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ThehistoryofAfrican—Americansduringthepast400yearsistraditionallynarrated1anongoingstruggleagainst2andindifferenceonthepartoftheAmericanmainstreamandastruggle3asanupwardmovementis4towardevermorejusticeandopportunity. Technologyinandof5isnotatfault;it’smuchtoosimpletosaythatgunpowderoragriculturalmachineryorfiberoptics6beentheenemyofan7groupofpeople.Acertainmachineisput8workinacertainway—thepurpose9whichitwasdesigned.Thepeoplewhodesignthemachinesarenotintentonunleashingchaos;theyareusuallytryingto10ataskmorequicklycleanlyorcheaply11theimperativeofinnovationandefficiencythathasruledWesterncivilization12theRenaissance. Masteryoftechnologyissecondonly13moneyasthetruemeasureofaccomplishmentinthiscountryanditisverylikelythatby14thisunder-representationinthetechnologicalrealmandbynotquestioningandexaminingthefolkwaysthathave15itblacksareallowing.16tobekeptoutofthemainstreamonceagain.Thistimehowevertheywillbe17fromthegreatestcashengineofthetwenty-firstcentury.Inner-cityblacksinparticularareindangerandthebeautifulsuburbs18ringthedecayofHartfordshedthepastandlearntoexistwithoutcontemplatingorencounteringthetragedyoftheinnercity. Andblacksmustchangeaswell.Thewaysthat19theirancestorsthroughcaptivityandcomingtofreedomhavebeguntoloosetheirutility.Ifblacks20tosurviveasfullparticipantsinthissocietytheyhavetounderstandwhatworksnow. 17
ThehistoryofAfrican—Americansduringthepast400yearsistraditionallynarrated1anongoingstruggleagainst2andindifferenceonthepartoftheAmericanmainstreamandastruggle3asanupwardmovementis4towardevermorejusticeandopportunity. Technologyinandof5isnotatfault;it’smuchtoosimpletosaythatgunpowderoragriculturalmachineryorfiberoptics6beentheenemyofan7groupofpeople.Acertainmachineisput8workinacertainway—thepurpose9whichitwasdesigned.Thepeoplewhodesignthemachinesarenotintentonunleashingchaos;theyareusuallytryingto10ataskmorequicklycleanlyorcheaply11theimperativeofinnovationandefficiencythathasruledWesterncivilization12theRenaissance. Masteryoftechnologyissecondonly13moneyasthetruemeasureofaccomplishmentinthiscountryanditisverylikelythatby14thisunder-representationinthetechnologicalrealmandbynotquestioningandexaminingthefolkwaysthathave15itblacksareallowing.16tobekeptoutofthemainstreamonceagain.Thistimehowevertheywillbe17fromthegreatestcashengineofthetwenty-firstcentury.Inner-cityblacksinparticularareindangerandthebeautifulsuburbs18ringthedecayofHartfordshedthepastandlearntoexistwithoutcontemplatingorencounteringthetragedyoftheinnercity. Andblacksmustchangeaswell.Thewaysthat19theirancestorsthroughcaptivityandcomingtofreedomhavebeguntoloosetheirutility.Ifblacks20tosurviveasfullparticipantsinthissocietytheyhavetounderstandwhatworksnow. 5
Thewillingnessofdoctorsatseveralmajormedicalcenterstoapologize.topatientsforharmfulerrorsisapromisingsteptowardimprovingtheratherdisappointingqualityofamedicalsystemthatkillstensofthousandsofinnocentpatientsayearinadvertently. Foryearsexpertshavelamentedthatmedicalmalpracticelitigationisaninefficientwaytodeterlethalordamagingmedicalerrors.Whattheynoticedsimplyputitisthatmostvictimsofmalpracticeneversueandthereissomeevidencethatmanypatientswhodosuewerenotharmedbyaphysician’serrorbutinsteadsufferedanadversemedicaloutcomethatcouldnothavebeenprevented.Thedetailsofwhatwentwrongareoftenkeptsecretaspartofasettlementagreement. Whatisneededmanyspecialistsagreeisasystemthatquicklybringsanerrortolightsothatfurthererrorscanbeheadedoffandthatcompensatesvictimspromptlyandfairly.Manydoctorsunfortunatelyhavebeenafraidthatadmittinganddescribingtheirerrorswouldonlyinviteacostlylawsuit. NowasdescribedbyKevinSackinTheTimesahandfulofprominentacademicmedicalcentershaveadoptedanewpolicyofpromptlydisclosingerrorsofferingearnestapologiesandprovidingfaircompensation.Itappearstosatisfymanypatientsreducelegalcostsandthelitigationburdenandinsomeinstanceshelpsreducemalpracticepremiums.HerearesomeexamplesfromcollegesoftheUnitedStates:attheUniversityofIllinoisof37caseswherethehospitalacknowledgedapreventableerrorandapologizedonlyonepatientfiledsuit;attheUniversityofMichiganHealthSystemexistingclaimsandlawsuitsdroppedfrom262inAugust2001to83inAugust2007andlegalcostsfellbytwo-thirds. Toencouragegreatercandormorethan30stateshaveenactedlawsmakingapologiesformedicalerrorsinadmissibleincourt.Thatsoundslikeasensiblestepthatshouldbeadoptedbyotherstatesorbecomefederallaw.Suchlawscouldhelpbringmoreerrorstolight.Patientswhohavebeenharmedbynegligentdoctorscanstillsueformalpracticeusingotherevidencetomaketheircase. Admittingerrorsisonlythefirststeptowardreformingthehealthcaresystemsothatfarfewermistakesaremade.Butreformscanbemoreeffectiveifdoctorsarecandidabouthowtheywentastray.Patientsseemfarlessangrywhentheyreceivean.honestexplanationanapologyandpromptfaircompensationfortheharmtheyhavesuffered. Theauthor’sattitudetowardsdoctors’heartyapologiesmaybesummarizedas
Bothcommonsenseandresearchsaymemorydeclinesovertime.Theaccuracyofrecallandrecognitionareattheirbestimmediatelyafterencodingtheinformationdecliningatfirstrapidlythengradually.46Thelongerthedelaythemorelikelyitisthatinformationobtainedaftertheeventwillinterferewiththeoriginalmemorywhichreducesaccuracy.Admittedlysubsequentinterviewsormediareportscancreatesuchdistortions.47"Peopleareparticularlysusceptibletohavingtheirmemoriesmodifiedwhenthepassageoftimeallowstheoriginalmemorytofade.andwillbemostsusceptibleiftheyrepeatthemisinformationasfact." Leadingquestionscanleadtomistakes.Ifwitnessesareaskedwhethertheoffenderhadabeardtheymayincorporateanimaginarybeardintotheirmemories.Subsequentquestioningcanreinforcetheerrorthroughrepetition. Itisgenerallyagreedthatthememoriesofadultsandchildrenarefallible.Neverthelessevenprschoolerscanformreliablememories.Youngchildrendependoncontexttopromotememoryandnaturallyreportless.Childrenmayrecallmoreinformationwithadequatesupportbutthetypeofsupportandquestioningiscritical.Methodsofdrawingoutinformationhavetobecarefullymonitored. Althoughresearchshowstheaccuracyofbothadultsandchildrencanbeaffectedbyleadingorsuggestivequestionstheabilitytoresisttheinfluenceofexternalsuggestionincreaseswithage.48Childrenmaychangetheiraccountofaneventnotbecausetheirmemoryhasalteredbutbecausetheywishtocomplywiththesuggestionofanadultinauthorityorbecausetheyinterpretrepeatedquestioningasanindicationthattheirfirstresponseisjudgedwrong. Anareaofresearchstillrelativelyunexplorediswhetheryoungchildrenhavedifficultiesdistinguishingbetweenrealandimaginedevents.Weconcludethatwhilechildrenareoftenseenasunreliablewitnessesresearchdoesnotbearthatout.49Thecodeprovidesalternativewaysforchildrentogiveevidencetoincreaseaccuracyandgivesjudgesguidanceonwhattotellajurytohelpassesstheevidenceofveryyoungchildren. Itisgenerallyagreedsomeadultswhoexperiencesexualabusemayrecallmemoriesoftheabuseafterforgettingit.Thereisnoresearchtoindicatetherecalledmemoriesaremoreorlessaccuratethanmemoriesavailableallalong.Webelieveitisimpossibletodistinguishatruefromafalsememoryanditisdangeroustouseconfidencevividnessanddetailasindicatingtruth.50Falsememoriescanbeinducedunderhypnosisandexperimentshaveindicateditispossiblealthoughdifficulttoimplantfalsememoriesofentireeventsbysuggestion. Hopefullyfurtherresearchisrequiredintointerviewtechniquesandconditionsunderwhichfalsememoriesandreportsofabusearemostlikelytoarise.Itseemsthatdecidingwhetheranymemoryistobefinallyassessedasreliableorthetreacherousallyofinventionwilllargelyremainachallengeforjudgesandjuries. 49Thecodeprovidesalternativewaysforchildrentogiveevidencetoincreaseaccuracyandgivesjudgesguidanceonwhattotellajurytohelpassesstheevidenceofveryyoungchildren.
ThehistoryofAfrican—Americansduringthepast400yearsistraditionallynarrated1anongoingstruggleagainst2andindifferenceonthepartoftheAmericanmainstreamandastruggle3asanupwardmovementis4towardevermorejusticeandopportunity. Technologyinandof5isnotatfault;it’smuchtoosimpletosaythatgunpowderoragriculturalmachineryorfiberoptics6beentheenemyofan7groupofpeople.Acertainmachineisput8workinacertainway—thepurpose9whichitwasdesigned.Thepeoplewhodesignthemachinesarenotintentonunleashingchaos;theyareusuallytryingto10ataskmorequicklycleanlyorcheaply11theimperativeofinnovationandefficiencythathasruledWesterncivilization12theRenaissance. Masteryoftechnologyissecondonly13moneyasthetruemeasureofaccomplishmentinthiscountryanditisverylikelythatby14thisunder-representationinthetechnologicalrealmandbynotquestioningandexaminingthefolkwaysthathave15itblacksareallowing.16tobekeptoutofthemainstreamonceagain.Thistimehowevertheywillbe17fromthegreatestcashengineofthetwenty-firstcentury.Inner-cityblacksinparticularareindangerandthebeautifulsuburbs18ringthedecayofHartfordshedthepastandlearntoexistwithoutcontemplatingorencounteringthetragedyoftheinnercity. Andblacksmustchangeaswell.Thewaysthat19theirancestorsthroughcaptivityandcomingtofreedomhavebeguntoloosetheirutility.Ifblacks20tosurviveasfullparticipantsinthissocietytheyhavetounderstandwhatworksnow. 1
ThehistoryofAfrican—Americansduringthepast400yearsistraditionallynarrated1anongoingstruggleagainst2andindifferenceonthepartoftheAmericanmainstreamandastruggle3asanupwardmovementis4towardevermorejusticeandopportunity. Technologyinandof5isnotatfault;it’smuchtoosimpletosaythatgunpowderoragriculturalmachineryorfiberoptics6beentheenemyofan7groupofpeople.Acertainmachineisput8workinacertainway—thepurpose9whichitwasdesigned.Thepeoplewhodesignthemachinesarenotintentonunleashingchaos;theyareusuallytryingto10ataskmorequicklycleanlyorcheaply11theimperativeofinnovationandefficiencythathasruledWesterncivilization12theRenaissance. Masteryoftechnologyissecondonly13moneyasthetruemeasureofaccomplishmentinthiscountryanditisverylikelythatby14thisunder-representationinthetechnologicalrealmandbynotquestioningandexaminingthefolkwaysthathave15itblacksareallowing.16tobekeptoutofthemainstreamonceagain.Thistimehowevertheywillbe17fromthegreatestcashengineofthetwenty-firstcentury.Inner-cityblacksinparticularareindangerandthebeautifulsuburbs18ringthedecayofHartfordshedthepastandlearntoexistwithoutcontemplatingorencounteringthetragedyoftheinnercity. Andblacksmustchangeaswell.Thewaysthat19theirancestorsthroughcaptivityandcomingtofreedomhavebeguntoloosetheirutility.Ifblacks20tosurviveasfullparticipantsinthissocietytheyhavetounderstandwhatworksnow. 13
Itisoftenobservedthattheagedspendmuchtimethinkingandtalkingabouttheirpastlives1aboutthefuture.Thesereminiscencesarenotsimplyrandomortrivialmemories2istheirpurposemerelytomakeconversation.Theoldperson’srecollectionsofthepasthelpto3anidentitythatisbecomingincreasinglyfragile:4anyrolethatbringsrespectoranygoalthatmightprovide5tothefuturetheindividualmentionshispastasaremindertolistenersthatherewasalife6living.7thememoriesformpartofacontinuinglife8inwhichtheperson9theeventsandexperiencesofthe-yearsgonebyand10ontheoverallmeaningofhisorherownalmostcompletedlife. Asthelifecycle11toitsclosetheagedmustalsolearntoaccepttherealityoftheirownimpendingdeath.12thistaskismadedifficultbythefactthatdeathisalmosta13subjectintheUnitedStates.Themerediscussionofdeathisoftenregardedas14.Asadultsmanyofusfindthetopicfrighteningandare15tothinkaboutit—andcertainlynottotalkaboutit16thepresenceofsomeonewhoisdying.Deathhasachievedthistaboo17onlyinthemodernindustrialsocieties.Thereseemstobeanimportantreasonforourreluctanceto18theideaofdeath.Itistheveryfactthatdeathremains19ourcontrol;itisalmosttheonlyoneofthenaturalprocesses20isso. 1
Asmorepeopleliveclosertogetherandastheyusemachinestoproduceleisuretheyfindthattheirleisureandeventheirworkinghoursbecomespoiltbyaby-productoftheirmachines--namelynoise.Noiseisnowadaysinthenews;ithasacquiredpoliticalstatusandpublicopinionsaredemandingmoreandmoreinsistentlythatsomethingmustbedoneaboutit.46Tocontrolnoiseistodemandmuchself-disciplineannoyancearisesoftenfromlackofcommoncourtesyasenseofproportionthereisusuallyaconflictofinterestifanoiseistobestoppedtheexpenditureofmoneyanditisfarmoreeconomicaltodothisearlyratherthanlateandfinallytechnicalknowledge.Technicaldifficultiesoftenarisefromthesubjective-objectivenatureoftheproblem.Youcandefinetheexcessivespeedofamotor-carintermsofapointerreadingonaspeedometer.Butcanyoudefineexcessivenoiseinthesameway47Youfindthatwithanyexistingsimplenoise-metervehicleswhicharejudgedtobeequallynoisymayshowconsiderabledifferenceonthemeter.Thoughtheidealcurefornoiseistostopitatitssourcethismayinmanycasesbeimpossible.Thenextremedyistoabsorbitonthewaytotheear.48Domesticnoisesmayperhapsbecontrolledbyforethoughtandcourtesyandindustrialnoisesbygoodplanningandtechnicalimprovement.Butifwearegoingtoallowfastmotor-cyclesandheavydiesellorriestopasscontinuouslythroughresidentialandbusinessdistrictsthecommunitymustdecideonthecontrolitneedstoexerciseforinthelongrunithasgottopayforit.49Andifanationistotakepartinmodernairtransportitmustenterintointernationalagreementsonthenoisecontrolmeasuresitwillimposeatitsairports-andherethecostofanyrealcontrolistobemeasuredinmillionsofdollars.Jetenginesmaybemodifiedtoreducetheirnoiselevelorinsulationfromairtrafficnoisemaybeprovidedbythepurchaseoflandaroundairportsortheinsulationofbuildings.50Oneestimateisthat＄5.7billionwouldberequiredtoequipallexistingjetengineswithnoisecontroldevices;howeverconsideringthecurrentstateofthearteventakingthisstepwillnotreducenoiselevelsatallpointstoacceptablevalues.Somecombinationofmethodsisprobablynecessary.
Ifopen-sourcesoftwareissupposedtobefreehowdoesanyonesellingitmakeanymoneyIt’snotthatdifferentfromhowothersoftwarecompaniesmakemoney.You’dthinkthatasoftwarecompanywouldmakemostofitsmoneyfromwellsellingsoftware.Butyou’dbewrong.Foronethingcompaniesdon’tsellsoftwarestrictlyspeaking;theylicenseit.Theprofitmarginonasoftwarelicenseisnearly100percentwhichiswhyMicrosoftgushesbillionsofdollarseveryquarter.Butwhat’sthevalueofalicensetoacustomerAlicensedoesn’tdeliverthecodeprovidetheutilitiestogetapieceofsoftwarerunningoranswerthephonewhensomethinginevitablygoeswrong.Thevalueofsoftwareinshortdoesn’tlieinthesoftwarealone.Thevalueisinmakingsurethesoftwaredoesitsjob.Justasatravelershouldlookattheoverallpriceofavacationpackageinsteadofobsessingoverthepriceoftheplaneticketorhotelroomasmarttechbuyerwon’tfocusonhowmuchthelicensecostsandignorethesupportcontractorthemaintenanceagreement.Open-sourceisnotthatdifferent.Ifyouwantthesoftwaretoworkyouhavetopaytoensureitwillwork.Theopen-sourcecompanieshaverefinedthesoftwaremodelbysellingsubscriptions.TheyrolltogethersupportandmaintenanceandchargeanannualfeewhichisahealthymodelthoughnotquiteaswonderfulasMicrosoft’smoney-rakingone.TellinglyevenMicrosoftiscastinganenviouseyeataspectsoftheopen-sourcebusinessmodel.Thecompanyhasbeentakinghaltingstepstowardasimilarsubscriptionschemeforitssoftwaresales.Microsoft’ssubscriptionprogramknownasSoftwareAssuranceprovidesmaintenanceandsupporttogetherwithasoftwarelicense.ItletsyouupgradetoMicrosoft’snextversionofthesoftwareforapredictablesum.Butitalsocontainsanimplicitthreat:Ifyoudon’tswitchtoSoftwareAssurancenowwhoknowshowmuchMicrosoftwillchargeyouwhenyoudecidetoupgradeChiefinformationofficershatethiskindofassurancesincethey’reoftenperfectlyhappyrunningolderversionsofsoftwarethatareprovenandstable.Microsoftontheotherhandrakesinthesoftware-licensingfeesonlywhencustomersupgrade.SoftwareAssuranceisMicrosoft’sattempttogetthosesamelicensingfeesbutwrapthemtogetherwiththeserviceandsupportneededtokeepsystemsrunning.That’swhyMicrosoftfindstheopen-sourcemodelsothreatening:open-sourcecompanieshavenovestedinterestingettingmorelicensingfeesanddon’thavetopadtheirservicecontractswiththatextracost.Intheendthemaindifferencebetweenopen-sourceandproprietarysoftwarecompaniesmaybethesizeofthecheckyouhavetowrite.TheauthorusedtheexampleofatravelerPara.3toshowthat
Amysteriousblackcloudapproachestheearth--ourplanet’sweatherisseverelyaffected.ThroughouttherestofJuneandJulytemperaturesrosesteadilyallovertheEarth.IntheBritishIslesthetemperatureclimbedthroughtheeightiesintotheninetiesandmovedtowardsthehundredmark.Peoplecomplainedbuttherewasnoseriousdisaster.ThedeathnumberintheU.S.remainedquitesmallthankslargelytotheair-conditioningunitsthathadbeenfittedduringpreviousyearsandmonths.Temperaturesrosetothelimitofhumanendurancethroughoutthewholecountryandpeoplewereobligedtoremainindoorsforweeksonend.Occasionallyair-conditioningunitsfailedanditwasthenthatfatalitiesoccurred.Conditionswereutterlydesperatethroughoutthetropicsasmaybejudgedfromthefactthat7943speciesofplantsandanimalsbecametotallyextinct.Thesurvivalofmanhimselfwasonlypossiblebecauseofthecavesandcellarshewasabletodig.Nothingcouldbedonetoreducethehotairtemperature.Morethansevenhundredmillionpersonsareknowntohavelosttheirlives.Eventuallythetemperatureofthesurfacewatersofthesearosenotsofastastheairtemperatureitistruebutfastenoughtoproduceadangerousincreaseofhumidity.Itwasindeedthisincreasethatproducedthedisastrousconditionsjustremarked.MillionsofpeoplebetweenthelatitudesofCairoandtheCapeofGoodHopeweresubjectedtoachokingatmospherethatgrewdamperandhotterfromdaytoday.Allhumanmovementsceased.Therewasnothingtobedonebuttoliebreathingquicklyasadogdoesinhotweather.BythefourthweekofJulyconditionsinthetropicslaybalancedbetweenlifeandtotaldeath.Thenquitesuddenlyraincloudsappearedoverthewholeglobe.Thetemperaturedeclinedalittleduenodoubttothecloudsreflectingmoreofthesun’sradiationbackintospacebutconditionscouldnotbesaidtohaveimproved.WarmrainfelleverywhereevenasfavorableasIceland.Theinsectpopulationincreasedenormouslysincetheburninghotatmospherewasasfavorabletothemasitwasunfavorabletomanandmanyotheranimals.FewpeopleintheUnitedStateslosttheirlivesbecause______.
ThehistoryofAfrican—Americansduringthepast400yearsistraditionallynarrated1anongoingstruggleagainst2andindifferenceonthepartoftheAmericanmainstreamandastruggle3asanupwardmovementis4towardevermorejusticeandopportunity. Technologyinandof5isnotatfault;it’smuchtoosimpletosaythatgunpowderoragriculturalmachineryorfiberoptics6beentheenemyofan7groupofpeople.Acertainmachineisput8workinacertainway—thepurpose9whichitwasdesigned.Thepeoplewhodesignthemachinesarenotintentonunleashingchaos;theyareusuallytryingto10ataskmorequicklycleanlyorcheaply11theimperativeofinnovationandefficiencythathasruledWesterncivilization12theRenaissance. Masteryoftechnologyissecondonly13moneyasthetruemeasureofaccomplishmentinthiscountryanditisverylikelythatby14thisunder-representationinthetechnologicalrealmandbynotquestioningandexaminingthefolkwaysthathave15itblacksareallowing.16tobekeptoutofthemainstreamonceagain.Thistimehowevertheywillbe17fromthegreatestcashengineofthetwenty-firstcentury.Inner-cityblacksinparticularareindangerandthebeautifulsuburbs18ringthedecayofHartfordshedthepastandlearntoexistwithoutcontemplatingorencounteringthetragedyoftheinnercity. Andblacksmustchangeaswell.Thewaysthat19theirancestorsthroughcaptivityandcomingtofreedomhavebeguntoloosetheirutility.Ifblacks20tosurviveasfullparticipantsinthissocietytheyhavetounderstandwhatworksnow. 15
ThehistoryofAfrican—Americansduringthepast400yearsistraditionallynarrated1anongoingstruggleagainst2andindifferenceonthepartoftheAmericanmainstreamandastruggle3asanupwardmovementis4towardevermorejusticeandopportunity. Technologyinandof5isnotatfault;it’smuchtoosimpletosaythatgunpowderoragriculturalmachineryorfiberoptics6beentheenemyofan7groupofpeople.Acertainmachineisput8workinacertainway—thepurpose9whichitwasdesigned.Thepeoplewhodesignthemachinesarenotintentonunleashingchaos;theyareusuallytryingto10ataskmorequicklycleanlyorcheaply11theimperativeofinnovationandefficiencythathasruledWesterncivilization12theRenaissance. Masteryoftechnologyissecondonly13moneyasthetruemeasureofaccomplishmentinthiscountryanditisverylikelythatby14thisunder-representationinthetechnologicalrealmandbynotquestioningandexaminingthefolkwaysthathave15itblacksareallowing.16tobekeptoutofthemainstreamonceagain.Thistimehowevertheywillbe17fromthegreatestcashengineofthetwenty-firstcentury.Inner-cityblacksinparticularareindangerandthebeautifulsuburbs18ringthedecayofHartfordshedthepastandlearntoexistwithoutcontemplatingorencounteringthetragedyoftheinnercity. Andblacksmustchangeaswell.Thewaysthat19theirancestorsthroughcaptivityandcomingtofreedomhavebeguntoloosetheirutility.Ifblacks20tosurviveasfullparticipantsinthissocietytheyhavetounderstandwhatworksnow. 11
Ifopen-sourcesoftwareissupposedtobefreehowdoesanyonesellingitmakeanymoneyIt’snotthatdifferentfromhowothersoftwarecompaniesmakemoney.You’dthinkthatasoftwarecompanywouldmakemostofitsmoneyfromwellsellingsoftware.Butyou’dbewrong.Foronethingcompaniesdon’tsellsoftwarestrictlyspeaking;theylicenseit.Theprofitmarginonasoftwarelicenseisnearly100percentwhichiswhyMicrosoftgushesbillionsofdollarseveryquarter.Butwhat’sthevalueofalicensetoacustomerAlicensedoesn’tdeliverthecodeprovidetheutilitiestogetapieceofsoftwarerunningoranswerthephonewhensomethinginevitablygoeswrong.Thevalueofsoftwareinshortdoesn’tlieinthesoftwarealone.Thevalueisinmakingsurethesoftwaredoesitsjob.Justasatravelershouldlookattheoverallpriceofavacationpackageinsteadofobsessingoverthepriceoftheplaneticketorhotelroomasmarttechbuyerwon’tfocusonhowmuchthelicensecostsandignorethesupportcontractorthemaintenanceagreement.Open-sourceisnotthatdifferent.Ifyouwantthesoftwaretoworkyouhavetopaytoensureitwillwork.Theopen-sourcecompanieshaverefinedthesoftwaremodelbysellingsubscriptions.TheyrolltogethersupportandmaintenanceandchargeanannualfeewhichisahealthymodelthoughnotquiteaswonderfulasMicrosoft’smoney-rakingone.TellinglyevenMicrosoftiscastinganenviouseyeataspectsoftheopen-sourcebusinessmodel.Thecompanyhasbeentakinghaltingstepstowardasimilarsubscriptionschemeforitssoftwaresales.Microsoft’ssubscriptionprogramknownasSoftwareAssuranceprovidesmaintenanceandsupporttogetherwithasoftwarelicense.ItletsyouupgradetoMicrosoft’snextversionofthesoftwareforapredictablesum.Butitalsocontainsanimplicitthreat:Ifyoudon’tswitchtoSoftwareAssurancenowwhoknowshowmuchMicrosoftwillchargeyouwhenyoudecidetoupgradeChiefinformationofficershatethiskindofassurancesincethey’reoftenperfectlyhappyrunningolderversionsofsoftwarethatareprovenandstable.Microsoftontheotherhandrakesinthesoftware-licensingfeesonlywhencustomersupgrade.SoftwareAssuranceisMicrosoft’sattempttogetthosesamelicensingfeesbutwrapthemtogetherwiththeserviceandsupportneededtokeepsystemsrunning.That’swhyMicrosoftfindstheopen-sourcemodelsothreatening:open-sourcecompanieshavenovestedinterestingettingmorelicensingfeesanddon’thavetopadtheirservicecontractswiththatextracost.Intheendthemaindifferencebetweenopen-sourceandproprietarysoftwarecompaniesmaybethesizeofthecheckyouhavetowrite.AccordingtothepassageMicrosoft
ThehistoryofAfrican—Americansduringthepast400yearsistraditionallynarrated1anongoingstruggleagainst2andindifferenceonthepartoftheAmericanmainstreamandastruggle3asanupwardmovementis4towardevermorejusticeandopportunity. Technologyinandof5isnotatfault;it’smuchtoosimpletosaythatgunpowderoragriculturalmachineryorfiberoptics6beentheenemyofan7groupofpeople.Acertainmachineisput8workinacertainway—thepurpose9whichitwasdesigned.Thepeoplewhodesignthemachinesarenotintentonunleashingchaos;theyareusuallytryingto10ataskmorequicklycleanlyorcheaply11theimperativeofinnovationandefficiencythathasruledWesterncivilization12theRenaissance. Masteryoftechnologyissecondonly13moneyasthetruemeasureofaccomplishmentinthiscountryanditisverylikelythatby14thisunder-representationinthetechnologicalrealmandbynotquestioningandexaminingthefolkwaysthathave15itblacksareallowing.16tobekeptoutofthemainstreamonceagain.Thistimehowevertheywillbe17fromthegreatestcashengineofthetwenty-firstcentury.Inner-cityblacksinparticularareindangerandthebeautifulsuburbs18ringthedecayofHartfordshedthepastandlearntoexistwithoutcontemplatingorencounteringthetragedyoftheinnercity. Andblacksmustchangeaswell.Thewaysthat19theirancestorsthroughcaptivityandcomingtofreedomhavebeguntoloosetheirutility.Ifblacks20tosurviveasfullparticipantsinthissocietytheyhavetounderstandwhatworksnow. 9
[A]TheNeedforScience[B]TheMethodsofScience[C]TheChallengeofUnsolvedProblems[D]TheSpecificFeaturesoftheLawsofScience[E]TheStepsinEstablishingaScientificTheory[F]TheRapidIncreaseofScientificKnowledgeItisthebusinessofthescientisttoaccumulateknowledgeabouttheuniverseandallthatisinitandtofindifheisablecommonfactorswhichunderlieandaccountforthefactsthatheknows.Hechooseswhenhecanthemethodofthecontrolledexperiment.41.____________Inthecourseofhisinquiriesthescientistmayfindwhathethinksisonecommonexplanationforanincreasingnumberoffacts.Theexplanationifitseemsconsistentlytofitthevariousfactsiscalledahypothesis.Ifahypothesiscontinuestostandthetestofnumerousexperimentsandremainsunshakenitbecomesalaw.42.____________Thelawsofsciencedifferfromthelawsofacountryintwoways.Firstascientificlawisliableatanytimetoneedmodifying.Thishappenswhenafactisdiscoveredwhichseemstocontradictwhatthelawwouldleadonetoexpect.Thelawmayinfacthavetobeabandonedaltogether.SecondascientificlawsaysThisislikelytobetheexplanationorThisaccountsforthefactsasfarasweknowthem.ButthelawofthecountrysaysYoumust...’orYoumustnot...Thescientificlaw’hasnomoralforce;itisnotbindingonhumanbehaviornorapprovedoropposedbyhumanconscience.43.____________Theevidenceastothevastnessoftheuniverseandthecomplexityofitsarrangementscontinuestogrowatanamazingrate.Thegapbetweenwhatweknowandallthatcanbeknownseemsnottodiminishbutrathertoincreasewitheverynewdiscovery.Freshunexploredregionsareforeveropeningout.Therapidityofthegrowthofscientificknowledgeinthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturiesisapttogivestudentsandteacherstheimpressionthatnosoonerisaproblemstatedthantheanswerisforthcoming.Amoredetailedstudyofthehistoryofsciencecorrectstheimpressionthatfundamentaldiscoveriesaremadewithdramaticsuddenness.Eveninourpresentagenolessthanfiftyyearsseparatethediscoveryofradioactivityfromtheexplosionofthefirstatomicbomb.Theteachergivinghisbriefaccountsofscientificdiscoveryisapttoforgetthelongperiodsofmisunderstandingoffalsehypothesesandgeneraluncertaintywhichalmostinvariablyprecedetheclearstatementofscientifictruth.44.____________Thevastmassofinformationwhichscientistshavegainedhasprovidedtheanswertothefundamentalquestionswhichthroughthecenturieshavepuzzledandsometimestorturedthehumanmind.Therearemanysuchquestions.Thestudyofparasiteshasprovidedevidencethatorganismswhichcouldbeself-supportinghavebecomeparasitesbuthardlyanylighthasbeenshedontheproblemofwhytheyshouldhavedoneso.Whatenablesanorganismtorespondtothepoisonoussecretionsofharmfulbacteriaandorganizeitsresourcestodefenditslife...45.____________Toraisethestandardoflivinginanycountrytwothingsarerequired:scientificknowledgeandapopulationsufficientlyeducatedtounderstandhowtoapplyit.Withoutthelattertheexpectedbenefitswillnotcome.Notes:ado麻烦忙乱bebindingon对......有约束力parasite寄生虫shedlighton使某事物更清楚些secretion分泌物
IthasbeenawretchedfewweeksforAmerica’s.celebritybosses.AIG’sMauriceGreenberghasbeendramaticallyoustedfromthefirmthroughwhichhedominatedglobalinsurancefordecades.AtMorganStanleyamutinyisforcingPhilipPurcellabossusedtogettinghisownwayintoanincreasinglydesperatecampaigntosavehisskin.AtBoeingHarryStonecipherwascalledoutofretirementtoleadthescandal-hitfirmandraiseethicalstandardsonlytocommitalapseofhisownbeingsackedforsendinge-mailstoaloverwhowasalsoanemployee.CarlyFiorinawasthemostpowerfulwomanincorporateAmericauntilafewweeksagowhenHewlett-PackardHPsackedherforpoorperformance.ThefateofBernieEbbersismuchgrimmer.Theoncehigh-profilebossofWorldComcouldwellspendtherestofhislifebehindbarsfollowinghisconvictionlastmonthonfraudcharges. Indifferentwayseachoftheseexamplesappearstopointtothesamewelcomeconclusion:thattheimbalanceincorporatepowerofthelate1990swhenmanybosseswereallowedtobehavelikeabsolutemonarchshasbeencorrected.Alasappearancescanbedeceptive.Whileeachoftheserecenttalesofchief-executivewooisasisofprogressnoneprovidesmuchevidencethatthecrisisinAmericancorporategovernanceisyetover.Infacteachofthesecasesisanexampleoffailednotsuccessfulgovernance. AttheveryleastthebeardsofbothMorganStanleyandHPwerefartooslowtoaddresstheirbosses’inadequacies.TherecordoftheBoeingbeardinpickingchiefspronetoethicallapsesistoolongtobedismissedasmerebadluck.ThefallofMessrsGreenbergandEbbersmeanwhilehighlightsthegrowingroleofgovernment-andinparticularofcriminalprosecutorsinholdingbossestoaccount:adevelopmentthatisatbestamixedblessing.TheSarbanes-OxleyactpassedinhastefollowingtheEnronandWorldComscandalsisimposingheavycostsonAmericancompanies;whethertheseareexceededbyanybenefitsisthesubjectoffiercedebateandmaynotbeknownforyears. EliotSpitzerNewYork’sattorney-generalistheleadingadvocateandpractitionerofanenergetic"lawenforcement"approach.Hemayberightthattherecentburstofpunitiveactionshasbeengoodfortheeconomyevenifsomeofhisowndecisionshavebeenopentoquestion.WhereheisundoubtedlyrightisinarguingthatcorporateAmericahasdonealamentablejobofgoverningitself.AshesaysinanarticleintheWallStreetJournalthisweek:"ThehourcedeamongCEOsdidn’twork.Boardoversightdidn’twork.Ser-regulationwasacompletefailure."AIG’sboardforexampledidnothingaboutMrGreenberg’suseofmurkyaccountingortheconflictsposedbyhisuseofoffshorevehiclesorhisconstantbullyingofhiscriticsletalonethefirm’sallegedparticipationinbid-rigging--untilMrSpitzerthreatenedacriminalprosecutionthatmighthavedestroyedthefirm. WhatdoestheauthormeanbyamixedblessingLine6Para.3
Thewillingnessofdoctorsatseveralmajormedicalcenterstoapologize.topatientsforharmfulerrorsisapromisingsteptowardimprovingtheratherdisappointingqualityofamedicalsystemthatkillstensofthousandsofinnocentpatientsayearinadvertently.Foryearsexpertshavelamentedthatmedicalmalpracticelitigationisaninefficientwaytodeterlethalordamagingmedicalerrors.Whattheynoticedsimplyputitisthatmostvictimsofmalpracticeneversueandthereissomeevidencethatmanypatientswhodosuewerenotharmedbyaphysician’serrorbutinsteadsufferedanadversemedicaloutcomethatcouldnothavebeenprevented.Thedetailsofwhatwentwrongareoftenkeptsecretaspartofasettlementagreement.Whatisneededmanyspecialistsagreeisasystemthatquicklybringsanerrortolightsothatfurthererrorscanbeheadedoffandthatcompensatesvictimspromptlyandfairly.Manydoctorsunfortunatelyhavebeenafraidthatadmittinganddescribingtheirerrorswouldonlyinviteacostlylawsuit.NowasdescribedbyKevinSackinTheTimesahandfulofprominentacademicmedicalcentershaveadoptedanewpolicyofpromptlydisclosingerrorsofferingearnestapologiesandprovidingfaircompensation.Itappearstosatisfymanypatientsreducelegalcostsandthelitigationburdenandinsomeinstanceshelpsreducemalpracticepremiums.HerearesomeexamplesfromcollegesoftheUnitedStates:attheUniversityofIllinoisof37caseswherethehospitalacknowledgedapreventableerrorandapologizedonlyonepatientfiledsuit;attheUniversityofMichiganHealthSystemexistingclaimsandlawsuitsdroppedfrom262inAugust2001to83inAugust2007andlegalcostsfellbytwo-thirds.Toencouragegreatercandormorethan30stateshaveenactedlawsmakingapologiesformedicalerrorsinadmissibleincourt.Thatsoundslikeasensiblestepthatshouldbeadoptedbyotherstatesorbecomefederallaw.Suchlawscouldhelpbringmoreerrorstolight.Patientswhohavebeenharmedbynegligentdoctorscanstillsueformalpracticeusingotherevidencetomaketheircase.Admittingerrorsisonlythefirststeptowardreformingthehealthcaresystemsothatfarfewermistakesaremade.Butreformscanbemoreeffectiveifdoctorsarecandidabouthowtheywentastray.Patientsseemfarlessangrywhentheyreceivean.honestexplanationanapologyandpromptfaircompensationfortheharmtheyhavesuffered.AccordingtoParagraph5lawsareenactedinmorethan30states______.
Ifopen-sourcesoftwareissupposedtobefreehowdoesanyonesellingitmakeanymoneyIt’snotthatdifferentfromhowothersoftwarecompaniesmakemoney.You’dthinkthatasoftwarecompanywouldmakemostofitsmoneyfromwellsellingsoftware.Butyou’dbewrong.Foronethingcompaniesdon’tsellsoftwarestrictlyspeaking;theylicenseit.Theprofitmarginonasoftwarelicenseisnearly100percentwhichiswhyMicrosoftgushesbillionsofdollarseveryquarter.Butwhat’sthevalueofalicensetoacustomerAlicensedoesn’tdeliverthecodeprovidetheutilitiestogetapieceofsoftwarerunningoranswerthephonewhensomethinginevitablygoeswrong.Thevalueofsoftwareinshortdoesn’tlieinthesoftwarealone.Thevalueisinmakingsurethesoftwaredoesitsjob.Justasatravelershouldlookattheoverallpriceofavacationpackageinsteadofobsessingoverthepriceoftheplaneticketorhotelroomasmarttechbuyerwon’tfocusonhowmuchthelicensecostsandignorethesupportcontractorthemaintenanceagreement.Open-sourceisnotthatdifferent.Ifyouwantthesoftwaretoworkyouhavetopaytoensureitwillwork.Theopen-sourcecompanieshaverefinedthesoftwaremodelbysellingsubscriptions.TheyrolltogethersupportandmaintenanceandchargeanannualfeewhichisahealthymodelthoughnotquiteaswonderfulasMicrosoft’smoney-rakingone.TellinglyevenMicrosoftiscastinganenviouseyeataspectsoftheopen-sourcebusinessmodel.Thecompanyhasbeentakinghaltingstepstowardasimilarsubscriptionschemeforitssoftwaresales.Microsoft’ssubscriptionprogramknownasSoftwareAssuranceprovidesmaintenanceandsupporttogetherwithasoftwarelicense.ItletsyouupgradetoMicrosoft’snextversionofthesoftwareforapredictablesum.Butitalsocontainsanimplicitthreat:Ifyoudon’tswitchtoSoftwareAssurancenowwhoknowshowmuchMicrosoftwillchargeyouwhenyoudecidetoupgradeChiefinformationofficershatethiskindofassurancesincethey’reoftenperfectlyhappyrunningolderversionsofsoftwarethatareprovenandstable.Microsoftontheotherhandrakesinthesoftware-licensingfeesonlywhencustomersupgrade.SoftwareAssuranceisMicrosoft’sattempttogetthosesamelicensingfeesbutwrapthemtogetherwiththeserviceandsupportneededtokeepsystemsrunning.That’swhyMicrosoftfindstheopen-sourcemodelsothreatening:open-sourcecompanieshavenovestedinterestingettingmorelicensingfeesanddon’thavetopadtheirservicecontractswiththatextracost.Intheendthemaindifferencebetweenopen-sourceandproprietarysoftwarecompaniesmaybethesizeofthecheckyouhavetowrite.WhichofthefollowingistrueaboutMicrosoft
ThehistoryofAfrican—Americansduringthepast400yearsistraditionallynarrated1anongoingstruggleagainst2andindifferenceonthepartoftheAmericanmainstreamandastruggle3asanupwardmovementis4towardevermorejusticeandopportunity. Technologyinandof5isnotatfault;it’smuchtoosimpletosaythatgunpowderoragriculturalmachineryorfiberoptics6beentheenemyofan7groupofpeople.Acertainmachineisput8workinacertainway—thepurpose9whichitwasdesigned.Thepeoplewhodesignthemachinesarenotintentonunleashingchaos;theyareusuallytryingto10ataskmorequicklycleanlyorcheaply11theimperativeofinnovationandefficiencythathasruledWesterncivilization12theRenaissance. Masteryoftechnologyissecondonly13moneyasthetruemeasureofaccomplishmentinthiscountryanditisverylikelythatby14thisunder-representationinthetechnologicalrealmandbynotquestioningandexaminingthefolkwaysthathave15itblacksareallowing.16tobekeptoutofthemainstreamonceagain.Thistimehowevertheywillbe17fromthegreatestcashengineofthetwenty-firstcentury.Inner-cityblacksinparticularareindangerandthebeautifulsuburbs18ringthedecayofHartfordshedthepastandlearntoexistwithoutcontemplatingorencounteringthetragedyoftheinnercity. Andblacksmustchangeaswell.Thewaysthat19theirancestorsthroughcaptivityandcomingtofreedomhavebeguntoloosetheirutility.Ifblacks20tosurviveasfullparticipantsinthissocietytheyhavetounderstandwhatworksnow. 3
ThehistoryofAfrican—Americansduringthepast400yearsistraditionallynarrated1anongoingstruggleagainst2andindifferenceonthepartoftheAmericanmainstreamandastruggle3asanupwardmovementis4towardevermorejusticeandopportunity. Technologyinandof5isnotatfault;it’smuchtoosimpletosaythatgunpowderoragriculturalmachineryorfiberoptics6beentheenemyofan7groupofpeople.Acertainmachineisput8workinacertainway—thepurpose9whichitwasdesigned.Thepeoplewhodesignthemachinesarenotintentonunleashingchaos;theyareusuallytryingto10ataskmorequicklycleanlyorcheaply11theimperativeofinnovationandefficiencythathasruledWesterncivilization12theRenaissance. Masteryoftechnologyissecondonly13moneyasthetruemeasureofaccomplishmentinthiscountryanditisverylikelythatby14thisunder-representationinthetechnologicalrealmandbynotquestioningandexaminingthefolkwaysthathave15itblacksareallowing.16tobekeptoutofthemainstreamonceagain.Thistimehowevertheywillbe17fromthegreatestcashengineofthetwenty-firstcentury.Inner-cityblacksinparticularareindangerandthebeautifulsuburbs18ringthedecayofHartfordshedthepastandlearntoexistwithoutcontemplatingorencounteringthetragedyoftheinnercity. Andblacksmustchangeaswell.Thewaysthat19theirancestorsthroughcaptivityandcomingtofreedomhavebeguntoloosetheirutility.Ifblacks20tosurviveasfullparticipantsinthissocietytheyhavetounderstandwhatworksnow. 19
Bothcommonsenseandresearchsaymemorydeclinesovertime.Theaccuracyofrecallandrecognitionareattheirbestimmediatelyafterencodingtheinformationdecliningatfirstrapidlythengradually.46Thelongerthedelaythemorelikelyitisthatinformationobtainedaftertheeventwillinterferewiththeoriginalmemorywhichreducesaccuracy.Admittedlysubsequentinterviewsormediareportscancreatesuchdistortions.47"Peopleareparticularlysusceptibletohavingtheirmemoriesmodifiedwhenthepassageoftimeallowstheoriginalmemorytofade.andwillbemostsusceptibleiftheyrepeatthemisinformationasfact." Leadingquestionscanleadtomistakes.Ifwitnessesareaskedwhethertheoffenderhadabeardtheymayincorporateanimaginarybeardintotheirmemories.Subsequentquestioningcanreinforcetheerrorthroughrepetition. Itisgenerallyagreedthatthememoriesofadultsandchildrenarefallible.Neverthelessevenprschoolerscanformreliablememories.Youngchildrendependoncontexttopromotememoryandnaturallyreportless.Childrenmayrecallmoreinformationwithadequatesupportbutthetypeofsupportandquestioningiscritical.Methodsofdrawingoutinformationhavetobecarefullymonitored. Althoughresearchshowstheaccuracyofbothadultsandchildrencanbeaffectedbyleadingorsuggestivequestionstheabilitytoresisttheinfluenceofexternalsuggestionincreaseswithage.48Childrenmaychangetheiraccountofaneventnotbecausetheirmemoryhasalteredbutbecausetheywishtocomplywiththesuggestionofanadultinauthorityorbecausetheyinterpretrepeatedquestioningasanindicationthattheirfirstresponseisjudgedwrong. Anareaofresearchstillrelativelyunexplorediswhetheryoungchildrenhavedifficultiesdistinguishingbetweenrealandimaginedevents.Weconcludethatwhilechildrenareoftenseenasunreliablewitnessesresearchdoesnotbearthatout.49Thecodeprovidesalternativewaysforchildrentogiveevidencetoincreaseaccuracyandgivesjudgesguidanceonwhattotellajurytohelpassesstheevidenceofveryyoungchildren. Itisgenerallyagreedsomeadultswhoexperiencesexualabusemayrecallmemoriesoftheabuseafterforgettingit.Thereisnoresearchtoindicatetherecalledmemoriesaremoreorlessaccuratethanmemoriesavailableallalong.Webelieveitisimpossibletodistinguishatruefromafalsememoryanditisdangeroustouseconfidencevividnessanddetailasindicatingtruth.50Falsememoriescanbeinducedunderhypnosisandexperimentshaveindicateditispossiblealthoughdifficulttoimplantfalsememoriesofentireeventsbysuggestion. Hopefullyfurtherresearchisrequiredintointerviewtechniquesandconditionsunderwhichfalsememoriesandreportsofabusearemostlikelytoarise.Itseemsthatdecidingwhetheranymemoryistobefinallyassessedasreliableorthetreacherousallyofinventionwilllargelyremainachallengeforjudgesandjuries. 47Peopleareparticularlysusceptibletohavingtheirmemoriesmodifiedwhenthepassageoftimeallowstheoriginalmemorytofade.andwillbemostsusceptibleiftheyrepeatthemisinformationasfact.
IthasbeenawretchedfewweeksforAmerica’s.celebritybosses.AIG’sMauriceGreenberghasbeendramaticallyoustedfromthefirmthroughwhichhedominatedglobalinsurancefordecades.AtMorganStanleyamutinyisforcingPhilipPurcellabossusedtogettinghisownwayintoanincreasinglydesperatecampaigntosavehisskin.AtBoeingHarryStonecipherwascalledoutofretirementtoleadthescandal-hitfirmandraiseethicalstandardsonlytocommitalapseofhisownbeingsackedforsendinge-mailstoaloverwhowasalsoanemployee.CarlyFiorinawasthemostpowerfulwomanincorporateAmericauntilafewweeksagowhenHewlett-PackardHPsackedherforpoorperformance.ThefateofBernieEbbersismuchgrimmer.Theoncehigh-profilebossofWorldComcouldwellspendtherestofhislifebehindbarsfollowinghisconvictionlastmonthonfraudcharges. Indifferentwayseachoftheseexamplesappearstopointtothesamewelcomeconclusion:thattheimbalanceincorporatepowerofthelate1990swhenmanybosseswereallowedtobehavelikeabsolutemonarchshasbeencorrected.Alasappearancescanbedeceptive.Whileeachoftheserecenttalesofchief-executivewooisasisofprogressnoneprovidesmuchevidencethatthecrisisinAmericancorporategovernanceisyetover.Infacteachofthesecasesisanexampleoffailednotsuccessfulgovernance. AttheveryleastthebeardsofbothMorganStanleyandHPwerefartooslowtoaddresstheirbosses’inadequacies.TherecordoftheBoeingbeardinpickingchiefspronetoethicallapsesistoolongtobedismissedasmerebadluck.ThefallofMessrsGreenbergandEbbersmeanwhilehighlightsthegrowingroleofgovernment-andinparticularofcriminalprosecutorsinholdingbossestoaccount:adevelopmentthatisatbestamixedblessing.TheSarbanes-OxleyactpassedinhastefollowingtheEnronandWorldComscandalsisimposingheavycostsonAmericancompanies;whethertheseareexceededbyanybenefitsisthesubjectoffiercedebateandmaynotbeknownforyears. EliotSpitzerNewYork’sattorney-generalistheleadingadvocateandpractitionerofanenergetic"lawenforcement"approach.Hemayberightthattherecentburstofpunitiveactionshasbeengoodfortheeconomyevenifsomeofhisowndecisionshavebeenopentoquestion.WhereheisundoubtedlyrightisinarguingthatcorporateAmericahasdonealamentablejobofgoverningitself.AshesaysinanarticleintheWallStreetJournalthisweek:"ThehourcedeamongCEOsdidn’twork.Boardoversightdidn’twork.Ser-regulationwasacompletefailure."AIG’sboardforexampledidnothingaboutMrGreenberg’suseofmurkyaccountingortheconflictsposedbyhisuseofoffshorevehiclesorhisconstantbullyingofhiscriticsletalonethefirm’sallegedparticipationinbid-rigging--untilMrSpitzerthreatenedacriminalprosecutionthatmighthavedestroyedthefirm. Fromthepassagewegettoknowthat
[A]TheNeedforScience[B]TheMethodsofScience[C]TheChallengeofUnsolvedProblems[D]TheSpecificFeaturesoftheLawsofScience[E]TheStepsinEstablishingaScientificTheory[F]TheRapidIncreaseofScientificKnowledgeItisthebusinessofthescientisttoaccumulateknowledgeabouttheuniverseandallthatisinitandtofindifheisablecommonfactorswhichunderlieandaccountforthefactsthatheknows.Hechooseswhenhecanthemethodofthecontrolledexperiment.41.____________Inthecourseofhisinquiriesthescientistmayfindwhathethinksisonecommonexplanationforanincreasingnumberoffacts.Theexplanationifitseemsconsistentlytofitthevariousfactsiscalledahypothesis.Ifahypothesiscontinuestostandthetestofnumerousexperimentsandremainsunshakenitbecomesalaw.42.____________Thelawsofsciencedifferfromthelawsofacountryintwoways.Firstascientificlawisliableatanytimetoneedmodifying.Thishappenswhenafactisdiscoveredwhichseemstocontradictwhatthelawwouldleadonetoexpect.Thelawmayinfacthavetobeabandonedaltogether.SecondascientificlawsaysThisislikelytobetheexplanationorThisaccountsforthefactsasfarasweknowthem.ButthelawofthecountrysaysYoumust...’orYoumustnot...Thescientificlaw’hasnomoralforce;itisnotbindingonhumanbehaviornorapprovedoropposedbyhumanconscience.43.____________Theevidenceastothevastnessoftheuniverseandthecomplexityofitsarrangementscontinuestogrowatanamazingrate.Thegapbetweenwhatweknowandallthatcanbeknownseemsnottodiminishbutrathertoincreasewitheverynewdiscovery.Freshunexploredregionsareforeveropeningout.Therapidityofthegrowthofscientificknowledgeinthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturiesisapttogivestudentsandteacherstheimpressionthatnosoonerisaproblemstatedthantheanswerisforthcoming.Amoredetailedstudyofthehistoryofsciencecorrectstheimpressionthatfundamentaldiscoveriesaremadewithdramaticsuddenness.Eveninourpresentagenolessthanfiftyyearsseparatethediscoveryofradioactivityfromtheexplosionofthefirstatomicbomb.Theteachergivinghisbriefaccountsofscientificdiscoveryisapttoforgetthelongperiodsofmisunderstandingoffalsehypothesesandgeneraluncertaintywhichalmostinvariablyprecedetheclearstatementofscientifictruth.44.____________Thevastmassofinformationwhichscientistshavegainedhasprovidedtheanswertothefundamentalquestionswhichthroughthecenturieshavepuzzledandsometimestorturedthehumanmind.Therearemanysuchquestions.Thestudyofparasiteshasprovidedevidencethatorganismswhichcouldbeself-supportinghavebecomeparasitesbuthardlyanylighthasbeenshedontheproblemofwhytheyshouldhavedoneso.Whatenablesanorganismtorespondtothepoisonoussecretionsofharmfulbacteriaandorganizeitsresourcestodefenditslife...45.____________Toraisethestandardoflivinginanycountrytwothingsarerequired:scientificknowledgeandapopulationsufficientlyeducatedtounderstandhowtoapplyit.Withoutthelattertheexpectedbenefitswillnotcome.Notes:ado麻烦忙乱bebindingon对......有约束力parasite寄生虫shedlighton使某事物更清楚些secretion分泌物
Amysteriousblackcloudapproachestheearth--ourplanet’sweatherisseverelyaffected.ThroughouttherestofJuneandJulytemperaturesrosesteadilyallovertheEarth.IntheBritishIslesthetemperatureclimbedthroughtheeightiesintotheninetiesandmovedtowardsthehundredmark.Peoplecomplainedbuttherewasnoseriousdisaster.ThedeathnumberintheU.S.remainedquitesmallthankslargelytotheair-conditioningunitsthathadbeenfittedduringpreviousyearsandmonths.Temperaturesrosetothelimitofhumanendurancethroughoutthewholecountryandpeoplewereobligedtoremainindoorsforweeksonend.Occasionallyair-conditioningunitsfailedanditwasthenthatfatalitiesoccurred.Conditionswereutterlydesperatethroughoutthetropicsasmaybejudgedfromthefactthat7943speciesofplantsandanimalsbecametotallyextinct.Thesurvivalofmanhimselfwasonlypossiblebecauseofthecavesandcellarshewasabletodig.Nothingcouldbedonetoreducethehotairtemperature.Morethansevenhundredmillionpersonsareknowntohavelosttheirlives.Eventuallythetemperatureofthesurfacewatersofthesearosenotsofastastheairtemperatureitistruebutfastenoughtoproduceadangerousincreaseofhumidity.Itwasindeedthisincreasethatproducedthedisastrousconditionsjustremarked.MillionsofpeoplebetweenthelatitudesofCairoandtheCapeofGoodHopeweresubjectedtoachokingatmospherethatgrewdamperandhotterfromdaytoday.Allhumanmovementsceased.Therewasnothingtobedonebuttoliebreathingquicklyasadogdoesinhotweather.BythefourthweekofJulyconditionsinthetropicslaybalancedbetweenlifeandtotaldeath.Thenquitesuddenlyraincloudsappearedoverthewholeglobe.Thetemperaturedeclinedalittleduenodoubttothecloudsreflectingmoreofthesun’sradiationbackintospacebutconditionscouldnotbesaidtohaveimproved.WarmrainfelleverywhereevenasfavorableasIceland.Theinsectpopulationincreasedenormouslysincetheburninghotatmospherewasasfavorabletothemasitwasunfavorabletomanandmanyotheranimals.BythefourthweekofJulyconditionsinthetropicsweresuchthat______.
1yoursincerecongratulations 2yourbestwishestohimorher. Youshouldwriteabout100wordsonANSWERSHEET2.Donotsignyourownnameattheendoftheletter.Use"LiMing"instead.Donotwritetheaddress.
Asmorepeopleliveclosertogetherandastheyusemachinestoproduceleisuretheyfindthattheirleisureandeventheirworkinghoursbecomespoiltbyaby-productoftheirmachines--namelynoise.Noiseisnowadaysinthenews;ithasacquiredpoliticalstatusandpublicopinionsaredemandingmoreandmoreinsistentlythatsomethingmustbedoneaboutit.46Tocontrolnoiseistodemandmuchself-disciplineannoyancearisesoftenfromlackofcommoncourtesyasenseofproportionthereisusuallyaconflictofinterestifanoiseistobestoppedtheexpenditureofmoneyanditisfarmoreeconomicaltodothisearlyratherthanlateandfinallytechnicalknowledge.Technicaldifficultiesoftenarisefromthesubjective-objectivenatureoftheproblem.Youcandefinetheexcessivespeedofamotor-carintermsofapointerreadingonaspeedometer.Butcanyoudefineexcessivenoiseinthesameway47Youfindthatwithanyexistingsimplenoise-metervehicleswhicharejudgedtobeequallynoisymayshowconsiderabledifferenceonthemeter.Thoughtheidealcurefornoiseistostopitatitssourcethismayinmanycasesbeimpossible.Thenextremedyistoabsorbitonthewaytotheear.48Domesticnoisesmayperhapsbecontrolledbyforethoughtandcourtesyandindustrialnoisesbygoodplanningandtechnicalimprovement.Butifwearegoingtoallowfastmotor-cyclesandheavydiesellorriestopasscontinuouslythroughresidentialandbusinessdistrictsthecommunitymustdecideonthecontrolitneedstoexerciseforinthelongrunithasgottopayforit.49Andifanationistotakepartinmodernairtransportitmustenterintointernationalagreementsonthenoisecontrolmeasuresitwillimposeatitsairports-andherethecostofanyrealcontrolistobemeasuredinmillionsofdollars.Jetenginesmaybemodifiedtoreducetheirnoiselevelorinsulationfromairtrafficnoisemaybeprovidedbythepurchaseoflandaroundairportsortheinsulationofbuildings.50Oneestimateisthat＄5.7billionwouldberequiredtoequipallexistingjetengineswithnoisecontroldevices;howeverconsideringthecurrentstateofthearteventakingthisstepwillnotreducenoiselevelsatallpointstoacceptablevalues.Somecombinationofmethodsisprobablynecessary.
Thewillingnessofdoctorsatseveralmajormedicalcenterstoapologize.topatientsforharmfulerrorsisapromisingsteptowardimprovingtheratherdisappointingqualityofamedicalsystemthatkillstensofthousandsofinnocentpatientsayearinadvertently.Foryearsexpertshavelamentedthatmedicalmalpracticelitigationisaninefficientwaytodeterlethalordamagingmedicalerrors.Whattheynoticedsimplyputitisthatmostvictimsofmalpracticeneversueandthereissomeevidencethatmanypatientswhodosuewerenotharmedbyaphysician’serrorbutinsteadsufferedanadversemedicaloutcomethatcouldnothavebeenprevented.Thedetailsofwhatwentwrongareoftenkeptsecretaspartofasettlementagreement.Whatisneededmanyspecialistsagreeisasystemthatquicklybringsanerrortolightsothatfurthererrorscanbeheadedoffandthatcompensatesvictimspromptlyandfairly.Manydoctorsunfortunatelyhavebeenafraidthatadmittinganddescribingtheirerrorswouldonlyinviteacostlylawsuit.NowasdescribedbyKevinSackinTheTimesahandfulofprominentacademicmedicalcentershaveadoptedanewpolicyofpromptlydisclosingerrorsofferingearnestapologiesandprovidingfaircompensation.Itappearstosatisfymanypatientsreducelegalcostsandthelitigationburdenandinsomeinstanceshelpsreducemalpracticepremiums.HerearesomeexamplesfromcollegesoftheUnitedStates:attheUniversityofIllinoisof37caseswherethehospitalacknowledgedapreventableerrorandapologizedonlyonepatientfiledsuit;attheUniversityofMichiganHealthSystemexistingclaimsandlawsuitsdroppedfrom262inAugust2001to83inAugust2007andlegalcostsfellbytwo-thirds.Toencouragegreatercandormorethan30stateshaveenactedlawsmakingapologiesformedicalerrorsinadmissibleincourt.Thatsoundslikeasensiblestepthatshouldbeadoptedbyotherstatesorbecomefederallaw.Suchlawscouldhelpbringmoreerrorstolight.Patientswhohavebeenharmedbynegligentdoctorscanstillsueformalpracticeusingotherevidencetomaketheircase.Admittingerrorsisonlythefirststeptowardreformingthehealthcaresystemsothatfarfewermistakesaremade.Butreformscanbemoreeffectiveifdoctorsarecandidabouthowtheywentastray.Patientsseemfarlessangrywhentheyreceivean.honestexplanationanapologyandpromptfaircompensationfortheharmtheyhavesuffered.Whichofthefollowingistrueaccordingtothefirsttwoparagraphs
Directions: Yougotaninvitationtotakepartinaparty.Writeadecliningletterwhichshouldinclude: 1thepurposeofwritingthisletter; 2thereasonsforyourabsence; 3yourgoodwishestotheparticipants. Youshouldwriteabout100words.Donotsignyourownnameattheendoftheletter.Use"LiMing"instead.Youdonotneedtowritetheaddress.
[A]TheNeedforScience[B]TheMethodsofScience[C]TheChallengeofUnsolvedProblems[D]TheSpecificFeaturesoftheLawsofScience[E]TheStepsinEstablishingaScientificTheory[F]TheRapidIncreaseofScientificKnowledgeItisthebusinessofthescientisttoaccumulateknowledgeabouttheuniverseandallthatisinitandtofindifheisablecommonfactorswhichunderlieandaccountforthefactsthatheknows.Hechooseswhenhecanthemethodofthecontrolledexperiment.41.____________Inthecourseofhisinquiriesthescientistmayfindwhathethinksisonecommonexplanationforanincreasingnumberoffacts.Theexplanationifitseemsconsistentlytofitthevariousfactsiscalledahypothesis.Ifahypothesiscontinuestostandthetestofnumerousexperimentsandremainsunshakenitbecomesalaw.42.____________Thelawsofsciencedifferfromthelawsofacountryintwoways.Firstascientificlawisliableatanytimetoneedmodifying.Thishappenswhenafactisdiscoveredwhichseemstocontradictwhatthelawwouldleadonetoexpect.Thelawmayinfacthavetobeabandonedaltogether.SecondascientificlawsaysThisislikelytobetheexplanationorThisaccountsforthefactsasfarasweknowthem.ButthelawofthecountrysaysYoumust...’orYoumustnot...Thescientificlaw’hasnomoralforce;itisnotbindingonhumanbehaviornorapprovedoropposedbyhumanconscience.43.____________Theevidenceastothevastnessoftheuniverseandthecomplexityofitsarrangementscontinuestogrowatanamazingrate.Thegapbetweenwhatweknowandallthatcanbeknownseemsnottodiminishbutrathertoincreasewitheverynewdiscovery.Freshunexploredregionsareforeveropeningout.Therapidityofthegrowthofscientificknowledgeinthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturiesisapttogivestudentsandteacherstheimpressionthatnosoonerisaproblemstatedthantheanswerisforthcoming.Amoredetailedstudyofthehistoryofsciencecorrectstheimpressionthatfundamentaldiscoveriesaremadewithdramaticsuddenness.Eveninourpresentagenolessthanfiftyyearsseparatethediscoveryofradioactivityfromtheexplosionofthefirstatomicbomb.Theteachergivinghisbriefaccountsofscientificdiscoveryisapttoforgetthelongperiodsofmisunderstandingoffalsehypothesesandgeneraluncertaintywhichalmostinvariablyprecedetheclearstatementofscientifictruth.44.____________Thevastmassofinformationwhichscientistshavegainedhasprovidedtheanswertothefundamentalquestionswhichthroughthecenturieshavepuzzledandsometimestorturedthehumanmind.Therearemanysuchquestions.Thestudyofparasiteshasprovidedevidencethatorganismswhichcouldbeself-supportinghavebecomeparasitesbuthardlyanylighthasbeenshedontheproblemofwhytheyshouldhavedoneso.Whatenablesanorganismtorespondtothepoisonoussecretionsofharmfulbacteriaandorganizeitsresourcestodefenditslife...45.____________Toraisethestandardoflivinginanycountrytwothingsarerequired:scientificknowledgeandapopulationsufficientlyeducatedtounderstandhowtoapplyit.Withoutthelattertheexpectedbenefitswillnotcome.Notes:ado麻烦忙乱bebindingon对......有约束力parasite寄生虫shedlighton使某事物更清楚些secretion分泌物
ThehistoryofAfrican—Americansduringthepast400yearsistraditionallynarrated1anongoingstruggleagainst2andindifferenceonthepartoftheAmericanmainstreamandastruggle3asanupwardmovementis4towardevermorejusticeandopportunity. Technologyinandof5isnotatfault;it’smuchtoosimpletosaythatgunpowderoragriculturalmachineryorfiberoptics6beentheenemyofan7groupofpeople.Acertainmachineisput8workinacertainway—thepurpose9whichitwasdesigned.Thepeoplewhodesignthemachinesarenotintentonunleashingchaos;theyareusuallytryingto10ataskmorequicklycleanlyorcheaply11theimperativeofinnovationandefficiencythathasruledWesterncivilization12theRenaissance. Masteryoftechnologyissecondonly13moneyasthetruemeasureofaccomplishmentinthiscountryanditisverylikelythatby14thisunder-representationinthetechnologicalrealmandbynotquestioningandexaminingthefolkwaysthathave15itblacksareallowing.16tobekeptoutofthemainstreamonceagain.Thistimehowevertheywillbe17fromthegreatestcashengineofthetwenty-firstcentury.Inner-cityblacksinparticularareindangerandthebeautifulsuburbs18ringthedecayofHartfordshedthepastandlearntoexistwithoutcontemplatingorencounteringthetragedyoftheinnercity. Andblacksmustchangeaswell.Thewaysthat19theirancestorsthroughcaptivityandcomingtofreedomhavebeguntoloosetheirutility.Ifblacks20tosurviveasfullparticipantsinthissocietytheyhavetounderstandwhatworksnow. 7
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