-timepassion.ThetwodevelopersofYahooDavidFiloandJerryYangPh.Dcandidates3ElectricalEngineeringatStanfordUniversitystartedtheirguideinApril1994asawaytokeep4oftheirpersonalinterestontheInternet.Beforelongthey5thattheirhomebrewedlistswerebecomingtoolongand6.GraduallytheybegantospendmoreandmoretimeonYahoo. During1994they7yahoointoacustomizeddatabasedesignedto8theneedsofthethousandsofusers9begantousetheservicethroughtheclosely10Internetcommunity.Theydevelopedcustomizedsoftwaretohelpthem11locateidentifyandeditmaterial12ontheInternet.ThenameYahoois13tostandfor"YetAnotherHierarchicalOfficiousOrale"butFiloandYanginsisttheyselectedthe14becausetheyconsideredthemselvesyahoos.Yahooitselffirst15onYang’sworkstation"akebono"whilethesearchenginewas16onFilo’scomputer"Konishiki". Inearly1995MarcAndersenco-founderofNetscapeCommunicationinMountainViewCaliforniainvitedFiloandYangtomovetheirfiles17tolargercomputers18atNetscape.AsaresultStanford’scomputernetworkreturnedto19andbothpartiesbenefited.TodayYahoo20organizedinformationontensofthousandsofcomputerslinkedtotheweb. 14
LikemanyotheraspectsofthecomputerageYahoobeganasanidea1intoahobbyandlatelyhas2intoafull-timepassion.ThetwodevelopersofYahooDavidFiloandJerryYangPh.Dcandidates3ElectricalEngineeringatStanfordUniversitystartedtheirguideinApril1994asawaytokeep4oftheirpersonalinterestontheInternet.Beforelongthey5thattheirhomebrewedlistswerebecomingtoolongand6.GraduallytheybegantospendmoreandmoretimeonYahoo. During1994they7yahoointoacustomizeddatabasedesignedto8theneedsofthethousandsofusers9begantousetheservicethroughtheclosely10Internetcommunity.Theydevelopedcustomizedsoftwaretohelpthem11locateidentifyandeditmaterial12ontheInternet.ThenameYahoois13tostandfor"YetAnotherHierarchicalOfficiousOrale"butFiloandYanginsisttheyselectedthe14becausetheyconsideredthemselvesyahoos.Yahooitselffirst15onYang’sworkstation"akebono"whilethesearchenginewas16onFilo’scomputer"Konishiki". Inearly1995MarcAndersenco-founderofNetscapeCommunicationinMountainViewCaliforniainvitedFiloandYangtomovetheirfiles17tolargercomputers18atNetscape.AsaresultStanford’scomputernetworkreturnedto19andbothpartiesbenefited.TodayYahoo20organizedinformationontensofthousandsofcomputerslinkedtotheweb. 12
LikemanyotheraspectsofthecomputerageYahoobeganasanidea1intoahobbyandlatelyhas2intoafull-timepassion.ThetwodevelopersofYahooDavidFiloandJerryYangPh.Dcandidates3ElectricalEngineeringatStanfordUniversitystartedtheirguideinApril1994asawaytokeep4oftheirpersonalinterestontheInternet.Beforelongthey5thattheirhomebrewedlistswerebecomingtoolongand6.GraduallytheybegantospendmoreandmoretimeonYahoo. During1994they7yahoointoacustomizeddatabasedesignedto8theneedsofthethousandsofusers9begantousetheservicethroughtheclosely10Internetcommunity.Theydevelopedcustomizedsoftwaretohelpthem11locateidentifyandeditmaterial12ontheInternet.ThenameYahoois13tostandfor"YetAnotherHierarchicalOfficiousOrale"butFiloandYanginsisttheyselectedthe14becausetheyconsideredthemselvesyahoos.Yahooitselffirst15onYang’sworkstation"akebono"whilethesearchenginewas16onFilo’scomputer"Konishiki". Inearly1995MarcAndersenco-founderofNetscapeCommunicationinMountainViewCaliforniainvitedFiloandYangtomovetheirfiles17tolargercomputers18atNetscape.AsaresultStanford’scomputernetworkreturnedto19andbothpartiesbenefited.TodayYahoo20organizedinformationontensofthousandsofcomputerslinkedtotheweb. 8
Optimismistheartofalwaysseeingtheglasshalffull1halfemptyfindingsomethingpositiveineventhemost2ofsituationsandlastbutnotleasttheabilitytoexpectthebestevenifthechancesare3.Itenablesyoutotrynewthingsdealwithfailureasalearningexperience4astoppingpoint.Ingeneraloptimismgivesyouareasontolive.Theworldwouldbeabetterplaceifitwasfullofoptimism5unfortunatelythetrendintoday’syouthis6theoppositeway.Todayitis7tobepessimistic.Onecouldspendhoursdiscussinghowwearrivedatthispoint8ouryouthrefusestosmelltherosesandinsteadprefersto9themselvesontheirownpessimistic10. Optimismisnotan11giftbutratheralearnedbehavior12.Likemostbehaviorsoptimismisbestlearnedbywatchingexamples13you.Thefirststepincreatingagenerationofpeoplewithapositiveoutlookonlifeisto14lifeonthebrightsideyourself.15itwouldbewrongto16yourchildfromallnegativityitisimportantthatyouarenotthe17ofdoubtsandworries.Findingsomethingpositiveinanegativesituationneedstobe18Showhowtomakethebestofthingsbyalways19thepositivebyencouragingyourchildafteran20andbyexplainingoverandoverthatfailureisjustapartofprogress. 2
Studiesfrom10nationsrevealthattheratesofdepressionamongwomenaretwiceashighastheyareamongmen.Dowomenhaveabiologicalbentfordepressionoraresocialdoublestandardsthemajorcause Mentalhealthworkershavelongnoticedamongtheclinicallydepressedwomentakeupabiggerproportion.Untilrecentlythoughitwasunclearwhethermorewomenthanmenwereillorinsteadwhethermorewomensoughthelp.Infactamountingcollectionofstudieshasconfirmedthatmajordepressionistwiceascommonamongwomenasitisamongmen."Thisisoneofthemostconsistentfindingswehaveeverhad"saysMyrnaM.WeissmanofColumbiaUniversity. Scientistssearchingforexplanationsarechallengedbythefactthatavarietyofcuespromptdepressionindifferentpeople.Sortingoutwhichfactorsmighthaveagreaterinfluenceonwomenhasnotprovedeasy.Bothsexesstandanequalchanceofinheritingmajordepressionsogenesaremostlikelynottoblame.Yethormonesandsleepcycles--whichdifferdramaticallybetweenthesexescanaltermood.Alsomanyworkershaveproposedthatsocialdiscriminationmightputwomenunderhighlevelsofstress. In1990aninternationalgroupexaminesmooddisorders.Inthe10nationsreviewedsofartheteamhasfoundthatamonggenerationsreachingmaturityafter1945depressionseemstobeontheriseandoccursatayoungerage.Althoughoverallincidencevariesregionally"everywheretheratesofdepressionamongwomenareabouttwiceashighastheyareamongmen"Weissmansays. Incontrastlifetimeratesformanic-depressiveillnessdonotdifferaccordingtosexorculture.MarkS.GeorgeandhiscolleaguesattheNationalInstituteofMentalHealthNIMHrecentlystudiedwhichregionsofthebrainhavegreaterbloodflowduringperiodsofdepression.Georgefoundthat"thebrainactivityofthemenandwomenofdepressionlookedverydifferent."Hehassincecomparedfeelingsofangeranxietyandhappinessfindingnosuchbigadifference. BecauseoneinfiveAmericanwomenhasahistoryofdepressionespeciallyastheyoftenpursuetherapyfromothersourcessometimesontopofananti-depressantclinic.SaysLeibenluft:"Itisremarkablehowlittleworkhasbeendoneonthissubject. TheauthorquotesLeibenluft’scommentinthelastparagraphto
Directions:Writeanessayof160～200wordsbasedonthefollowingdrawings.Inyouressayyoushould: 1describethedrawingbriefly; 2interpretthephenomenonreflectedbyitandthen 3giveyourcomments. YoushouldwriteneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.
Itisawisefatherthatknowshisownchildbuttodayamancanboosthispaternalfatherlywisdom—oratleastconfirmthathe’sthekid’sdad.Allheneedstodoisshellout$30forpaternitytestingkitPTKathislocaldrugstore—andanother$120togettheresults. Morethan60000peoplehavepurchasedthePTKssincetheyfirstbecameavailablewithoutprescriptionslastyearaccordingtoDougFoggchiefoperatingofficerofIdentigenewhichmakestheover-the-counterkits.MorethantwodozencompaniessellDNAtestsdirectlytothepublicranginginpricefromafewhundreddollarstomorethan$2500. Amongthemostpopular:paternityandkinshiptestingwhichadoptedchildrencanusetofindtheirbiologicalrelativesandfamiliescanusetotrackdownkidsputupforadoption.DNAtestingisalsothelatestrageamongpassionategenealogists—andsupportsbusinessesthatoffertosearchforafamily’sgeographicroots. Mosttestsrequirecollectingcellsbyswabbingsalivainthemouthandsendingittothecompanyfortesting.AlltestsrequireapotentialcandidatewithwhomtocompareDNA. Butsomeobserversareskeptical."Thereisakindoffalseprecisionbeinghawkedbypeopleclaimingtheyaredoingancestrytesting"saysTroyDusteraNewYorkUniversitysociologist.Henotesthateachindividualhasmanyancestors—numberinginthehundredsjustafewcenturiesback.YetmostancestrytestingonlyconsidersasinglelineageeithertheYchromosomeinheritedthroughmeninafather’slineormitochondrialDNAwhichispasseddownonlyfrommothers.ThisDNAcanrevealgeneticinformationaboutonlyoneortwoancestorseventhoughforexamplejustthreegenerationsbackpeoplealsohavesixothergreat-grandparentsorfourgenerationsback14othergreat-great-grandparents. Criticsalsoarguethatcommercialgenetictestingisonlyasgoodasthereferencecollectionstowhichasampleiscompared.Databasesusedbysomecompaniesdon’trelyondatacollectedsystematicallybutratherlumptogetherinformationfromdifferentresearchprojects.ThismeansthataDNAdatabasemayhavealotofdatafromsomeregionsandnototherssoaperson’stestresultsmaydifferdependingonthecompanythatprocessestheresults.Inadditionthecomputerprogramsacompanyusestoestimaterelationshipsmaybepatentedandnotsubjecttopeerrevieworoutsideevaluation. Skepticalobserversbelievethatancestrytestingfailsto
“Thisisareallyexcitingtime—aneweraisstarting”saysPeterBazalgettethechiefcreativeofficerofEndemol.Heisreferringtotheupsurgeofinterestinmobiletelevisionanascentindustryattheintersectionoftelecomsandmediawhichoffersnewopportunitiestodevice-makerscontentproducersandmobile-networkoperators.Andheisfarfromaloneinhisenthusiasm. Alreadymanymobileoperatorsofferaselectionoftelevisionchannelsorindividualshowswhichare“streamed”acrosstheirthird-generation3Gnetworks.41.______. MeanwhileAppleComputerwhichlaunchedavideo-capableversionofitsiPodportablemusic-playerinOctoberisstrikingdealswithtelevisionnetworkstoexpandtherangeofshowsthatcanbepurchasedforviewingonthedeviceincluding“Lost”“DesperateHousewives”and“Law＆Order”. 42.______.Forastartnobodyreallyknowsifconsumerswillpayforitthoughsurveyssuggesttheyliketheidea.Informaaconsultancysaystherewillbe125mmobile-TVusersby2010.Butmanyothermobiletechnologiesinspiredhighhopesandthenfailedtoliveuptoexpectations.AndevenifpeopledowantTVonthemovethereisfurtheruncertaintyintwoareas:technologyandbusinessmodels. AtthemomentmobileTVismostlystreamedover3Gnetworks.ButsendinganindividualdatastreamtoeachviewerisinefficientandwillbeunsustainableinthelongrunifmobileTVtakesoff.43.______. 44.______.Thatsuggeststhatsomeshowssuchasdramabettersuitthedownloadmodelwhileotherssuchaslivenewssportsorrealityshowsarebettersuitedtoreal-timetransmission.Thetwoapproacheswillprobablyco-exist. Justasthereareseveralcompetingmobile-TVtechnologiestherearealsomanypossiblebusinessmodels.Mobileoperatorsmightchoosetobuildtheirownmobile-TVbroadcastnetworks;ortheycouldformaconsortiumandbuildasharednetwork;orexistingbroadcasterscouldbuildsuchnetworks. Thebigquestioniswhetherthebroadcastersandmobileoperatorscanagreehowtodividethespoilsassumingthereareany.Broadcastersownthecontentbutmobileoperatorsgenerallycontrolthehandsetsandtheydonotalwaysseeeyetoeye.45. Thenthereisthequestionofwhowillfundtheproductionofmobile-TVcontent:broadcastersoperatorsoradvertisersAgaintheanswerisprobably“alloftheabove”. [A]Sothegeneralconsensusisthat3Gstreamingisapreludetotheconstructionofdedicatedmobile-TVbroadcastnetworkswhichtransmitdigitalTVsignalsonentirelydifferentfrequenciestothoseusedforvoiceanddata.Therearethreemainstandards:DVB-HfavouredinEurope;DMBwhichhasbeenadoptedinSouthKoreaandJapan;andMediaFLOwhichisbeingrolledoutinAmerica.WatchingTVusinganyofthesetechnologiesrequiresaTV-capablehandsetofcourse. [B]IncontrastwatchingdownloadedTVprogrammesonaniPodorotherportablevideoplayerisalreadypossibletoday.Andunlikeaprogrammestreamedover3Gorbroadcastviaadedicatedmobile-TVnetworkshowsstoredonaniPodcanbewatchedon.anundergroundtrainorinregionswithpatchynetworkcoverage. [C]InSouthKoreatelevisionisalsosenttomobilephonesviasatelliteandterrestrialbroadcastnetworkswhichisfarmoreefficientthansendingvideoacrossmobilenetworks.InEuropetheItalianarmof3amobileoperatorrecentlyacquiredChannel7atelevisionchannelwithaviewtolaunchingmobile-TVbroadcastsinItalyinthesecondhalfof2006. [D]DespiteallthisactivityhowevertheprospectsformobileTVareunclear. [E]Assumingthetechnologyandthebusinessmodelscanbesortedoutthereisstillthetrickymatterofcontent. [F]InSouthKoreaaconsortiumofbroadcasterslaunchedafree-to-airDMBnetworklastmonthbutthecountry’smobileoperatorswerereluctanttoprovidetheiruserswithhandsetsabletoreceivethebroadcastssincetheywereunwillingtounderminetheprospectsfortheirownsubscription-basedmobile-TVservices. [G]ThepotentialformobileTVisvastinshort—butsoisthedegreeofuncertaintyoverhowitshouldactuallybeputintopractice. 44
“Thisisareallyexcitingtime—aneweraisstarting”saysPeterBazalgettethechiefcreativeofficerofEndemol.Heisreferringtotheupsurgeofinterestinmobiletelevisionanascentindustryattheintersectionoftelecomsandmediawhichoffersnewopportunitiestodevice-makerscontentproducersandmobile-networkoperators.Andheisfarfromaloneinhisenthusiasm. Alreadymanymobileoperatorsofferaselectionoftelevisionchannelsorindividualshowswhichare“streamed”acrosstheirthird-generation3Gnetworks.41.______. MeanwhileAppleComputerwhichlaunchedavideo-capableversionofitsiPodportablemusic-playerinOctoberisstrikingdealswithtelevisionnetworkstoexpandtherangeofshowsthatcanbepurchasedforviewingonthedeviceincluding“Lost”“DesperateHousewives”and“Law＆Order”. 42.______.Forastartnobodyreallyknowsifconsumerswillpayforitthoughsurveyssuggesttheyliketheidea.Informaaconsultancysaystherewillbe125mmobile-TVusersby2010.Butmanyothermobiletechnologiesinspiredhighhopesandthenfailedtoliveuptoexpectations.AndevenifpeopledowantTVonthemovethereisfurtheruncertaintyintwoareas:technologyandbusinessmodels. AtthemomentmobileTVismostlystreamedover3Gnetworks.ButsendinganindividualdatastreamtoeachviewerisinefficientandwillbeunsustainableinthelongrunifmobileTVtakesoff.43.______. 44.______.Thatsuggeststhatsomeshowssuchasdramabettersuitthedownloadmodelwhileotherssuchaslivenewssportsorrealityshowsarebettersuitedtoreal-timetransmission.Thetwoapproacheswillprobablyco-exist. Justasthereareseveralcompetingmobile-TVtechnologiestherearealsomanypossiblebusinessmodels.Mobileoperatorsmightchoosetobuildtheirownmobile-TVbroadcastnetworks;ortheycouldformaconsortiumandbuildasharednetwork;orexistingbroadcasterscouldbuildsuchnetworks. Thebigquestioniswhetherthebroadcastersandmobileoperatorscanagreehowtodividethespoilsassumingthereareany.Broadcastersownthecontentbutmobileoperatorsgenerallycontrolthehandsetsandtheydonotalwaysseeeyetoeye.45. Thenthereisthequestionofwhowillfundtheproductionofmobile-TVcontent:broadcastersoperatorsoradvertisersAgaintheanswerisprobably“alloftheabove”. [A]Sothegeneralconsensusisthat3Gstreamingisapreludetotheconstructionofdedicatedmobile-TVbroadcastnetworkswhichtransmitdigitalTVsignalsonentirelydifferentfrequenciestothoseusedforvoiceanddata.Therearethreemainstandards:DVB-HfavouredinEurope;DMBwhichhasbeenadoptedinSouthKoreaandJapan;andMediaFLOwhichisbeingrolledoutinAmerica.WatchingTVusinganyofthesetechnologiesrequiresaTV-capablehandsetofcourse. [B]IncontrastwatchingdownloadedTVprogrammesonaniPodorotherportablevideoplayerisalreadypossibletoday.Andunlikeaprogrammestreamedover3Gorbroadcastviaadedicatedmobile-TVnetworkshowsstoredonaniPodcanbewatchedon.anundergroundtrainorinregionswithpatchynetworkcoverage. [C]InSouthKoreatelevisionisalsosenttomobilephonesviasatelliteandterrestrialbroadcastnetworkswhichisfarmoreefficientthansendingvideoacrossmobilenetworks.InEuropetheItalianarmof3amobileoperatorrecentlyacquiredChannel7atelevisionchannelwithaviewtolaunchingmobile-TVbroadcastsinItalyinthesecondhalfof2006. [D]DespiteallthisactivityhowevertheprospectsformobileTVareunclear. [E]Assumingthetechnologyandthebusinessmodelscanbesortedoutthereisstillthetrickymatterofcontent. [F]InSouthKoreaaconsortiumofbroadcasterslaunchedafree-to-airDMBnetworklastmonthbutthecountry’smobileoperatorswerereluctanttoprovidetheiruserswithhandsetsabletoreceivethebroadcastssincetheywereunwillingtounderminetheprospectsfortheirownsubscription-basedmobile-TVservices. [G]ThepotentialformobileTVisvastinshort—butsoisthedegreeofuncertaintyoverhowitshouldactuallybeputintopractice. 42
LikemanyotheraspectsofthecomputerageYahoobeganasanidea1intoahobbyandlatelyhas2intoafull-timepassion.ThetwodevelopersofYahooDavidFiloandJerryYangPh.Dcandidates3ElectricalEngineeringatStanfordUniversitystartedtheirguideinApril1994asawaytokeep4oftheirpersonalinterestontheInternet.Beforelongthey5thattheirhomebrewedlistswerebecomingtoolongand6.GraduallytheybegantospendmoreandmoretimeonYahoo. During1994they7yahoointoacustomizeddatabasedesignedto8theneedsofthethousandsofusers9begantousetheservicethroughtheclosely10Internetcommunity.Theydevelopedcustomizedsoftwaretohelpthem11locateidentifyandeditmaterial12ontheInternet.ThenameYahoois13tostandfor"YetAnotherHierarchicalOfficiousOrale"butFiloandYanginsisttheyselectedthe14becausetheyconsideredthemselvesyahoos.Yahooitselffirst15onYang’sworkstation"akebono"whilethesearchenginewas16onFilo’scomputer"Konishiki". Inearly1995MarcAndersenco-founderofNetscapeCommunicationinMountainViewCaliforniainvitedFiloandYangtomovetheirfiles17tolargercomputers18atNetscape.AsaresultStanford’scomputernetworkreturnedto19andbothpartiesbenefited.TodayYahoo20organizedinformationontensofthousandsofcomputerslinkedtotheweb. 2
46"Popularart"hasanumberofmeaningsimpossibletodefinewithanyprecisionwhichrangefromfolkloretojunkwithpolesbeingclearenoughbutthemiddletendingtoblur.TheHollywoodWesternofthe1930’sforexamplehaselementsoffolklorebutisclosertojunkthantohighartorfolkart.Therecanbegreattrashjustasthereisbadhighart.ThemusicalsofGeorgeGershwinaregreatpopularartneveraspiringtohighart.SchubertandBrahmshoweverusedelementsofpopularmusic--folkthemes--inworksclearlyintendedashighart.ThecaseofVerdiisadifferentone:hetookapopulargenre--bourgeoismelodramasettomusicanaccuratedefinitionofnineteenth-centuryopera-andwithoutalteringitsfundamentalnaturetransmuteditintohighart.47Thisremainsoneofthegreatestachievementsinmusicandonethatcannotbefullyappreciatedwithoutrecognizingtheessentialtrashinessofthegenre. AsanexampleofsuchatransmutationconsiderwhatVerdimadeofthetypicalpoliticalelementsofnineteenth-centuryopera.48Generallyintheplotsoftheseoperasaheroorheroine--usuallyportrayedonlyasanindividualunrestrainedbyclass--iscaughtbetweentheimmoralcorruptionofthearistocracyandthedoctrinairerigidityoftheleadersofthecivilians.Verditransformsthisnaiveandunlikeformulationwithmusicofextraordinaryenergyandrhythmicvitalitymusicmoresubtlethanitseemsatfirsthearing.Therearescenesandariasthatstillsoundlikecallstoarmsandwereclearlyunderstoodassuchwhentheywerefirstperformed.Suchpieceslendanimmediacytotheotherwiseveiledpoliticalmessageoftheseoperasandcallupfeelingsbeyondthoseoftheoperaitself. OrconsiderVerdi’streatmentofcharacter.49BeforeVerditherewererarelyanycharactersatallinmusicaldramaonlyaseriesofsituationswhichallowedthesingerstoexpressaseriesofemotionalstate.Anyattempttofindcoherentpsychologicalportrayalintheseoperasismisplacedingenuity.Theonlycoherencewasthesinger’svocaltechnique:whenthecastchangednewariaswerealmostalwayssubstitutedgenerallyadaptedfromotheroperas.Verdi’scharactersontheotherhandhavegenuineconsistencyandintegrityevenifinmanycasestheconsistencyisthatofpasteboardmelodrama.Theintegrityofthecharacterisachievedthroughthemusic:50oncehehadbecomeestablishedVerdididnotrewritehismusicfordifferentsingersorallowalterationsorsubstitutionsofsomebodyelse’sariasinoneofhisoperasaseveryeighteenth-centurycomposerhaddone.Whenherevisedanoperaitwasonlyfordramaticeconomyandeffectiveness. 46Populararthasanumberofmeaningsimpossibletodefinewithanyprecisionwhichrangefromfolkloretojunkwithpolesbeingclearenoughbutthemiddletendingtoblur
ItmaybejustaswellforOxfordUniversity’sreputationthatthisweek’smeetingofCongregationits3552-stronggoverningbodywasheldinsecretfortheairofcivilizedrationalitythatisgenerallysupposedtopervadedonnishconversationhaslatelyturnedfractious.That’sbecausethevice-chancellorthenearestthingtheplacehastoachiefexecutivehasproposedthemostfundamentalreformstotheuniversitysincetheestablishmentofthecollegesystemin1249;andalotofthedonsandcollegesdon’tlikeit. ThetroublewithOxfordisthatitisunmanageable.Itsproblems-thedifficultyofrecruitinggooddonsandofgettingridofbadonesconcernsaboutacademicstandardsseveremoneyworriesatsomecolleges-allspringfromthat.JohnHoodwhowasrecruitedasvice-chancellorfromtheUniversityofAucklandandisnowprobablythemost-hatedantipodeaninBritishacademiclifereckonsheknowshowtosolvethisandhasproposedtoreducethepowerofdonsandcollegesandincreasethatofuniversityadministrators. Mr.Hoodisrightthattheuniversity’smanagementstructureneedsanoverhaul.Butradicalthoughhisproposalsseemtothoseinvolvedinthecurrentrowtheydonotgofarenough.ThedifficultyofmanagingOxfordstemsonlypartlyfromthenuttinessofitssystemofgovernance;themorefundamentalproblemliesinitsrelationshipwiththegovernment.That’swhyMr.Hoodshouldadoptanideathatwasonceregardedasteeteringonthelunaticfringeofradicalismbutthesedaysisdiscussedeveninpolitecircles.Theideaisindependence. Oxfordgetsaround￡5000$9500perundergraduateperyearfromthegovernment.Inreturnitacceptsthatitcanchargestudentsonly￡1150risingto￡3000nextyearontopofthat.Sinceitprobablycostsatleast￡10000ayeartoteachanundergraduatethatleavesOxfordwithadeficitof￡4000orsoperstudenttocoverfromitsownfunds. IfOxforddeclaredindependenceitwouldlosethe￡52mundergraduatesubsidyatleast.CoulditfilltheholeCertainly.America’stopuniversitieschargearound￡20000perstudentperyear.Thedifficultissuewouldnotbemoneyaloneitwouldbebalancingnumbersofnot-so-brilliantrichpeoplepayingtopwhackwiththeclevererpooreronestheywerecross-subsidising.America’stopuniversitiesmanageit:highfeesmeanbetterteachingwhichkeepscompetitionhotandacademicstandardshighwhileluringenoughdonationstoprovidebursariesforthepoor.ItshouldbeeasiertoextractmoneyfromalumniifOxfordwerenolongerstate-funded. Itisimpliedinthethirdparagraphthat
LikemanyotheraspectsofthecomputerageYahoobeganasanidea1intoahobbyandlatelyhas2intoafull-timepassion.ThetwodevelopersofYahooDavidFiloandJerryYangPh.Dcandidates3ElectricalEngineeringatStanfordUniversitystartedtheirguideinApril1994asawaytokeep4oftheirpersonalinterestontheInternet.Beforelongthey5thattheirhomebrewedlistswerebecomingtoolongand6.GraduallytheybegantospendmoreandmoretimeonYahoo. During1994they7yahoointoacustomizeddatabasedesignedto8theneedsofthethousandsofusers9begantousetheservicethroughtheclosely10Internetcommunity.Theydevelopedcustomizedsoftwaretohelpthem11locateidentifyandeditmaterial12ontheInternet.ThenameYahoois13tostandfor"YetAnotherHierarchicalOfficiousOrale"butFiloandYanginsisttheyselectedthe14becausetheyconsideredthemselvesyahoos.Yahooitselffirst15onYang’sworkstation"akebono"whilethesearchenginewas16onFilo’scomputer"Konishiki". Inearly1995MarcAndersenco-founderofNetscapeCommunicationinMountainViewCaliforniainvitedFiloandYangtomovetheirfiles17tolargercomputers18atNetscape.AsaresultStanford’scomputernetworkreturnedto19andbothpartiesbenefited.TodayYahoo20organizedinformationontensofthousandsofcomputerslinkedtotheweb. 16
Itishardtopredicthowscienceisgoingtoturnoutandifitisreallygoodscienceitisimpossibletopredict.Ifthethingstobefoundareactuallynewtheyarebydefinitionunknowninadvance.Youcannotmakechoicesinthismatter.46Youeitherhavescienceoryoudon’tandifyouhaveityouareobligedtoacceptthesurprisinganddisturbingpiecesofinformationalongwiththeneatandpromptlyusefulbits. TheonlysolidpieceofscientifictrothaboutwhichIfeeltotallyconfidentisthatweareprofoundlyignorantaboutnature.IndeedIregardthisasthemajordiscoveryofthepasthundredyearsofbiology.Itisinitswayanilluminatingpieceofnews.47Itwouldhaveamazedthebrightestmindsofthe18thcenturyEnlightenmenttobetoldbyanyofushowlittleweknowandhowbewilderingthewayaheadseems.48Itisthissuddenconfrontationwiththedepthandscopeofignorancethatrepresentsthemostsignificantcontributionofthe20thcenturysciencetothehumanintellect.Inearliertimesweeitherpretendedtounderstandhowthingsworkedorignoredtheproblemorsimplymadeupstoriestofillthegaps.Nowthatwehavebegunexploringinearnestwearegettingglimpsesofhowhugethequestionsareandhowfarfrombeinganswered.Becauseofthiswearedepressed.49Itisnotsobadbeingignorantifyouaretotallyignorant;thehardthingisknowinginsomedetailtherealityofignorancetheworstspotsandhereandtherethenot-so-badsportsbutnottruelightattheendofthetunnelnorevenanytunnelsthatcanyetbetrusted. Butwearemakingabeginningandthereoughttobesomesatisfaction.Thereareprobablynoquestionswecanthinkupthatcan’tbeansweredsoonerorlaterincludingeventhematterofconsciousness.50Tobesuretheremaywellbequestionswecan’tthinkupeverandthereforelimitstothereachofhumanintellectbutthatisanothermatter.Withinourlimitsweshouldbeabletoworkourwaythroughtoallouranswersifwekeepatitlongenoughandpayattention. 50Tobesuretheremaywellbequestionswecan’tthinkupeverandthereforelimitstothereachofhumanintellectbutthatisanothermatter.
Directions. A.Studythefollowingpicturecarefullyandwriteanessayinnolessthan160-200words. B.YouressaymustbewrittenclearlyonANSWERSHEET2. C.Youressayshouldmeettherequirementsbelow: 1Interpretthefollowingpicture 2analyzepossiblereasonsforthissituationand 3suggestcounter-measures.
46"Popularart"hasanumberofmeaningsimpossibletodefinewithanyprecisionwhichrangefromfolkloretojunkwithpolesbeingclearenoughbutthemiddletendingtoblur.TheHollywoodWesternofthe1930’sforexamplehaselementsoffolklorebutisclosertojunkthantohighartorfolkart.Therecanbegreattrashjustasthereisbadhighart.ThemusicalsofGeorgeGershwinaregreatpopularartneveraspiringtohighart.SchubertandBrahmshoweverusedelementsofpopularmusic--folkthemes--inworksclearlyintendedashighart.ThecaseofVerdiisadifferentone:hetookapopulargenre--bourgeoismelodramasettomusicanaccuratedefinitionofnineteenth-centuryopera-andwithoutalteringitsfundamentalnaturetransmuteditintohighart.47Thisremainsoneofthegreatestachievementsinmusicandonethatcannotbefullyappreciatedwithoutrecognizingtheessentialtrashinessofthegenre. AsanexampleofsuchatransmutationconsiderwhatVerdimadeofthetypicalpoliticalelementsofnineteenth-centuryopera.48Generallyintheplotsoftheseoperasaheroorheroine--usuallyportrayedonlyasanindividualunrestrainedbyclass--iscaughtbetweentheimmoralcorruptionofthearistocracyandthedoctrinairerigidityoftheleadersofthecivilians.Verditransformsthisnaiveandunlikeformulationwithmusicofextraordinaryenergyandrhythmicvitalitymusicmoresubtlethanitseemsatfirsthearing.Therearescenesandariasthatstillsoundlikecallstoarmsandwereclearlyunderstoodassuchwhentheywerefirstperformed.Suchpieceslendanimmediacytotheotherwiseveiledpoliticalmessageoftheseoperasandcallupfeelingsbeyondthoseoftheoperaitself. OrconsiderVerdi’streatmentofcharacter.49BeforeVerditherewererarelyanycharactersatallinmusicaldramaonlyaseriesofsituationswhichallowedthesingerstoexpressaseriesofemotionalstate.Anyattempttofindcoherentpsychologicalportrayalintheseoperasismisplacedingenuity.Theonlycoherencewasthesinger’svocaltechnique:whenthecastchangednewariaswerealmostalwayssubstitutedgenerallyadaptedfromotheroperas.Verdi’scharactersontheotherhandhavegenuineconsistencyandintegrityevenifinmanycasestheconsistencyisthatofpasteboardmelodrama.Theintegrityofthecharacterisachievedthroughthemusic:50oncehehadbecomeestablishedVerdididnotrewritehismusicfordifferentsingersorallowalterationsorsubstitutionsofsomebodyelse’sariasinoneofhisoperasaseveryeighteenth-centurycomposerhaddone.Whenherevisedanoperaitwasonlyfordramaticeconomyandeffectiveness. 48Generallyintheplotsoftheseoperasaheroorheroine--usuallyportrayedonlyasanindividualunrestrainedbyclass--iscaughtbetweentheimmoralcorruptionofthearistocracyandthedoctrinairerigidityoftheleadersofthecivilians.
Historianshaveonlyrecentlybeguntonotetheincreaseindemandforluxurygoodsandservicesthattookplaceineighteenth-centuryEngland.MeKendrickhasexploredtheWedgewoodFirm’sremarkablesuccessinmarketingluxurypottery.Plumbhaswrittenabouttheproliferationofprovincialtheatersmusicalfestivalsandchildren’stoysandbooks.Whilethefeatofthisconsumerrevolutionishardlyindoubtthreekeyquestionsremain:WhoweretheconsumersWhatweretheirmotivesAndwhatweretheeffectsofthenewdemandforluxuries Ananswertothefirstofthesehasbeendifficulttoobtain.Althoughithasbeenpossibletoinferfromthegoodsandserviceactuallyproducedwhatmanufacturersandservicingtradesthoughttheircustomerswantedonlyastudyofrelevantpersonaldocumentswrittenbyactualconsumerswillprovideaprecisepictureofwhowantedwhat.Westillneedtoknowhowlargethisconsumermarketwasandhowfardownthesocialscaletheconsumerdemandforluxurygoodspenetrated.WithregardtothislastquestionwemightnoteinpassingthatThompsonwhilerightlyrestoringlaboringpeopletothestageofeighteenth-centuryEnglishhistoryhasprobablyexaggeratedtheoppositionofthesepeopletotheinroadsofcapitalistconsumerismingeneral:forexamplelaboringpeopleineighteenth-centuryEnglandreadilyshiftedfromhome-brewedbeertostandardizedbeerproducedbyhugeheavilycapitalizedurbanbreweries. Toanswerthequestionofwhyconsumersbecamesoeagertobuysomehistorianshavepointedtotheabilityofmanufacturerstoadvertiseinarelativelyuncensoredpress.Thishoweverhardlyseemsasufficientanswer.MeKendriekfavorsaViablemodelofconspicuousconsumptionstimulatedbycompetitionforstatus.The"middlingsort"boughtgoodsandservicesbecausetheywantedtofollowfashionssetbytherich.Againwemaywonderwhetherthisexplanationissufficient.Donotpeopleenjoybuyingthingsasaformofself-gratificationIfsoconsumerismcouldbeseenasaproductoftheriseofnewconceptsofindividualismandmaterialismbutnotnecessarilyofthefrenzyforconspicuouscompetition. FinallywhatweretheconsequencesofthisconsumerdemandforluxuriesMeKendriekclaimsthatitgoesalongwaytowardexplainingthecomingoftheIndustrialRevolution.ButdoesitWhatforexampledoestheproductionofhigh-qualitypotteriesandtoyshavetodowiththedevelopmentofironmanufactureortextilemillsItisperfectlypossiMeGohavethepsychologyandrealityofconsumersocietywithoutaheavyindustrialsector. Thatfutureexplorationofthesekeyquestionsisundoubtedlynecessaryshouldnothoweverdiminishtheforceoftheconclusionofrecentstudies:theinsatiabledemandinthetenth-centuryEnglandforfrivolousaswellasusefulgoodsandservicesforeshadowsourownworld. WhatdoestheauthorthinkofMcKendrick’sclaimabouttheluxuryconsumptionconsequences
LikemanyotheraspectsofthecomputerageYahoobeganasanidea1intoahobbyandlatelyhas2intoafull-timepassion.ThetwodevelopersofYahooDavidFiloandJerryYangPh.Dcandidates3ElectricalEngineeringatStanfordUniversitystartedtheirguideinApril1994asawaytokeep4oftheirpersonalinterestontheInternet.Beforelongthey5thattheirhomebrewedlistswerebecomingtoolongand6.GraduallytheybegantospendmoreandmoretimeonYahoo. During1994they7yahoointoacustomizeddatabasedesignedto8theneedsofthethousandsofusers9begantousetheservicethroughtheclosely10Internetcommunity.Theydevelopedcustomizedsoftwaretohelpthem11locateidentifyandeditmaterial12ontheInternet.ThenameYahoois13tostandfor"YetAnotherHierarchicalOfficiousOrale"butFiloandYanginsisttheyselectedthe14becausetheyconsideredthemselvesyahoos.Yahooitselffirst15onYang’sworkstation"akebono"whilethesearchenginewas16onFilo’scomputer"Konishiki". Inearly1995MarcAndersenco-founderofNetscapeCommunicationinMountainViewCaliforniainvitedFiloandYangtomovetheirfiles17tolargercomputers18atNetscape.AsaresultStanford’scomputernetworkreturnedto19andbothpartiesbenefited.TodayYahoo20organizedinformationontensofthousandsofcomputerslinkedtotheweb. 6
Historianshaveonlyrecentlybeguntonotetheincreaseindemandforluxurygoodsandservicesthattookplaceineighteenth-centuryEngland.MeKendrickhasexploredtheWedgewoodFirm’sremarkablesuccessinmarketingluxurypottery.Plumbhaswrittenabouttheproliferationofprovincialtheatersmusicalfestivalsandchildren’stoysandbooks.Whilethefeatofthisconsumerrevolutionishardlyindoubtthreekeyquestionsremain:WhoweretheconsumersWhatweretheirmotivesAndwhatweretheeffectsofthenewdemandforluxuries Ananswertothefirstofthesehasbeendifficulttoobtain.Althoughithasbeenpossibletoinferfromthegoodsandserviceactuallyproducedwhatmanufacturersandservicingtradesthoughttheircustomerswantedonlyastudyofrelevantpersonaldocumentswrittenbyactualconsumerswillprovideaprecisepictureofwhowantedwhat.Westillneedtoknowhowlargethisconsumermarketwasandhowfardownthesocialscaletheconsumerdemandforluxurygoodspenetrated.WithregardtothislastquestionwemightnoteinpassingthatThompsonwhilerightlyrestoringlaboringpeopletothestageofeighteenth-centuryEnglishhistoryhasprobablyexaggeratedtheoppositionofthesepeopletotheinroadsofcapitalistconsumerismingeneral:forexamplelaboringpeopleineighteenth-centuryEnglandreadilyshiftedfromhome-brewedbeertostandardizedbeerproducedbyhugeheavilycapitalizedurbanbreweries. Toanswerthequestionofwhyconsumersbecamesoeagertobuysomehistorianshavepointedtotheabilityofmanufacturerstoadvertiseinarelativelyuncensoredpress.Thishoweverhardlyseemsasufficientanswer.MeKendriekfavorsaViablemodelofconspicuousconsumptionstimulatedbycompetitionforstatus.The"middlingsort"boughtgoodsandservicesbecausetheywantedtofollowfashionssetbytherich.Againwemaywonderwhetherthisexplanationissufficient.Donotpeopleenjoybuyingthingsasaformofself-gratificationIfsoconsumerismcouldbeseenasaproductoftheriseofnewconceptsofindividualismandmaterialismbutnotnecessarilyofthefrenzyforconspicuouscompetition. FinallywhatweretheconsequencesofthisconsumerdemandforluxuriesMeKendriekclaimsthatitgoesalongwaytowardexplainingthecomingoftheIndustrialRevolution.ButdoesitWhatforexampledoestheproductionofhigh-qualitypotteriesandtoyshavetodowiththedevelopmentofironmanufactureortextilemillsItisperfectlypossiMeGohavethepsychologyandrealityofconsumersocietywithoutaheavyindustrialsector. Thatfutureexplorationofthesekeyquestionsisundoubtedlynecessaryshouldnothoweverdiminishtheforceoftheconclusionofrecentstudies:theinsatiabledemandinthetenth-centuryEnglandforfrivolousaswellasusefulgoodsandservicesforeshadowsourownworld. TheauthorusestheexampleintheendofParagraph2to
Studiesfrom10nationsrevealthattheratesofdepressionamongwomenaretwiceashighastheyareamongmen.Dowomenhaveabiologicalbentfordepressionoraresocialdoublestandardsthemajorcause Mentalhealthworkershavelongnoticedamongtheclinicallydepressedwomentakeupabiggerproportion.Untilrecentlythoughitwasunclearwhethermorewomenthanmenwereillorinsteadwhethermorewomensoughthelp.Infactamountingcollectionofstudieshasconfirmedthatmajordepressionistwiceascommonamongwomenasitisamongmen."Thisisoneofthemostconsistentfindingswehaveeverhad"saysMyrnaM.WeissmanofColumbiaUniversity. Scientistssearchingforexplanationsarechallengedbythefactthatavarietyofcuespromptdepressionindifferentpeople.Sortingoutwhichfactorsmighthaveagreaterinfluenceonwomenhasnotprovedeasy.Bothsexesstandanequalchanceofinheritingmajordepressionsogenesaremostlikelynottoblame.Yethormonesandsleepcycles--whichdifferdramaticallybetweenthesexescanaltermood.Alsomanyworkershaveproposedthatsocialdiscriminationmightputwomenunderhighlevelsofstress. In1990aninternationalgroupexaminesmooddisorders.Inthe10nationsreviewedsofartheteamhasfoundthatamonggenerationsreachingmaturityafter1945depressionseemstobeontheriseandoccursatayoungerage.Althoughoverallincidencevariesregionally"everywheretheratesofdepressionamongwomenareabouttwiceashighastheyareamongmen"Weissmansays. Incontrastlifetimeratesformanic-depressiveillnessdonotdifferaccordingtosexorculture.MarkS.GeorgeandhiscolleaguesattheNationalInstituteofMentalHealthNIMHrecentlystudiedwhichregionsofthebrainhavegreaterbloodflowduringperiodsofdepression.Georgefoundthat"thebrainactivityofthemenandwomenofdepressionlookedverydifferent."Hehassincecomparedfeelingsofangeranxietyandhappinessfindingnosuchbigadifference. BecauseoneinfiveAmericanwomenhasahistoryofdepressionespeciallyastheyoftenpursuetherapyfromothersourcessometimesontopofananti-depressantclinic.SaysLeibenluft:"Itisremarkablehowlittleworkhasbeendoneonthissubject. WhichoneofthefollowingistrueaboutMyrnaM.Weissman’scomment
46"Popularart"hasanumberofmeaningsimpossibletodefinewithanyprecisionwhichrangefromfolkloretojunkwithpolesbeingclearenoughbutthemiddletendingtoblur.TheHollywoodWesternofthe1930’sforexamplehaselementsoffolklorebutisclosertojunkthantohighartorfolkart.Therecanbegreattrashjustasthereisbadhighart.ThemusicalsofGeorgeGershwinaregreatpopularartneveraspiringtohighart.SchubertandBrahmshoweverusedelementsofpopularmusic--folkthemes--inworksclearlyintendedashighart.ThecaseofVerdiisadifferentone:hetookapopulargenre--bourgeoismelodramasettomusicanaccuratedefinitionofnineteenth-centuryopera-andwithoutalteringitsfundamentalnaturetransmuteditintohighart.47Thisremainsoneofthegreatestachievementsinmusicandonethatcannotbefullyappreciatedwithoutrecognizingtheessentialtrashinessofthegenre. AsanexampleofsuchatransmutationconsiderwhatVerdimadeofthetypicalpoliticalelementsofnineteenth-centuryopera.48Generallyintheplotsoftheseoperasaheroorheroine--usuallyportrayedonlyasanindividualunrestrainedbyclass--iscaughtbetweentheimmoralcorruptionofthearistocracyandthedoctrinairerigidityoftheleadersofthecivilians.Verditransformsthisnaiveandunlikeformulationwithmusicofextraordinaryenergyandrhythmicvitalitymusicmoresubtlethanitseemsatfirsthearing.Therearescenesandariasthatstillsoundlikecallstoarmsandwereclearlyunderstoodassuchwhentheywerefirstperformed.Suchpieceslendanimmediacytotheotherwiseveiledpoliticalmessageoftheseoperasandcallupfeelingsbeyondthoseoftheoperaitself. OrconsiderVerdi’streatmentofcharacter.49BeforeVerditherewererarelyanycharactersatallinmusicaldramaonlyaseriesofsituationswhichallowedthesingerstoexpressaseriesofemotionalstate.Anyattempttofindcoherentpsychologicalportrayalintheseoperasismisplacedingenuity.Theonlycoherencewasthesinger’svocaltechnique:whenthecastchangednewariaswerealmostalwayssubstitutedgenerallyadaptedfromotheroperas.Verdi’scharactersontheotherhandhavegenuineconsistencyandintegrityevenifinmanycasestheconsistencyisthatofpasteboardmelodrama.Theintegrityofthecharacterisachievedthroughthemusic:50oncehehadbecomeestablishedVerdididnotrewritehismusicfordifferentsingersorallowalterationsorsubstitutionsofsomebodyelse’sariasinoneofhisoperasaseveryeighteenth-centurycomposerhaddone.Whenherevisedanoperaitwasonlyfordramaticeconomyandeffectiveness. 50oncehehadbecomeestablishedVerdididnotrewritehismusicfordifferentsingersorallowalterationsorsubstitutionsofsomebodyelse’sariasinoneofhisoperasaseveryeighteenth-centurycomposerhaddone.
LikemanyotheraspectsofthecomputerageYahoobeganasanidea1intoahobbyandlatelyhas2intoafull-timepassion.ThetwodevelopersofYahooDavidFiloandJerryYangPh.Dcandidates3ElectricalEngineeringatStanfordUniversitystartedtheirguideinApril1994asawaytokeep4oftheirpersonalinterestontheInternet.Beforelongthey5thattheirhomebrewedlistswerebecomingtoolongand6.GraduallytheybegantospendmoreandmoretimeonYahoo. During1994they7yahoointoacustomizeddatabasedesignedto8theneedsofthethousandsofusers9begantousetheservicethroughtheclosely10Internetcommunity.Theydevelopedcustomizedsoftwaretohelpthem11locateidentifyandeditmaterial12ontheInternet.ThenameYahoois13tostandfor"YetAnotherHierarchicalOfficiousOrale"butFiloandYanginsisttheyselectedthe14becausetheyconsideredthemselvesyahoos.Yahooitselffirst15onYang’sworkstation"akebono"whilethesearchenginewas16onFilo’scomputer"Konishiki". Inearly1995MarcAndersenco-founderofNetscapeCommunicationinMountainViewCaliforniainvitedFiloandYangtomovetheirfiles17tolargercomputers18atNetscape.AsaresultStanford’scomputernetworkreturnedto19andbothpartiesbenefited.TodayYahoo20organizedinformationontensofthousandsofcomputerslinkedtotheweb. 18
LikemanyotheraspectsofthecomputerageYahoobeganasanidea1intoahobbyandlatelyhas2intoafull-timepassion.ThetwodevelopersofYahooDavidFiloandJerryYangPh.Dcandidates3ElectricalEngineeringatStanfordUniversitystartedtheirguideinApril1994asawaytokeep4oftheirpersonalinterestontheInternet.Beforelongthey5thattheirhomebrewedlistswerebecomingtoolongand6.GraduallytheybegantospendmoreandmoretimeonYahoo. During1994they7yahoointoacustomizeddatabasedesignedto8theneedsofthethousandsofusers9begantousetheservicethroughtheclosely10Internetcommunity.Theydevelopedcustomizedsoftwaretohelpthem11locateidentifyandeditmaterial12ontheInternet.ThenameYahoois13tostandfor"YetAnotherHierarchicalOfficiousOrale"butFiloandYanginsisttheyselectedthe14becausetheyconsideredthemselvesyahoos.Yahooitselffirst15onYang’sworkstation"akebono"whilethesearchenginewas16onFilo’scomputer"Konishiki". Inearly1995MarcAndersenco-founderofNetscapeCommunicationinMountainViewCaliforniainvitedFiloandYangtomovetheirfiles17tolargercomputers18atNetscape.AsaresultStanford’scomputernetworkreturnedto19andbothpartiesbenefited.TodayYahoo20organizedinformationontensofthousandsofcomputerslinkedtotheweb. 20
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