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[A] In our time women have an average lifespan of almost 80 years; double of what it was in the l...
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[A]Inourtimewomenhaveanaveragelifespanofalmost8
[A]Inourtimewomenhaveanaveragelifespanofalmost8
[A]Inourtimewomenhaveanaveragelifespanofalmost8
[A]Inourtimewomenhaveanaveragelifespanofalmost8
[A]Inourtimewomenhaveanaveragelifespanofalmost8
[A]Inourtimewomenhaveanaveragelifespanofalmost8
[A]Inourtimewomenhaveanaveragelifespanofalmost8
[A]Inourtimewomenhaveanaveragelifespanofalmost8
[A]Inourtimewomenhaveanaveragelifespanofalmost8
[A]Inourtimewomenhaveanaveragelifespanofalmost8
[A]Inourtimewomenhaveanaveragelifespanofalmost8
[A]Inourtimewomenhaveanaveragelifespanofalmost8
[A]Inourtimewomenhaveanaveragelifespanofalmost8
[A]Inourtimewomenhaveanaveragelifespanofalmost8
Itistrueasthemovementcriticsassertthatthepresentwo
Middle Class women are not married and have no children.
Middle Class women are not afraid of their husbands.
other women have less control of their own lives.
other women grow up with no rights to vote.
[A]Inourtimewomenhaveanaveragelifespanofalmost8
[A]Inourtimewomenhaveanaveragelifespanofalmost8
[A]Inourtimewomenhaveanaveragelifespanofalmost8
[A]Inourtimewomenhaveanaveragelifespanofalmost8
[A]Inourtimewomenhaveanaveragelifespanofalmost8
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Itwasthebiggestscientificgrudgematchsincethespacerace.TheGenomeWarshadeverything:twogroupswithappealingleadersreadytofightinascientificdeadheatpushingthelimitsoftechnologyandrhetoricastheybattledtobecomethefirsttoreadeverylastoneofthe3billionDNAlettersinthehumanbody.Thescientificimportanceoftheworkisunquestionable.ThecompletedDNAsequenceisexpectedtogivescientistsunprecedentedinsightsintotheworkingsofthehumanbodyrevolutionizingmedicineandbiology.Buttheraceitselfbetweenthegovernment’sHumanGenomeProjectandRockvilleMd.biotechnologycompanyCeleraGenomicswasatleastpartlysymbolicthepublic/privateconflictplayedoutinageneticlab.Nowtheraceisover.Afteryearsofpublicattacksandseveralfailedattemptsatreconciliationthetwosidesaretakingasteptowardaperiodofcalm.HOPheadFrancisCollinsand.AriPatrinosoftheDepartmentofEnergyanimportantallyonthegovernmentsideandCraigVenterthefounderofCeleraagreedtoholdajointpressconferenceinWashingtonthisMondaytodeclarethattheracewasoversortofthatbothsideshadwonkindofandthatthehostilitieswereresolvedforthetimebeing.Nooneisexactlysurehowthingswillbedifferentnow.Neithersidewillbeturningoffitssequencingmachinesanytimesoon--thefinishlineseachhascrossedarelargelyarbitrarypointsfirstdraftsratherthanthedefinitiveversion.AndwhilethejointannouncementbringstheformerGenomeWarriorsclosertogetherthanthey’vebeeninyearsinsiderssayIthatfutureagreementsaremorelikelytotaketheformofcoordinationratherthanoutrightcollaboration.TheconflictblewupthisFebruarywhenBritain’sWelcomeTrustanHGPparticipantreleasedaconfidentiallettertoCeleraoutliningtheHGP’scomplaints.Ventercalledthemovealowlifethingtodobutbyspringtherewerethefirstsignsofathaw.TheattacksandnastinessarebadforscienceandourinvestorsVentertoldNewsweekinMarchandfightingbackisprobablynothelpful.AtacancermeetingearlierthismonthVenterandCollinspraisedeachother’sapproachesandexpressedhopethatallofthescientistsinvolvedinsequencingthehumangenomewouldbeabletosharethecreditBylatelastweekthathopewasbecomingarealityasdetailsforMonday’sjointannouncementwerehammeredout.Scientistsinbothcampswelcomedanendtothehostilities.Ifthisendsthehorseracesciencewins.Withtheirdifferencebehindthemoratleastsetasidethescientistsshouldnowbeabletogetdowntotheinterestingstufffiguringhowtomakeuseofallthatdata.TherecentGenomeWarsweresymbolicof
AllSumeriancitiesrecognizedanumberofgodsincommonincludingtheskygodthelordofstormsandthemorningandeveningstar.1theSumerianworshippedthegoddessoffertilityloveandwarshewasevidentlylower2statusthanthemalegodsindicatingthatinamoreurbanizedsocietythe3thatthepeoplesofprevioustimeshadpaidtotheearthmothergoddesshad4.Thegodsseemedhopelesslyviolentand5andone’slifeaperiodofslaveryattheireasywill.TheepicpoemTheCreationemphasizesthat6werecreatedtoenablethegodsto7upworking.Eachcitymoreoverhaditsowngodwhowasconsideredto8thetempleliterallyandwhowasintheorytheownerofallpropertywithinthecity.9thepriestswhointerpretedthewillofthegodandcontrolledthe10oftheeconomicproduceofthecitywerefavored11theirsupernaturalandmaterialfunctions12.Whenafter3000B.C.growingwarfareamongthecitiesmademilitaryleadership13theheadofthearmywhobecamekingassumedan14positionbetweenthegodwhoseagenthewasandthepriestlyclasswhomhehadbothtouseandto15Thuskingandpriestsrepresentedtheupperclassinahierarchicalsociety.16themwerethescribesthesecularattendantsofthetemplewho17everyaspectofthecity’seconomiclifeandwhodevelopedaroughjudicialsystem.18thetempleofficialssocietywasdividedamonganeliteor19groupoflargelandownersandmilitaryleaders;amixedgroupofmerchantsartisansandcraftsmenfreepeasantswho20themajorityofthepopulation;andslaves. 7
Directions:Youhavestayedwithyourfriend’sfamilyforamonth.Nowyouaregoingbackhome.Writeamessagetoyourfriend’sfamilyto1expressyourgratitude2showyourappreciationofthegooddaysyou’vehadtogether3saygoodbye.Youshouldwriteabout100wordsneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.Don’tsignyourownname.UseLiMinginstead.
UntilabouttwomillionyearsagoAfrica’svegetationhadalwaysbeencontrolledbytheinteractionsofclimate;geologysoilandgroundwaterconditions;andtheactivitiesofanimals.Theadditionofhumanstothelattergrouphoweverhasincreasinglyrenderedunrealtheconceptofafullydeveloped"natural"vegetation--i.e.oneapproximatingtheidealofavegetationalclimax.41_____________________.EarlyattemptsatmappingandclassifyingAfrica’svegetationstressedthisrelationship:sometimesthenamesofplantzoneswerederiveddirectlyfromclimates.Inthisdiscussiontheideaofzonesisretainedonlyinabroaddescriptivesense. 42_____________________.Inadditionovertimemorefloralregionsofvaryingshapeandsizehavebeenrecognized.Manyschemeshavearisensuccessivelyallofwhichhavehadtotakeviewsontwoimportantaspects:thegeneralscaleoftreatmenttobeadoptedandthedegreetowhichhumanmodificationistobecomprehendedordiscounted. 43_____________________.Quitetheoppositeassumptionisnowfrequentlyadvanced.Anintimatecombinationofmanyspecies--incomplexassociationsandrelatedtolocalizedsoilsslopesanddrainage--hasbeendetailedinmanystudiesoftheAfricantropics.InafewsquaremilestheremaybeavisiblesuccessionfromswampwithpapyrusthegrassofwhichtheancientEgyptiansmadepaperandfromwhichtheword"paper"originatedthroughswampygrasslandandbroad-leavedwoodlandandgrasstoapatchofforestonricherhillsidesoilandfinallytojuicyfleshyplantsonanearlynakedrocksummit. 44_____________________.Correspondinglyclassificationshavedifferedgreatlyintheirprinciplesfornaminggroupinganddescribingformations:somehavechosentermssuchasforestwoodlandthornbushthicketandshrubformuchofthesamebroadtractsthatothershavegroupedaswoodedsavannatreelessgrassyplainandsteppegrassyplainwithfewtrees.ThisisbestseeninthenomenclaturenamingofplantsadoptedbytwoofthemostcomprehensiveandauthoritativemapsofAfrica’svegetationthathavebeenpublished:R.W.J.Keay’sVegetationMapofAfricaSouthoftheTropicofCanceranditsmorewidelybasedsuccessorTheVegetationMapofAfricacompiledbyFrankWhite.IntheKeaymaptheterms"savanna"and"steppe"wereadoptedasprecisedefinitionofformationsbasedontheherblayerandthecoverageofwoodyvegetation;theWhitemaphoweverdiscardedthesetwocategoriesasspecificclassifications.Yetanyrapidabsenceofsavannaasinitspopularandmoregeneralsenseisdoubtful. 45_____________________.Howeversome100specifictypesofvegetationidentifiedonthesourcemaphavebeencompressedinto14broaderclassifications. [A]AsmorehasbecomeknownofthemanythousandsofAfricanplantspeciesandtheircomplexecologynamingclassificationandmappinghavealsobee0memoreparticularstressingwhatwasactuallypresentratherthanpostulatingaboutclimaticpotential. [B]InregionsofhigherrainfallsuchaseasternAfricasavannavegetationismaintainedbyperiodicfires.Consumingdrygrassattheendoftherainyseasonthefiresburnbacktheforestvegetationchecktheinvasionoftreesandshrubsandstimulatenewgrassgrowth. [C]OnceaswiththescientifictreatmentofAfricansoilsamuchgreateruniformitywasattributedtothevegetationthanwouldhavebeengenerallyacceptedinthesameperiodfortreatmentsofthelandsofwesternEuropeortheUnitedStates. [D]ThevegetationalmapofAfricaandgeneralvegetationgroupingsusedherefollowtheWhitemapanditsextensiveannotations. [E]Africanvegetationzonesarecloselylinkedtoclimaticzoneswiththesamezonesoccurringbothnorthandsouthoftheequatorinbroadlysimilarpatterns.Aswithclimaticzonesdifferencesintheamountandseasonaldistributionofprecipitationconstitutethemostimportantinfluenceonthedevelopmentofvegetation. [F]Neverthelessinbroadtermsclimateremainsthedominantcontrolovervegetation.ZonalbeltsofprecipitationreflectionlatitudeandcontrastingexposuretotheAtlanticandIndianoceansandtheircurrentsgivesomerealitytorelatedbeltsofvegetation. [G]ThespanofhumanoccupationinAfricaisbelievedtoexceedthatofanyothercontinent.Alltheresultantactivitieshavetendedonbalancetoreducetreecoverandincreasegrassland;buttherehasbeenconsiderabledisputeamongscholarsconcerningthenaturalversushuman-causeddevelopmentofmostAfricangrasslandsattheregionallevel. 43
AllSumeriancitiesrecognizedanumberofgodsincommonincludingtheskygodthelordofstormsandthemorningandeveningstar.1theSumerianworshippedthegoddessoffertilityloveandwarshewasevidentlylower2statusthanthemalegodsindicatingthatinamoreurbanizedsocietythe3thatthepeoplesofprevioustimeshadpaidtotheearthmothergoddesshad4.Thegodsseemedhopelesslyviolentand5andone’slifeaperiodofslaveryattheireasywill.TheepicpoemTheCreationemphasizesthat6werecreatedtoenablethegodsto7upworking.Eachcitymoreoverhaditsowngodwhowasconsideredto8thetempleliterallyandwhowasintheorytheownerofallpropertywithinthecity.9thepriestswhointerpretedthewillofthegodandcontrolledthe10oftheeconomicproduceofthecitywerefavored11theirsupernaturalandmaterialfunctions12.Whenafter3000B.C.growingwarfareamongthecitiesmademilitaryleadership13theheadofthearmywhobecamekingassumedan14positionbetweenthegodwhoseagenthewasandthepriestlyclasswhomhehadbothtouseandto15Thuskingandpriestsrepresentedtheupperclassinahierarchicalsociety.16themwerethescribesthesecularattendantsofthetemplewho17everyaspectofthecity’seconomiclifeandwhodevelopedaroughjudicialsystem.18thetempleofficialssocietywasdividedamonganeliteor19groupoflargelandownersandmilitaryleaders;amixedgroupofmerchantsartisansandcraftsmenfreepeasantswho20themajorityofthepopulation;andslaves. 19
AsmoreandmorematerialfromotherculturesbecameavailableEuropeanscholarscametorecognizeevengreatercomplexityinmythologicaltraditions.EspeciallyvaluablewastheevidenceprovidedbyancientIndianandIraniantextssuchastheBhagavad-GitaandtheZend-A-vestaFromthesesourcesitbecameapparentthatthecharacterofmythsvariedwidelynotonlybygeographicalregionbutalsobyhistoricalperiod.41__________________HearguedthattherelativelysimpleGreekmythofPersephonereflectstheconcernsofabasicagriculturalcommunitywhereasthemoreinvolvedandcomplexmythsfoundlaterinHomeraretheproductofamoredevelopedsociety. Scholarsalsoattemptedtotievariousmythsoftheworldtogetherinsomeway.Fromthelate18thcenturythroughtheearly19thcenturythecomparativestudyoflanguageshadledtothereconstructionofahypotheticalparentlanguagetoaccountforstrikingsimilaritiesamongthevariouslanguagesofEuropeandtheNearEast.TheselanguagesscholarsconcludedbelongedtoanIndo-Europeanlanguagefamily.ExpertsonmythologylikewisesearchedforaparentmythologythatpresumablystoodbehindthemythologiesofalltheEuropeanpeoples.42__________________.Forexampleanexpressionlike"maidendawn"for"sunrise"resultedfirstinpersonificationofthedawnandtheninmythsabouther. Laterinthe19thcenturythetheoryofevolutionputforwardbyEnglishnaturalistCharlesDarwinheavilyinfluencedthestudyofmythology.Scholarsresearchedonthehistoryofmythologymuchastheywoulddigfossil-bearinggeologicalformationsforremainsfromthedistantpast.43__________________ SimilarlyBritishanthropologistSirJamesGeorgeFrazerproposedathree-stageevolutionaryschemeinTheGoldenBough.AccordingtoFrazer’sschemehumanbeingsfirstattributednaturalphenomenatoarbitrarysupernaturalforcesmagiclaterexplainingthemasthewillofthegodsreligionandfinallysubjectingthemtorationalinvestigationscience. TheresearchofBritishscholarWilliamRobertsonSmithpublishedinLecturesontheReligionoftheSemites1889alsoinfluencedFrazer.ThroughSmith’sworkFrazercametobelievethatmanymythshadtheiroriginintheritualpracticesofancientagriculturalpeoplesforwhomtheannualcyclesofvegetationwereofcentralimportance.44__________________.ThisapproachreacheditsmostextremeforminthesocalledfunctionalismofBritishanthropologistA.R.Radcliffe-Brownwhoheldthateverymythimpliesaritualandeveryritualimpliesamyth. Mostanalysesofmythsinthe18thand19thcenturiesshowedatendencytoreducemythstosomeessentialcore--whethertheseasonalcycleso5naturehistoricalcircumstancesorritual.Thatcoresupposedlyremainedoncethefancifulelementsofthenarrativeshadbeenstrippedaway.Inthe20thcenturyinvestigatorsbegantopaycloserattentiontothecontentofthenarrativesthemselves.45__________________ [A]German-bornBritishscholarMaxMullerconcludedthattheRig-VedaofancientIndia--theoldestpreservedbodyofliteraturewritteninanIndo-Europeanlanguage--reflectedtheearlieststagesofanIndo-Europeanmythology.Muilerattributedalllatermythstomisunderstandingsthatarosefromthepicturesquetermsinwhichearlypeoplesdescribednaturalphenomena [B]ThemythandritualtheoryasthisapproachcametobecalledwasdevelopedmostfullybyBritishscholarJaneEllenHarrison.UsinginsightgainedfromtheworkofFrenchsociologistEmileDurkheimHarrisonarguedthatallmythshavetheiroriginincollectiveritualsofasociety. [C]AustrianpsychoanalystSigmundFreudheldthatmyths--likedreams--condensethematerialofexperienceandrepresentitinsymbols. [D]ThisapproachcanbeseenintheworkofBritishanthropologistEdwardBurnettTylor.InPrimitiveCulture1871Tylororganizedthereligiousandphilosophicaldevelopmentofhumanityintoseparateanddistinctevolutionarystages [E]ThestudiesmadeinthisperiodwereconsolidatedintheworkofGermanscholarChristianGottlobHeynewhowasthefirstscholartousetheLatintermmythsinsteadoffabulameaning"fable"torefertothetalesofheroesandgods[F]GermanscholarKarlOtfriedMailerfollowedthislineofinquiryinhisProlegomenatoaScientificMythologyt825. 43
AllSumeriancitiesrecognizedanumberofgodsincommonincludingtheskygodthelordofstormsandthemorningandeveningstar.1theSumerianworshippedthegoddessoffertilityloveandwarshewasevidentlylower2statusthanthemalegodsindicatingthatinamoreurbanizedsocietythe3thatthepeoplesofprevioustimeshadpaidtotheearthmothergoddesshad4.Thegodsseemedhopelesslyviolentand5andone’slifeaperiodofslaveryattheireasywill.TheepicpoemTheCreationemphasizesthat6werecreatedtoenablethegodsto7upworking.Eachcitymoreoverhaditsowngodwhowasconsideredto8thetempleliterallyandwhowasintheorytheownerofallpropertywithinthecity.9thepriestswhointerpretedthewillofthegodandcontrolledthe10oftheeconomicproduceofthecitywerefavored11theirsupernaturalandmaterialfunctions12.Whenafter3000B.C.growingwarfareamongthecitiesmademilitaryleadership13theheadofthearmywhobecamekingassumedan14positionbetweenthegodwhoseagenthewasandthepriestlyclasswhomhehadbothtouseandto15Thuskingandpriestsrepresentedtheupperclassinahierarchicalsociety.16themwerethescribesthesecularattendantsofthetemplewho17everyaspectofthecity’seconomiclifeandwhodevelopedaroughjudicialsystem.18thetempleofficialssocietywasdividedamonganeliteor19groupoflargelandownersandmilitaryleaders;amixedgroupofmerchantsartisansandcraftsmenfreepeasantswho20themajorityofthepopulation;andslaves. 15
Despitethegeneralnegativefindingsitisimportanttorememberthatallchildrenwholivethroughadivorcedonotbehaveinthesameway.Thespecificbehaviordependsonthechild’sindividualpersonalitycharacteristicsageatthetimeofdivorceandgender.Intermsofpersonalitywhencomparedtothoseratedasrelaxedandeasygoingchildrendescribedastemperamentalandirritablehavemoredifficultycopingwithparentaldivorceasindeedtheyhavemoredifficultyadaptingtolifechangeingeneral.Stresssuchasthatfoundindisruptedfamiliesseemstoimpairtheabilityoftemperamentalchildrentoadapttotheirsurroundingsthegreatertheamountofstressthelesswelltheyadapt.Incontrastamoderateamountofstressmayactuallyhelpaneasygoingrelaxedchildlearntocopewithadversity.Thereissomerelationshipbetweenageandchildren’scharacteristicreactiontodivorce.AsthechildgrowsolderthegreateristhelikelihoodofafreeexpressionofavarietyofcomplexfeelingsanunderstandingofthosefeelingsandarealizationthatthedecisiontodivorcecannotbeattributedtoanyonesimplecauseSelf-blamevirtuallydisappearsaftertheageof6fearofabandonmentdiminishesaftertheageof8andtheconfusionandfearoftheyoungchildisreplacedintheolderchildbyshameangerandself-reflection.GenderofthechildisalsoafactorthatpredictsthenatureofreactiontodivorceTheimpactofdivorceisinitiallygreateronboysthanongirls.Theyaremoreaggressivelesscomplianthavegreaterdifficultiesininterpersonalrelationshipsandexhibitproblembehaviorsbothathomeandatschool.Furthermoretheadjustmentproblemsofboysarestillnoticeableeventwoyearsafterthedivorce.Girls’adjustmentproblemsareusuallyinternalizedratherthanactedoutandareoftenresolvedbythesecondyearafterthedivorce.Howevernewproblemsmaysurfaceforgirlsastheyenteradolescenceandadulthood.HowcantherelativelygreaterimpactofdivorceonboysthanongirlsbeexplainedThegreatermaleaggressionandnoncompliancemayreflectthefactthatsuchbehaviorsaretoleratedandevenencouragedinmalesinourculturemorethantheyareinfemales.Furthermoreboysmayhaveaparticularneedforastrongmalemodelofself-controlaswellasforastrongdisciplinarianparent.Finallyboysaremorelikelytobeexposedtotheirparents’fightsthangirlsareandafterthebreakupboysarelesslikelythangirlstoreceivesympathyandsupportfrommothersteachersorpeers.Accordingtotheauthorthereasonwhyparentaldivorcehasgreatereffectonboysthanongirlsisthat
Thereisnoquestionthatscience-fictionwritershavebecomemoreambitiousstylisticallyandthematicallyinrecentyears.46Butthismayhavelesstodowiththeluringcallofacademicsurroundingsthanwithchangingmarketconditions--afactorthatacademiccriticsrarelytakeintoaccount.RobertSilverbergaformerpresidentofTheScienceFictionWritersofAmericaisoneofthemostprolificprofessionalsinafielddominatedbypeoplewhoactuallywriteforaliving.UnlikemysteryorWesternwritersmostsciencefictionwriterscannotexpecttocashinonfatmoviesalesorTVtie-ins.47StillinhislatethirtiesSilverberghaspublishedmorethanahundredbooksandheisdisarminglyfrankabouttherelationshipbetweenthequalityofgenuineproseandthequalityofavailableoutlet.Byhisownaccounthewas"anannoyinglyverbalyoungman"fromBrooklynwhopickeduphisfirstscience-fictionbookattheageoftenstartedwritingseriouslyattheageofthirteenandatseventeennearlygaveupindespairoverhisinabilitytobreakintothepulpmagazines.48Athisparents’urgingheenrolledinColumbiaUniversitysothatifworsecametoworsthecouldalwaysgototheSchoolofJournalismand"getanicesteadyjobsomewhere".Duringhissophomoreyearhesoldhisfirstscience-fictionsstorytoaScottishmagazinenamedNebula.Bytheendofhisjunioryearhehadsoldanovelandtwentymorestories.49Bytheendofhissenioryearhewasearningtwohundreddollarsaweekwritingsciencefictionandhisparentswerereconciledtohispursuitoftheliterarylife."Ibecameverycynicalveryquickly"hesays."FirstIcouldn’tsellanythingthenIcouldselleverything.Themarketplayedtomyworstcharacteristics.Aneditorofaschlockmagazinewouldcalluptotellmehehadaten-thousand-wordholetofillinhisnextissueI’dfillitovernightforahundredandfiftydollars.Ifoundthatrewritingmadenodifference.50IknewIcouldnotpossiblywritethekindsofthingsIadmiredasareader--JoyceKafkaMann--soIdetachedmyselffrommywork.Iwasaphenomenonamongmyfriendsincollegeapublishedsellingauthor.Buttheyalwaysasked’Whenareyougoingtodosomethingserious’--meaningsomethingthatwasn’tsciencefiction--andIkepttellingthem"WhenI’mfinanciallysecure../ Bytheendofhissenioryearhewasearningtwohundreddollarsaweekwritingsciencefictionandhisparentswerereconciledtohispursuitoftheliterarylife
Thereisnoquestionthatscience-fictionwritershavebecomemoreambitiousstylisticallyandthematicallyinrecentyears.46Butthismayhavelesstodowiththeluringcallofacademicsurroundingsthanwithchangingmarketconditions--afactorthatacademiccriticsrarelytakeintoaccount.RobertSilverbergaformerpresidentofTheScienceFictionWritersofAmericaisoneofthemostprolificprofessionalsinafielddominatedbypeoplewhoactuallywriteforaliving.UnlikemysteryorWesternwritersmostsciencefictionwriterscannotexpecttocashinonfatmoviesalesorTVtie-ins.47StillinhislatethirtiesSilverberghaspublishedmorethanahundredbooksandheisdisarminglyfrankabouttherelationshipbetweenthequalityofgenuineproseandthequalityofavailableoutlet.Byhisownaccounthewas"anannoyinglyverbalyoungman"fromBrooklynwhopickeduphisfirstscience-fictionbookattheageoftenstartedwritingseriouslyattheageofthirteenandatseventeennearlygaveupindespairoverhisinabilitytobreakintothepulpmagazines.48Athisparents’urgingheenrolledinColumbiaUniversitysothatifworsecametoworsthecouldalwaysgototheSchoolofJournalismand"getanicesteadyjobsomewhere".Duringhissophomoreyearhesoldhisfirstscience-fictionsstorytoaScottishmagazinenamedNebula.Bytheendofhisjunioryearhehadsoldanovelandtwentymorestories.49Bytheendofhissenioryearhewasearningtwohundreddollarsaweekwritingsciencefictionandhisparentswerereconciledtohispursuitoftheliterarylife."Ibecameverycynicalveryquickly"hesays."FirstIcouldn’tsellanythingthenIcouldselleverything.Themarketplayedtomyworstcharacteristics.Aneditorofaschlockmagazinewouldcalluptotellmehehadaten-thousand-wordholetofillinhisnextissueI’dfillitovernightforahundredandfiftydollars.Ifoundthatrewritingmadenodifference.50IknewIcouldnotpossiblywritethekindsofthingsIadmiredasareader--JoyceKafkaMann--soIdetachedmyselffrommywork.Iwasaphenomenonamongmyfriendsincollegeapublishedsellingauthor.Buttheyalwaysasked’Whenareyougoingtodosomethingserious’--meaningsomethingthatwasn’tsciencefiction--andIkepttellingthem"WhenI’mfinanciallysecure../ StillinhislatethirtiesSilverberghaspublishedmorethanahundredbooksandheisdisarminglyfrankabouttherelationshipbetweenthequalityofgenuineproseandthequalityofavailableoutlet
Scholasticthinkersheldawidevarietyofdoctrinesinbothphilosophyandtheologythestudyofreligion.WhatgivesunitytothewholeScholasticmovementtheacademicpracticeinEuropefromthe9thtothe17thcenturiesarethecommonaimsattitudesandmethodsgenerallyacceptedbyallitsmembers.ThechiefconcernoftheScholasticswasnettodiscovernewfactsbuttointegratetheknowledgealreadyacquiredseparatelybyGreekreasoningandChristianrevelation.ThisconcernisoneofthemostcharacteristicdifferencesbetweenScholasticismandmodernthoughtsincetheRenaissance.ThebasicaimoftheScholasticsdeterminedcertaincommonattitudesthemostimportantofwhichwastheirconvictionofthefundamentalharmonybetweenreasonandrevelation.TheScholasticsmaintainedthatbecausethesameGodwasthesourceofbothtypesofknowledgeandtruthwasoneofhischiefattributeshecouldnotcontradicthimselfinthesetwowaysofspeaking.Anyapparentoppositionbetweenrevelationandreasoncouldbetracedeithertoanincorrectuseofreasonortoaninaccurateinterpretationofthewordsofrevelation.BecausetheScholasticsbelievedthatrevelationwasthedirectteachingofGoditpossessedforthemahigherdegreeoftruthandcertaintythandidnaturalreason.Inapparentconflictsbetweenreligiousfaithandphilosophicreasoningfaithwasthusalwaysthesupremearbiter;thetheologian’sdecisionoverruledthatofthephilosopher.Aftertheearly13thcenturyScholasticthoughtemphasizedmoretheindependenceofphilosophywithinitsowndomain.NonethelessthroughouttheScholasticperiodphilosophywascalledtheservantoftheologynotonlybecausethetruthofphilosophywassubordinatedtothatoftheologybutalsobecausethetheologianusedphilosophytounderstandandexplainrevelation.ThisattitudeofScholasticismstandsinsharpcontrasttotheso-calleddouble-truththeoryoftheSpanishArabphilosopherandphysicianAverroes.HistheoryassumedthattruthwasaccessibletobothphilosophyandIslamictheologybutthatonlyphilosophycouldattainitperfectly.Theso-calledtruthsoftheologyservedhenceasimperfectimaginativeexpressionsforthecommonpeopleoftheauthentictruthaccessibleonlytophilosophy.Averroe’smaintainedthatphilosophictruthcouldevencontradictatleastverballytheteachingsofIslamictheology.AsaresultoftheirbeliefintheharmonybetweenfaithandreasontheScholasticsattemptedtodeterminetheprecisescopeandcompetenceofeachofthesefaculties.ManyearlyScholasticssuchastheItalianecclesiasticandphilosopherSt.Anselmdidnotclearlydistinguishthetwoandwereoverconfidentthatreasoncouldprovecertaindoctrinesofrevelation.LaterattheheightofthematureperiodofScholasticismtheItaliantheologianandphilosopherSt.ThomasAquinasworkedoutabalancebetweenreasonandrevelation.Whichofthefollowingismostlikelytobediscussedinthepartsucceedingthistext
Itwasthebiggestscientificgrudgematchsincethespacerace.TheGenomeWarshadeverything:twogroupswithappealingleadersreadytofightinascientificdeadheatpushingthelimitsoftechnologyandrhetoricastheybattledtobecomethefirsttoreadeverylastoneofthe3billionDNAlettersinthehumanbody.Thescientificimportanceoftheworkisunquestionable.ThecompletedDNAsequenceisexpectedtogivescientistsunprecedentedinsightsintotheworkingsofthehumanbodyrevolutionizingmedicineandbiology.Buttheraceitselfbetweenthegovernment’sHumanGenomeProjectandRockvilleMd.biotechnologycompanyCeleraGenomicswasatleastpartlysymbolicthepublic/privateconflictplayedoutinageneticlab.Nowtheraceisover.Afteryearsofpublicattacksandseveralfailedattemptsatreconciliationthetwosidesaretakingasteptowardaperiodofcalm.HOPheadFrancisCollinsand.AriPatrinosoftheDepartmentofEnergyanimportantallyonthegovernmentsideandCraigVenterthefounderofCeleraagreedtoholdajointpressconferenceinWashingtonthisMondaytodeclarethattheracewasoversortofthatbothsideshadwonkindofandthatthehostilitieswereresolvedforthetimebeing.Nooneisexactlysurehowthingswillbedifferentnow.Neithersidewillbeturningoffitssequencingmachinesanytimesoon--thefinishlineseachhascrossedarelargelyarbitrarypointsfirstdraftsratherthanthedefinitiveversion.AndwhilethejointannouncementbringstheformerGenomeWarriorsclosertogetherthanthey’vebeeninyearsinsiderssayIthatfutureagreementsaremorelikelytotaketheformofcoordinationratherthanoutrightcollaboration.TheconflictblewupthisFebruarywhenBritain’sWelcomeTrustanHGPparticipantreleasedaconfidentiallettertoCeleraoutliningtheHGP’scomplaints.Ventercalledthemovealowlifethingtodobutbyspringtherewerethefirstsignsofathaw.TheattacksandnastinessarebadforscienceandourinvestorsVentertoldNewsweekinMarchandfightingbackisprobablynothelpful.AtacancermeetingearlierthismonthVenterandCollinspraisedeachother’sapproachesandexpressedhopethatallofthescientistsinvolvedinsequencingthehumangenomewouldbeabletosharethecreditBylatelastweekthathopewasbecomingarealityasdetailsforMonday’sjointannouncementwerehammeredout.Scientistsinbothcampswelcomedanendtothehostilities.Ifthisendsthehorseracesciencewins.Withtheirdifferencebehindthemoratleastsetasidethescientistsshouldnowbeabletogetdowntotheinterestingstufffiguringhowtomakeuseofallthatdata.Itisimpliedinthethirdparagraphthat
AllSumeriancitiesrecognizedanumberofgodsincommonincludingtheskygodthelordofstormsandthemorningandeveningstar.1theSumerianworshippedthegoddessoffertilityloveandwarshewasevidentlylower2statusthanthemalegodsindicatingthatinamoreurbanizedsocietythe3thatthepeoplesofprevioustimeshadpaidtotheearthmothergoddesshad4.Thegodsseemedhopelesslyviolentand5andone’slifeaperiodofslaveryattheireasywill.TheepicpoemTheCreationemphasizesthat6werecreatedtoenablethegodsto7upworking.Eachcitymoreoverhaditsowngodwhowasconsideredto8thetempleliterallyandwhowasintheorytheownerofallpropertywithinthecity.9thepriestswhointerpretedthewillofthegodandcontrolledthe10oftheeconomicproduceofthecitywerefavored11theirsupernaturalandmaterialfunctions12.Whenafter3000B.C.growingwarfareamongthecitiesmademilitaryleadership13theheadofthearmywhobecamekingassumedan14positionbetweenthegodwhoseagenthewasandthepriestlyclasswhomhehadbothtouseandto15Thuskingandpriestsrepresentedtheupperclassinahierarchicalsociety.16themwerethescribesthesecularattendantsofthetemplewho17everyaspectofthecity’seconomiclifeandwhodevelopedaroughjudicialsystem.18thetempleofficialssocietywasdividedamonganeliteor19groupoflargelandownersandmilitaryleaders;amixedgroupofmerchantsartisansandcraftsmenfreepeasantswho20themajorityofthepopulation;andslaves. 17
AllSumeriancitiesrecognizedanumberofgodsincommonincludingtheskygodthelordofstormsandthemorningandeveningstar.1theSumerianworshippedthegoddessoffertilityloveandwarshewasevidentlylower2statusthanthemalegodsindicatingthatinamoreurbanizedsocietythe3thatthepeoplesofprevioustimeshadpaidtotheearthmothergoddesshad4.Thegodsseemedhopelesslyviolentand5andone’slifeaperiodofslaveryattheireasywill.TheepicpoemTheCreationemphasizesthat6werecreatedtoenablethegodsto7upworking.Eachcitymoreoverhaditsowngodwhowasconsideredto8thetempleliterallyandwhowasintheorytheownerofallpropertywithinthecity.9thepriestswhointerpretedthewillofthegodandcontrolledthe10oftheeconomicproduceofthecitywerefavored11theirsupernaturalandmaterialfunctions12.Whenafter3000B.C.growingwarfareamongthecitiesmademilitaryleadership13theheadofthearmywhobecamekingassumedan14positionbetweenthegodwhoseagenthewasandthepriestlyclasswhomhehadbothtouseandto15Thuskingandpriestsrepresentedtheupperclassinahierarchicalsociety.16themwerethescribesthesecularattendantsofthetemplewho17everyaspectofthecity’seconomiclifeandwhodevelopedaroughjudicialsystem.18thetempleofficialssocietywasdividedamonganeliteor19groupoflargelandownersandmilitaryleaders;amixedgroupofmerchantsartisansandcraftsmenfreepeasantswho20themajorityofthepopulation;andslaves. 13
Materialculturereferstothetouchablematerialthings--physicalobjectsthatcanbeseenheldfeltused--thatacultureproduces.Examiningaculture’stoolsandtechnologycantellusaboutthegroup’shistoryandwayoflifeSimilarlyresearchintothematerialcultureofmusiccanhelpustounderstandthemusicculture.Themostvividbodyofthinginitofcourseismusicalinstruments.Wecannothearforourselvestheactualsoundofanymusicalperformancebeforethe1870swhenthephonographwasinventedsowerelyoninstrumentsforimportantinformationaboutmusic-culturesintheremotepastandtheirdevelopment.Herewehavetwokindsofevidence:instrumentswellpreservedandinstrumentspicturedinart.ThroughthestudyofinstrumentsaswellaspaintingswrittendocumentsandsoonwecanexplorethemovementofmusicfromtheNearEasttoChinaoverathousandyearsagoforwecanoutlinethespreadofNearEasterninfluencetoEuropethatresultedinthedevelopmentofmostoftheinstrumentsonthesymphonyorchestra.Sheetmusicorprintedmusictooismaterialculture.Scholarsoncedefinedfolkmusic-culturesasthoseinwhichpeoplelearnandsingmusicbyearratherthanfromprintbutresearchshowsmutualinfluenceamongoralandwrittensourcesduringthepastfewcenturiesinEuropeBritainandAmerica.Printedversionslimitvarietybecausetheytendtostandardizeanysongyettheystimulatepeopletocreatenewanddifferentsongs.Besidestheabilitytoreadmusicnotationhasafar-reachingeffectonmusiciansandwhenitbecomeswidespreadonthemusic-cultureasawhole.Musicisdeep-rootedintheculturalbackgroundthatfostersit.Wenowpaymoreandmoreattentiontotraditionalorethnicfeaturesinfolkmusicandarewillingtopreservethefoldmusicaswedowithmanytraditionalculturalheritage.Musiciansallovertheworldarebusywithrecordingclassicmusicintheircountryforthesakeoftheiruniqueculture.Asalwayspeople’saspirationwillalwaysfocusontheirindividualityratherthanuniversalfeaturesthataresharedbyallculturesalike.Onemoreimportantpartofmusic’smaterialcultureshouldbesingledout:theinfluenceoftheelectronicmedia--radiorecordplayertaperecorderandtelevisionwiththefuturepromisingtalkingandsingingcomputersandotherdevelopments.Thisisallpartoftheinformation-revolutionatwentieth-centuryphenomenonasimportantastheindustrialrevolutioninthenineteenth.Theseelectronicmediaarenotjustlimitedtomodernnations;theyhaveaffectedmusicculturesallovertheglobe.Whichofthefollowingisnotanadvantageofprintedmusic
Scholasticthinkersheldawidevarietyofdoctrinesinbothphilosophyandtheologythestudyofreligion.WhatgivesunitytothewholeScholasticmovementtheacademicpracticeinEuropefromthe9thtothe17thcenturiesarethecommonaimsattitudesandmethodsgenerallyacceptedbyallitsmembers.ThechiefconcernoftheScholasticswasnettodiscovernewfactsbuttointegratetheknowledgealreadyacquiredseparatelybyGreekreasoningandChristianrevelation.ThisconcernisoneofthemostcharacteristicdifferencesbetweenScholasticismandmodernthoughtsincetheRenaissance.ThebasicaimoftheScholasticsdeterminedcertaincommonattitudesthemostimportantofwhichwastheirconvictionofthefundamentalharmonybetweenreasonandrevelation.TheScholasticsmaintainedthatbecausethesameGodwasthesourceofbothtypesofknowledgeandtruthwasoneofhischiefattributeshecouldnotcontradicthimselfinthesetwowaysofspeaking.Anyapparentoppositionbetweenrevelationandreasoncouldbetracedeithertoanincorrectuseofreasonortoaninaccurateinterpretationofthewordsofrevelation.BecausetheScholasticsbelievedthatrevelationwasthedirectteachingofGoditpossessedforthemahigherdegreeoftruthandcertaintythandidnaturalreason.Inapparentconflictsbetweenreligiousfaithandphilosophicreasoningfaithwasthusalwaysthesupremearbiter;thetheologian’sdecisionoverruledthatofthephilosopher.Aftertheearly13thcenturyScholasticthoughtemphasizedmoretheindependenceofphilosophywithinitsowndomain.NonethelessthroughouttheScholasticperiodphilosophywascalledtheservantoftheologynotonlybecausethetruthofphilosophywassubordinatedtothatoftheologybutalsobecausethetheologianusedphilosophytounderstandandexplainrevelation.ThisattitudeofScholasticismstandsinsharpcontrasttotheso-calleddouble-truththeoryoftheSpanishArabphilosopherandphysicianAverroes.HistheoryassumedthattruthwasaccessibletobothphilosophyandIslamictheologybutthatonlyphilosophycouldattainitperfectly.Theso-calledtruthsoftheologyservedhenceasimperfectimaginativeexpressionsforthecommonpeopleoftheauthentictruthaccessibleonlytophilosophy.Averroe’smaintainedthatphilosophictruthcouldevencontradictatleastverballytheteachingsofIslamictheology.AsaresultoftheirbeliefintheharmonybetweenfaithandreasontheScholasticsattemptedtodeterminetheprecisescopeandcompetenceofeachofthesefaculties.ManyearlyScholasticssuchastheItalianecclesiasticandphilosopherSt.Anselmdidnotclearlydistinguishthetwoandwereoverconfidentthatreasoncouldprovecertaindoctrinesofrevelation.LaterattheheightofthematureperiodofScholasticismtheItaliantheologianandphilosopherSt.ThomasAquinasworkedoutabalancebetweenreasonandrevelation.ItcanbeinferredfromParagraph2ofthetextthat
Scholasticthinkersheldawidevarietyofdoctrinesinbothphilosophyandtheologythestudyofreligion.WhatgivesunitytothewholeScholasticmovementtheacademicpracticeinEuropefromthe9thtothe17thcenturiesarethecommonaimsattitudesandmethodsgenerallyacceptedbyallitsmembers.ThechiefconcernoftheScholasticswasnettodiscovernewfactsbuttointegratetheknowledgealreadyacquiredseparatelybyGreekreasoningandChristianrevelation.ThisconcernisoneofthemostcharacteristicdifferencesbetweenScholasticismandmodernthoughtsincetheRenaissance.ThebasicaimoftheScholasticsdeterminedcertaincommonattitudesthemostimportantofwhichwastheirconvictionofthefundamentalharmonybetweenreasonandrevelation.TheScholasticsmaintainedthatbecausethesameGodwasthesourceofbothtypesofknowledgeandtruthwasoneofhischiefattributeshecouldnotcontradicthimselfinthesetwowaysofspeaking.Anyapparentoppositionbetweenrevelationandreasoncouldbetracedeithertoanincorrectuseofreasonortoaninaccurateinterpretationofthewordsofrevelation.BecausetheScholasticsbelievedthatrevelationwasthedirectteachingofGoditpossessedforthemahigherdegreeoftruthandcertaintythandidnaturalreason.Inapparentconflictsbetweenreligiousfaithandphilosophicreasoningfaithwasthusalwaysthesupremearbiter;thetheologian’sdecisionoverruledthatofthephilosopher.Aftertheearly13thcenturyScholasticthoughtemphasizedmoretheindependenceofphilosophywithinitsowndomain.NonethelessthroughouttheScholasticperiodphilosophywascalledtheservantoftheologynotonlybecausethetruthofphilosophywassubordinatedtothatoftheologybutalsobecausethetheologianusedphilosophytounderstandandexplainrevelation.ThisattitudeofScholasticismstandsinsharpcontrasttotheso-calleddouble-truththeoryoftheSpanishArabphilosopherandphysicianAverroes.HistheoryassumedthattruthwasaccessibletobothphilosophyandIslamictheologybutthatonlyphilosophycouldattainitperfectly.Theso-calledtruthsoftheologyservedhenceasimperfectimaginativeexpressionsforthecommonpeopleoftheauthentictruthaccessibleonlytophilosophy.Averroe’smaintainedthatphilosophictruthcouldevencontradictatleastverballytheteachingsofIslamictheology.AsaresultoftheirbeliefintheharmonybetweenfaithandreasontheScholasticsattemptedtodeterminetheprecisescopeandcompetenceofeachofthesefaculties.ManyearlyScholasticssuchastheItalianecclesiasticandphilosopherSt.Anselmdidnotclearlydistinguishthetwoandwereoverconfidentthatreasoncouldprovecertaindoctrinesofrevelation.LaterattheheightofthematureperiodofScholasticismtheItaliantheologianandphilosopherSt.ThomasAquinasworkedoutabalancebetweenreasonandrevelation.WiththeScholasticsthesearchfornewknowledge
AllSumeriancitiesrecognizedanumberofgodsincommonincludingtheskygodthelordofstormsandthemorningandeveningstar.1theSumerianworshippedthegoddessoffertilityloveandwarshewasevidentlylower2statusthanthemalegodsindicatingthatinamoreurbanizedsocietythe3thatthepeoplesofprevioustimeshadpaidtotheearthmothergoddesshad4.Thegodsseemedhopelesslyviolentand5andone’slifeaperiodofslaveryattheireasywill.TheepicpoemTheCreationemphasizesthat6werecreatedtoenablethegodsto7upworking.Eachcitymoreoverhaditsowngodwhowasconsideredto8thetempleliterallyandwhowasintheorytheownerofallpropertywithinthecity.9thepriestswhointerpretedthewillofthegodandcontrolledthe10oftheeconomicproduceofthecitywerefavored11theirsupernaturalandmaterialfunctions12.Whenafter3000B.C.growingwarfareamongthecitiesmademilitaryleadership13theheadofthearmywhobecamekingassumedan14positionbetweenthegodwhoseagenthewasandthepriestlyclasswhomhehadbothtouseandto15Thuskingandpriestsrepresentedtheupperclassinahierarchicalsociety.16themwerethescribesthesecularattendantsofthetemplewho17everyaspectofthecity’seconomiclifeandwhodevelopedaroughjudicialsystem.18thetempleofficialssocietywasdividedamonganeliteor19groupoflargelandownersandmilitaryleaders;amixedgroupofmerchantsartisansandcraftsmenfreepeasantswho20themajorityofthepopulation;andslaves. 5
AtthestartoftheyearTheIndependentonSundayarguedthattherewerethreeoverwhelmingreasonswhyIraqshouldnotbeinvaded:therewasnoproofthatSaddamposedanimminentthreat;Iraqwouldbeevenmoreunstableasaresultofitsliberation;andaconflictwouldincreasethethreatposedbyterrorists.WhatwedidnotknowwasthatTonyBlairhadreceivedintelligenceandadvicethatraisedtheverysamepoints.Lastweek’sreportfromtheIntelligenceandSecurityCommitteeincludedtherevelationthatsomeoftheintelligencehadwarnedthatawaragainstIraqriskedanincreasedthreatofterrorism.WhydidMr.BlairnotmakethisevidenceavailabletothepublicinthewaythatsomuchofthealarmistintelligenceonSaddam’sweaponswaspublishedWhydidhechoosetoignoretheintelligenceandargueinsteadthatthewarwasnecessarypreciselybecauseofthethreatposedbyinternationalterrorismTherehavebeentwoparliamentaryinvestigationsintothiswarandtheHuttoninquirywillreopentomorrow.Intheirdifferentwaystheyhavebeenilluminatingbutnoneofthemhasaddressedthemainissuesrelatingtothewar.TheForeignAffairsCommitteehadthescopetorangewidelybutchosetobecomeentangledinthedisputebetweentheGovernmentandtheBBC.TheIntelligenceCommitteereachedtheconclusionthattheGovernment’sfileonSaddam’sweaponswasnotmixedupbutfailedtoexplainwhytheintelligencewassohopelesslywrong.TheHuttoninquiryisinvestigatingthedeathofDr.DavidKellyapersonaltragedyofmarginalrelevancetothewaragainstIraq.TonyBlairhasstilltocomeundercloseexaminationabouthisconductinthebuilding-uptowar.InsteadtheDefenceSecretaryGeoffHoonisbeingfingeredasifheweremaster-mindingthewarbehindeveryone’sbacksfromtheMinistry’ofDefence.Mr.HoonisnotaministerwhodarestothinkwithoutconsultingDowningStreetfirst.AtalltimeshewouldhavebeendancingtoDowningStreet’stunesMr.BlairwouldbewrongtoassumethathecandrawalineunderallofthisbymakingMr.Hoonthefall-guy.ItwasMr.BlairwhodecidedtotakeBritaintowarandaCabinetoflargelyskepticalministersthatbackedhim.ItwasMr.BlairwhotoldMPsthatunlessSaddamwasremovedterroristswouldposeagreaterglobalthreat--eventhoughhehadreceivedintelligencethatsuggestedawarwouldleadtoanincreaseinterrorism.ParliamentshouldbetheforuminwhichthePrimeMinisteriscalledmorefullytoaccountbutlainDuncanSmith’ssupportforthewarhasneuteredanalreadyineptopposition.IntheabsenceofproperparliamentaryscrutinyitislefttonewspaperslikethisonetokeepaskingthemostimportantquestionsuntilthePrimeMinisteranswersthem.ItcanbelearnedfromParagraph4that
AllSumeriancitiesrecognizedanumberofgodsincommonincludingtheskygodthelordofstormsandthemorningandeveningstar.1theSumerianworshippedthegoddessoffertilityloveandwarshewasevidentlylower2statusthanthemalegodsindicatingthatinamoreurbanizedsocietythe3thatthepeoplesofprevioustimeshadpaidtotheearthmothergoddesshad4.Thegodsseemedhopelesslyviolentand5andone’slifeaperiodofslaveryattheireasywill.TheepicpoemTheCreationemphasizesthat6werecreatedtoenablethegodsto7upworking.Eachcitymoreoverhaditsowngodwhowasconsideredto8thetempleliterallyandwhowasintheorytheownerofallpropertywithinthecity.9thepriestswhointerpretedthewillofthegodandcontrolledthe10oftheeconomicproduceofthecitywerefavored11theirsupernaturalandmaterialfunctions12.Whenafter3000B.C.growingwarfareamongthecitiesmademilitaryleadership13theheadofthearmywhobecamekingassumedan14positionbetweenthegodwhoseagenthewasandthepriestlyclasswhomhehadbothtouseandto15Thuskingandpriestsrepresentedtheupperclassinahierarchicalsociety.16themwerethescribesthesecularattendantsofthetemplewho17everyaspectofthecity’seconomiclifeandwhodevelopedaroughjudicialsystem.18thetempleofficialssocietywasdividedamonganeliteor19groupoflargelandownersandmilitaryleaders;amixedgroupofmerchantsartisansandcraftsmenfreepeasantswho20themajorityofthepopulation;andslaves. 3
UntilabouttwomillionyearsagoAfrica’svegetationhadalwaysbeencontrolledbytheinteractionsofclimate;geologysoilandgroundwaterconditions;andtheactivitiesofanimals.Theadditionofhumanstothelattergrouphoweverhasincreasinglyrenderedunrealtheconceptofafullydeveloped"natural"vegetation--i.e.oneapproximatingtheidealofavegetationalclimax.41_____________________.EarlyattemptsatmappingandclassifyingAfrica’svegetationstressedthisrelationship:sometimesthenamesofplantzoneswerederiveddirectlyfromclimates.Inthisdiscussiontheideaofzonesisretainedonlyinabroaddescriptivesense. 42_____________________.Inadditionovertimemorefloralregionsofvaryingshapeandsizehavebeenrecognized.Manyschemeshavearisensuccessivelyallofwhichhavehadtotakeviewsontwoimportantaspects:thegeneralscaleoftreatmenttobeadoptedandthedegreetowhichhumanmodificationistobecomprehendedordiscounted. 43_____________________.Quitetheoppositeassumptionisnowfrequentlyadvanced.Anintimatecombinationofmanyspecies--incomplexassociationsandrelatedtolocalizedsoilsslopesanddrainage--hasbeendetailedinmanystudiesoftheAfricantropics.InafewsquaremilestheremaybeavisiblesuccessionfromswampwithpapyrusthegrassofwhichtheancientEgyptiansmadepaperandfromwhichtheword"paper"originatedthroughswampygrasslandandbroad-leavedwoodlandandgrasstoapatchofforestonricherhillsidesoilandfinallytojuicyfleshyplantsonanearlynakedrocksummit. 44_____________________.Correspondinglyclassificationshavedifferedgreatlyintheirprinciplesfornaminggroupinganddescribingformations:somehavechosentermssuchasforestwoodlandthornbushthicketandshrubformuchofthesamebroadtractsthatothershavegroupedaswoodedsavannatreelessgrassyplainandsteppegrassyplainwithfewtrees.ThisisbestseeninthenomenclaturenamingofplantsadoptedbytwoofthemostcomprehensiveandauthoritativemapsofAfrica’svegetationthathavebeenpublished:R.W.J.Keay’sVegetationMapofAfricaSouthoftheTropicofCanceranditsmorewidelybasedsuccessorTheVegetationMapofAfricacompiledbyFrankWhite.IntheKeaymaptheterms"savanna"and"steppe"wereadoptedasprecisedefinitionofformationsbasedontheherblayerandthecoverageofwoodyvegetation;theWhitemaphoweverdiscardedthesetwocategoriesasspecificclassifications.Yetanyrapidabsenceofsavannaasinitspopularandmoregeneralsenseisdoubtful. 45_____________________.Howeversome100specifictypesofvegetationidentifiedonthesourcemaphavebeencompressedinto14broaderclassifications. [A]AsmorehasbecomeknownofthemanythousandsofAfricanplantspeciesandtheircomplexecologynamingclassificationandmappinghavealsobee0memoreparticularstressingwhatwasactuallypresentratherthanpostulatingaboutclimaticpotential. [B]InregionsofhigherrainfallsuchaseasternAfricasavannavegetationismaintainedbyperiodicfires.Consumingdrygrassattheendoftherainyseasonthefiresburnbacktheforestvegetationchecktheinvasionoftreesandshrubsandstimulatenewgrassgrowth. [C]OnceaswiththescientifictreatmentofAfricansoilsamuchgreateruniformitywasattributedtothevegetationthanwouldhavebeengenerallyacceptedinthesameperiodfortreatmentsofthelandsofwesternEuropeortheUnitedStates. [D]ThevegetationalmapofAfricaandgeneralvegetationgroupingsusedherefollowtheWhitemapanditsextensiveannotations. [E]Africanvegetationzonesarecloselylinkedtoclimaticzoneswiththesamezonesoccurringbothnorthandsouthoftheequatorinbroadlysimilarpatterns.Aswithclimaticzonesdifferencesintheamountandseasonaldistributionofprecipitationconstitutethemostimportantinfluenceonthedevelopmentofvegetation. [F]Neverthelessinbroadtermsclimateremainsthedominantcontrolovervegetation.ZonalbeltsofprecipitationreflectionlatitudeandcontrastingexposuretotheAtlanticandIndianoceansandtheircurrentsgivesomerealitytorelatedbeltsofvegetation. [G]ThespanofhumanoccupationinAfricaisbelievedtoexceedthatofanyothercontinent.Alltheresultantactivitieshavetendedonbalancetoreducetreecoverandincreasegrassland;buttherehasbeenconsiderabledisputeamongscholarsconcerningthenaturalversushuman-causeddevelopmentofmostAfricangrasslandsattheregionallevel. 41
AtthestartoftheyearTheIndependentonSundayarguedthattherewerethreeoverwhelmingreasonswhyIraqshouldnotbeinvaded:therewasnoproofthatSaddamposedanimminentthreat;Iraqwouldbeevenmoreunstableasaresultofitsliberation;andaconflictwouldincreasethethreatposedbyterrorists.WhatwedidnotknowwasthatTonyBlairhadreceivedintelligenceandadvicethatraisedtheverysamepoints.Lastweek’sreportfromtheIntelligenceandSecurityCommitteeincludedtherevelationthatsomeoftheintelligencehadwarnedthatawaragainstIraqriskedanincreasedthreatofterrorism.WhydidMr.BlairnotmakethisevidenceavailabletothepublicinthewaythatsomuchofthealarmistintelligenceonSaddam’sweaponswaspublishedWhydidhechoosetoignoretheintelligenceandargueinsteadthatthewarwasnecessarypreciselybecauseofthethreatposedbyinternationalterrorismTherehavebeentwoparliamentaryinvestigationsintothiswarandtheHuttoninquirywillreopentomorrow.Intheirdifferentwaystheyhavebeenilluminatingbutnoneofthemhasaddressedthemainissuesrelatingtothewar.TheForeignAffairsCommitteehadthescopetorangewidelybutchosetobecomeentangledinthedisputebetweentheGovernmentandtheBBC.TheIntelligenceCommitteereachedtheconclusionthattheGovernment’sfileonSaddam’sweaponswasnotmixedupbutfailedtoexplainwhytheintelligencewassohopelesslywrong.TheHuttoninquiryisinvestigatingthedeathofDr.DavidKellyapersonaltragedyofmarginalrelevancetothewaragainstIraq.TonyBlairhasstilltocomeundercloseexaminationabouthisconductinthebuilding-uptowar.InsteadtheDefenceSecretaryGeoffHoonisbeingfingeredasifheweremaster-mindingthewarbehindeveryone’sbacksfromtheMinistry’ofDefence.Mr.HoonisnotaministerwhodarestothinkwithoutconsultingDowningStreetfirst.AtalltimeshewouldhavebeendancingtoDowningStreet’stunesMr.BlairwouldbewrongtoassumethathecandrawalineunderallofthisbymakingMr.Hoonthefall-guy.ItwasMr.BlairwhodecidedtotakeBritaintowarandaCabinetoflargelyskepticalministersthatbackedhim.ItwasMr.BlairwhotoldMPsthatunlessSaddamwasremovedterroristswouldposeagreaterglobalthreat--eventhoughhehadreceivedintelligencethatsuggestedawarwouldleadtoanincreaseinterrorism.ParliamentshouldbetheforuminwhichthePrimeMinisteriscalledmorefullytoaccountbutlainDuncanSmith’ssupportforthewarhasneuteredanalreadyineptopposition.IntheabsenceofproperparliamentaryscrutinyitislefttonewspaperslikethisonetokeepaskingthemostimportantquestionsuntilthePrimeMinisteranswersthem.TheauthorthinksthattheHuttonenquiryis
AsmoreandmorematerialfromotherculturesbecameavailableEuropeanscholarscametorecognizeevengreatercomplexityinmythologicaltraditions.EspeciallyvaluablewastheevidenceprovidedbyancientIndianandIraniantextssuchastheBhagavad-GitaandtheZend-A-vestaFromthesesourcesitbecameapparentthatthecharacterofmythsvariedwidelynotonlybygeographicalregionbutalsobyhistoricalperiod.41__________________HearguedthattherelativelysimpleGreekmythofPersephonereflectstheconcernsofabasicagriculturalcommunitywhereasthemoreinvolvedandcomplexmythsfoundlaterinHomeraretheproductofamoredevelopedsociety. Scholarsalsoattemptedtotievariousmythsoftheworldtogetherinsomeway.Fromthelate18thcenturythroughtheearly19thcenturythecomparativestudyoflanguageshadledtothereconstructionofahypotheticalparentlanguagetoaccountforstrikingsimilaritiesamongthevariouslanguagesofEuropeandtheNearEast.TheselanguagesscholarsconcludedbelongedtoanIndo-Europeanlanguagefamily.ExpertsonmythologylikewisesearchedforaparentmythologythatpresumablystoodbehindthemythologiesofalltheEuropeanpeoples.42__________________.Forexampleanexpressionlike"maidendawn"for"sunrise"resultedfirstinpersonificationofthedawnandtheninmythsabouther. Laterinthe19thcenturythetheoryofevolutionputforwardbyEnglishnaturalistCharlesDarwinheavilyinfluencedthestudyofmythology.Scholarsresearchedonthehistoryofmythologymuchastheywoulddigfossil-bearinggeologicalformationsforremainsfromthedistantpast.43__________________ SimilarlyBritishanthropologistSirJamesGeorgeFrazerproposedathree-stageevolutionaryschemeinTheGoldenBough.AccordingtoFrazer’sschemehumanbeingsfirstattributednaturalphenomenatoarbitrarysupernaturalforcesmagiclaterexplainingthemasthewillofthegodsreligionandfinallysubjectingthemtorationalinvestigationscience. TheresearchofBritishscholarWilliamRobertsonSmithpublishedinLecturesontheReligionoftheSemites1889alsoinfluencedFrazer.ThroughSmith’sworkFrazercametobelievethatmanymythshadtheiroriginintheritualpracticesofancientagriculturalpeoplesforwhomtheannualcyclesofvegetationwereofcentralimportance.44__________________.ThisapproachreacheditsmostextremeforminthesocalledfunctionalismofBritishanthropologistA.R.Radcliffe-Brownwhoheldthateverymythimpliesaritualandeveryritualimpliesamyth. Mostanalysesofmythsinthe18thand19thcenturiesshowedatendencytoreducemythstosomeessentialcore--whethertheseasonalcycleso5naturehistoricalcircumstancesorritual.Thatcoresupposedlyremainedoncethefancifulelementsofthenarrativeshadbeenstrippedaway.Inthe20thcenturyinvestigatorsbegantopaycloserattentiontothecontentofthenarrativesthemselves.45__________________ [A]German-bornBritishscholarMaxMullerconcludedthattheRig-VedaofancientIndia--theoldestpreservedbodyofliteraturewritteninanIndo-Europeanlanguage--reflectedtheearlieststagesofanIndo-Europeanmythology.Muilerattributedalllatermythstomisunderstandingsthatarosefromthepicturesquetermsinwhichearlypeoplesdescribednaturalphenomena [B]ThemythandritualtheoryasthisapproachcametobecalledwasdevelopedmostfullybyBritishscholarJaneEllenHarrison.UsinginsightgainedfromtheworkofFrenchsociologistEmileDurkheimHarrisonarguedthatallmythshavetheiroriginincollectiveritualsofasociety. [C]AustrianpsychoanalystSigmundFreudheldthatmyths--likedreams--condensethematerialofexperienceandrepresentitinsymbols. [D]ThisapproachcanbeseenintheworkofBritishanthropologistEdwardBurnettTylor.InPrimitiveCulture1871Tylororganizedthereligiousandphilosophicaldevelopmentofhumanityintoseparateanddistinctevolutionarystages [E]ThestudiesmadeinthisperiodwereconsolidatedintheworkofGermanscholarChristianGottlobHeynewhowasthefirstscholartousetheLatintermmythsinsteadoffabulameaning"fable"torefertothetalesofheroesandgods[F]GermanscholarKarlOtfriedMailerfollowedthislineofinquiryinhisProlegomenatoaScientificMythologyt825. 41
Despitethegeneralnegativefindingsitisimportanttorememberthatallchildrenwholivethroughadivorcedonotbehaveinthesameway.Thespecificbehaviordependsonthechild’sindividualpersonalitycharacteristicsageatthetimeofdivorceandgender.Intermsofpersonalitywhencomparedtothoseratedasrelaxedandeasygoingchildrendescribedastemperamentalandirritablehavemoredifficultycopingwithparentaldivorceasindeedtheyhavemoredifficultyadaptingtolifechangeingeneral.Stresssuchasthatfoundindisruptedfamiliesseemstoimpairtheabilityoftemperamentalchildrentoadapttotheirsurroundingsthegreatertheamountofstressthelesswelltheyadapt.Incontrastamoderateamountofstressmayactuallyhelpaneasygoingrelaxedchildlearntocopewithadversity.Thereissomerelationshipbetweenageandchildren’scharacteristicreactiontodivorce.AsthechildgrowsolderthegreateristhelikelihoodofafreeexpressionofavarietyofcomplexfeelingsanunderstandingofthosefeelingsandarealizationthatthedecisiontodivorcecannotbeattributedtoanyonesimplecauseSelf-blamevirtuallydisappearsaftertheageof6fearofabandonmentdiminishesaftertheageof8andtheconfusionandfearoftheyoungchildisreplacedintheolderchildbyshameangerandself-reflection.GenderofthechildisalsoafactorthatpredictsthenatureofreactiontodivorceTheimpactofdivorceisinitiallygreateronboysthanongirls.Theyaremoreaggressivelesscomplianthavegreaterdifficultiesininterpersonalrelationshipsandexhibitproblembehaviorsbothathomeandatschool.Furthermoretheadjustmentproblemsofboysarestillnoticeableeventwoyearsafterthedivorce.Girls’adjustmentproblemsareusuallyinternalizedratherthanactedoutandareoftenresolvedbythesecondyearafterthedivorce.Howevernewproblemsmaysurfaceforgirlsastheyenteradolescenceandadulthood.HowcantherelativelygreaterimpactofdivorceonboysthanongirlsbeexplainedThegreatermaleaggressionandnoncompliancemayreflectthefactthatsuchbehaviorsaretoleratedandevenencouragedinmalesinourculturemorethantheyareinfemales.Furthermoreboysmayhaveaparticularneedforastrongmalemodelofself-controlaswellasforastrongdisciplinarianparent.Finallyboysaremorelikelytobeexposedtotheirparents’fightsthangirlsareandafterthebreakupboysarelesslikelythangirlstoreceivesympathyandsupportfrommothersteachersorpeers.ThefollowingstatementsaretrueEXCEPT
AllSumeriancitiesrecognizedanumberofgodsincommonincludingtheskygodthelordofstormsandthemorningandeveningstar.1theSumerianworshippedthegoddessoffertilityloveandwarshewasevidentlylower2statusthanthemalegodsindicatingthatinamoreurbanizedsocietythe3thatthepeoplesofprevioustimeshadpaidtotheearthmothergoddesshad4.Thegodsseemedhopelesslyviolentand5andone’slifeaperiodofslaveryattheireasywill.TheepicpoemTheCreationemphasizesthat6werecreatedtoenablethegodsto7upworking.Eachcitymoreoverhaditsowngodwhowasconsideredto8thetempleliterallyandwhowasintheorytheownerofallpropertywithinthecity.9thepriestswhointerpretedthewillofthegodandcontrolledthe10oftheeconomicproduceofthecitywerefavored11theirsupernaturalandmaterialfunctions12.Whenafter3000B.C.growingwarfareamongthecitiesmademilitaryleadership13theheadofthearmywhobecamekingassumedan14positionbetweenthegodwhoseagenthewasandthepriestlyclasswhomhehadbothtouseandto15Thuskingandpriestsrepresentedtheupperclassinahierarchicalsociety.16themwerethescribesthesecularattendantsofthetemplewho17everyaspectofthecity’seconomiclifeandwhodevelopedaroughjudicialsystem.18thetempleofficialssocietywasdividedamonganeliteor19groupoflargelandownersandmilitaryleaders;amixedgroupofmerchantsartisansandcraftsmenfreepeasantswho20themajorityofthepopulation;andslaves. 11
Materialculturereferstothetouchablematerialthings--physicalobjectsthatcanbeseenheldfeltused--thatacultureproduces.Examiningaculture’stoolsandtechnologycantellusaboutthegroup’shistoryandwayoflifeSimilarlyresearchintothematerialcultureofmusiccanhelpustounderstandthemusicculture.Themostvividbodyofthinginitofcourseismusicalinstruments.Wecannothearforourselvestheactualsoundofanymusicalperformancebeforethe1870swhenthephonographwasinventedsowerelyoninstrumentsforimportantinformationaboutmusic-culturesintheremotepastandtheirdevelopment.Herewehavetwokindsofevidence:instrumentswellpreservedandinstrumentspicturedinart.ThroughthestudyofinstrumentsaswellaspaintingswrittendocumentsandsoonwecanexplorethemovementofmusicfromtheNearEasttoChinaoverathousandyearsagoforwecanoutlinethespreadofNearEasterninfluencetoEuropethatresultedinthedevelopmentofmostoftheinstrumentsonthesymphonyorchestra.Sheetmusicorprintedmusictooismaterialculture.Scholarsoncedefinedfolkmusic-culturesasthoseinwhichpeoplelearnandsingmusicbyearratherthanfromprintbutresearchshowsmutualinfluenceamongoralandwrittensourcesduringthepastfewcenturiesinEuropeBritainandAmerica.Printedversionslimitvarietybecausetheytendtostandardizeanysongyettheystimulatepeopletocreatenewanddifferentsongs.Besidestheabilitytoreadmusicnotationhasafar-reachingeffectonmusiciansandwhenitbecomeswidespreadonthemusic-cultureasawhole.Musicisdeep-rootedintheculturalbackgroundthatfostersit.Wenowpaymoreandmoreattentiontotraditionalorethnicfeaturesinfolkmusicandarewillingtopreservethefoldmusicaswedowithmanytraditionalculturalheritage.Musiciansallovertheworldarebusywithrecordingclassicmusicintheircountryforthesakeoftheiruniqueculture.Asalwayspeople’saspirationwillalwaysfocusontheirindividualityratherthanuniversalfeaturesthataresharedbyallculturesalike.Onemoreimportantpartofmusic’smaterialcultureshouldbesingledout:theinfluenceoftheelectronicmedia--radiorecordplayertaperecorderandtelevisionwiththefuturepromisingtalkingandsingingcomputersandotherdevelopments.Thisisallpartoftheinformation-revolutionatwentieth-centuryphenomenonasimportantastheindustrialrevolutioninthenineteenth.Theseelectronicmediaarenotjustlimitedtomodernnations;theyhaveaffectedmusicculturesallovertheglobe.ThewordphonographLine5Para.1mostprobablymeans
AllSumeriancitiesrecognizedanumberofgodsincommonincludingtheskygodthelordofstormsandthemorningandeveningstar.1theSumerianworshippedthegoddessoffertilityloveandwarshewasevidentlylower2statusthanthemalegodsindicatingthatinamoreurbanizedsocietythe3thatthepeoplesofprevioustimeshadpaidtotheearthmothergoddesshad4.Thegodsseemedhopelesslyviolentand5andone’slifeaperiodofslaveryattheireasywill.TheepicpoemTheCreationemphasizesthat6werecreatedtoenablethegodsto7upworking.Eachcitymoreoverhaditsowngodwhowasconsideredto8thetempleliterallyandwhowasintheorytheownerofallpropertywithinthecity.9thepriestswhointerpretedthewillofthegodandcontrolledthe10oftheeconomicproduceofthecitywerefavored11theirsupernaturalandmaterialfunctions12.Whenafter3000B.C.growingwarfareamongthecitiesmademilitaryleadership13theheadofthearmywhobecamekingassumedan14positionbetweenthegodwhoseagenthewasandthepriestlyclasswhomhehadbothtouseandto15Thuskingandpriestsrepresentedtheupperclassinahierarchicalsociety.16themwerethescribesthesecularattendantsofthetemplewho17everyaspectofthecity’seconomiclifeandwhodevelopedaroughjudicialsystem.18thetempleofficialssocietywasdividedamonganeliteor19groupoflargelandownersandmilitaryleaders;amixedgroupofmerchantsartisansandcraftsmenfreepeasantswho20themajorityofthepopulation;andslaves. 1
Itwasthebiggestscientificgrudgematchsincethespacerace.TheGenomeWarshadeverything:twogroupswithappealingleadersreadytofightinascientificdeadheatpushingthelimitsoftechnologyandrhetoricastheybattledtobecomethefirsttoreadeverylastoneofthe3billionDNAlettersinthehumanbody.Thescientificimportanceoftheworkisunquestionable.ThecompletedDNAsequenceisexpectedtogivescientistsunprecedentedinsightsintotheworkingsofthehumanbodyrevolutionizingmedicineandbiology.Buttheraceitselfbetweenthegovernment’sHumanGenomeProjectandRockvilleMd.biotechnologycompanyCeleraGenomicswasatleastpartlysymbolicthepublic/privateconflictplayedoutinageneticlab.Nowtheraceisover.Afteryearsofpublicattacksandseveralfailedattemptsatreconciliationthetwosidesaretakingasteptowardaperiodofcalm.HOPheadFrancisCollinsand.AriPatrinosoftheDepartmentofEnergyanimportantallyonthegovernmentsideandCraigVenterthefounderofCeleraagreedtoholdajointpressconferenceinWashingtonthisMondaytodeclarethattheracewasoversortofthatbothsideshadwonkindofandthatthehostilitieswereresolvedforthetimebeing.Nooneisexactlysurehowthingswillbedifferentnow.Neithersidewillbeturningoffitssequencingmachinesanytimesoon--thefinishlineseachhascrossedarelargelyarbitrarypointsfirstdraftsratherthanthedefinitiveversion.AndwhilethejointannouncementbringstheformerGenomeWarriorsclosertogetherthanthey’vebeeninyearsinsiderssayIthatfutureagreementsaremorelikelytotaketheformofcoordinationratherthanoutrightcollaboration.TheconflictblewupthisFebruarywhenBritain’sWelcomeTrustanHGPparticipantreleasedaconfidentiallettertoCeleraoutliningtheHGP’scomplaints.Ventercalledthemovealowlifethingtodobutbyspringtherewerethefirstsignsofathaw.TheattacksandnastinessarebadforscienceandourinvestorsVentertoldNewsweekinMarchandfightingbackisprobablynothelpful.AtacancermeetingearlierthismonthVenterandCollinspraisedeachother’sapproachesandexpressedhopethatallofthescientistsinvolvedinsequencingthehumangenomewouldbeabletosharethecreditBylatelastweekthathopewasbecomingarealityasdetailsforMonday’sjointannouncementwerehammeredout.Scientistsinbothcampswelcomedanendtothehostilities.Ifthisendsthehorseracesciencewins.Withtheirdifferencebehindthemoratleastsetasidethescientistsshouldnowbeabletogetdowntotheinterestingstufffiguringhowtomakeuseofallthatdata.Thecriticalthingfacingthescientistsisto
AsmoreandmorematerialfromotherculturesbecameavailableEuropeanscholarscametorecognizeevengreatercomplexityinmythologicaltraditions.EspeciallyvaluablewastheevidenceprovidedbyancientIndianandIraniantextssuchastheBhagavad-GitaandtheZend-A-vestaFromthesesourcesitbecameapparentthatthecharacterofmythsvariedwidelynotonlybygeographicalregionbutalsobyhistoricalperiod.41__________________HearguedthattherelativelysimpleGreekmythofPersephonereflectstheconcernsofabasicagriculturalcommunitywhereasthemoreinvolvedandcomplexmythsfoundlaterinHomeraretheproductofamoredevelopedsociety. Scholarsalsoattemptedtotievariousmythsoftheworldtogetherinsomeway.Fromthelate18thcenturythroughtheearly19thcenturythecomparativestudyoflanguageshadledtothereconstructionofahypotheticalparentlanguagetoaccountforstrikingsimilaritiesamongthevariouslanguagesofEuropeandtheNearEast.TheselanguagesscholarsconcludedbelongedtoanIndo-Europeanlanguagefamily.ExpertsonmythologylikewisesearchedforaparentmythologythatpresumablystoodbehindthemythologiesofalltheEuropeanpeoples.42__________________.Forexampleanexpressionlike"maidendawn"for"sunrise"resultedfirstinpersonificationofthedawnandtheninmythsabouther. Laterinthe19thcenturythetheoryofevolutionputforwardbyEnglishnaturalistCharlesDarwinheavilyinfluencedthestudyofmythology.Scholarsresearchedonthehistoryofmythologymuchastheywoulddigfossil-bearinggeologicalformationsforremainsfromthedistantpast.43__________________ SimilarlyBritishanthropologistSirJamesGeorgeFrazerproposedathree-stageevolutionaryschemeinTheGoldenBough.AccordingtoFrazer’sschemehumanbeingsfirstattributednaturalphenomenatoarbitrarysupernaturalforcesmagiclaterexplainingthemasthewillofthegodsreligionandfinallysubjectingthemtorationalinvestigationscience. TheresearchofBritishscholarWilliamRobertsonSmithpublishedinLecturesontheReligionoftheSemites1889alsoinfluencedFrazer.ThroughSmith’sworkFrazercametobelievethatmanymythshadtheiroriginintheritualpracticesofancientagriculturalpeoplesforwhomtheannualcyclesofvegetationwereofcentralimportance.44__________________.ThisapproachreacheditsmostextremeforminthesocalledfunctionalismofBritishanthropologistA.R.Radcliffe-Brownwhoheldthateverymythimpliesaritualandeveryritualimpliesamyth. Mostanalysesofmythsinthe18thand19thcenturiesshowedatendencytoreducemythstosomeessentialcore--whethertheseasonalcycleso5naturehistoricalcircumstancesorritual.Thatcoresupposedlyremainedoncethefancifulelementsofthenarrativeshadbeenstrippedaway.Inthe20thcenturyinvestigatorsbegantopaycloserattentiontothecontentofthenarrativesthemselves.45__________________ [A]German-bornBritishscholarMaxMullerconcludedthattheRig-VedaofancientIndia--theoldestpreservedbodyofliteraturewritteninanIndo-Europeanlanguage--reflectedtheearlieststagesofanIndo-Europeanmythology.Muilerattributedalllatermythstomisunderstandingsthatarosefromthepicturesquetermsinwhichearlypeoplesdescribednaturalphenomena [B]ThemythandritualtheoryasthisapproachcametobecalledwasdevelopedmostfullybyBritishscholarJaneEllenHarrison.UsinginsightgainedfromtheworkofFrenchsociologistEmileDurkheimHarrisonarguedthatallmythshavetheiroriginincollectiveritualsofasociety. [C]AustrianpsychoanalystSigmundFreudheldthatmyths--likedreams--condensethematerialofexperienceandrepresentitinsymbols. [D]ThisapproachcanbeseenintheworkofBritishanthropologistEdwardBurnettTylor.InPrimitiveCulture1871Tylororganizedthereligiousandphilosophicaldevelopmentofhumanityintoseparateanddistinctevolutionarystages [E]ThestudiesmadeinthisperiodwereconsolidatedintheworkofGermanscholarChristianGottlobHeynewhowasthefirstscholartousetheLatintermmythsinsteadoffabulameaning"fable"torefertothetalesofheroesandgods[F]GermanscholarKarlOtfriedMailerfollowedthislineofinquiryinhisProlegomenatoaScientificMythologyt825. 45
AllSumeriancitiesrecognizedanumberofgodsincommonincludingtheskygodthelordofstormsandthemorningandeveningstar.1theSumerianworshippedthegoddessoffertilityloveandwarshewasevidentlylower2statusthanthemalegodsindicatingthatinamoreurbanizedsocietythe3thatthepeoplesofprevioustimeshadpaidtotheearthmothergoddesshad4.Thegodsseemedhopelesslyviolentand5andone’slifeaperiodofslaveryattheireasywill.TheepicpoemTheCreationemphasizesthat6werecreatedtoenablethegodsto7upworking.Eachcitymoreoverhaditsowngodwhowasconsideredto8thetempleliterallyandwhowasintheorytheownerofallpropertywithinthecity.9thepriestswhointerpretedthewillofthegodandcontrolledthe10oftheeconomicproduceofthecitywerefavored11theirsupernaturalandmaterialfunctions12.Whenafter3000B.C.growingwarfareamongthecitiesmademilitaryleadership13theheadofthearmywhobecamekingassumedan14positionbetweenthegodwhoseagenthewasandthepriestlyclasswhomhehadbothtouseandto15Thuskingandpriestsrepresentedtheupperclassinahierarchicalsociety.16themwerethescribesthesecularattendantsofthetemplewho17everyaspectofthecity’seconomiclifeandwhodevelopedaroughjudicialsystem.18thetempleofficialssocietywasdividedamonganeliteor19groupoflargelandownersandmilitaryleaders;amixedgroupofmerchantsartisansandcraftsmenfreepeasantswho20themajorityofthepopulation;andslaves. 9
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