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学生在教学过程中的主体作用的最高表现形式是 ( )
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学生既是教育的对象又是教育过程中的主体学生主体作用的最高表现形式为
自觉性
独立性
主动性
创造性
学生既是教育的对象又是教育过程中发展的主体学生主体作用的最高表现形式为
自觉性
独立性
创造性
主动性
试论如何在教学过程中更好地发挥教师的主导作用和学生的主体作用
学生主体作用的最高表现形式是
自觉性
独立性
创造性
能动性
学生在教学过程中处于学习主体的地位应当充分发挥学生参与教学的主体能动作用
学生既是教育的对象又是教育的主体学生主体作用的最高表现形式是______
自学性
独立性
创造性
主动性
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Themajorityofpeopleaboutnineoutoftenareright-handed.1untilrecentlypeoplewhowereleft-handedwereconsidered2andoncechildrenshowedthistendencytheywereforcedtousetheirrighthands.Todayleft-handednessisgenerally3butitisstilladisadvantageinaworld4mostpeopleareright-handed.Forexamplemosttoolsandimplementsarestill5forright-handedpeople. Insports6contrastdoingthingswiththelefthandorfoot.isoftenanadvantage.Throwingkickingpunchingorbattingfromthe"7"sidemayresultinthrowing8manyopponentswhoaremoreaccustomedtodealingwiththe9ofplayerswhoareright-handed.Thisiswhyinmany10ataprofessionallevela11proportionofplayersareleft-handedthaninthepopulationasawhole. Theword"right"inmanylanguagesmeans"correct"oris12withlawfulnesswhereasthewordsassociated13"left"suchas"sinister"generallyhave14associations.Moreoveramonganumberofprimitivepeoplesthereis15closeassociationbetweendeathandthelefthand. Inthepastin16westernsocietieschildrenwereoftenforcedtousetheirrighthandsespeciallytowritewith.Insomecasesthelefthandwas17behindthechild’sbacksothatitcouldnotbeused.Ifinthefuturetheyareallowedtochoose18willcertainlybemoreleft-handersandprobably19peoplewithminorpsychologicaldisturbancesasaresultofbeingforcedtousetheir20hand. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.2
AstudybyscientistsinFinlandhasfoundthatmobilephoneradiationcancausechangesinhumancellsthatmightaffectthebraintheleaderoftheresearchteamsaid. ButDariusLeszczynskiwhoheadedthe2-yearstudyandwillpresentfindingsnextweekataconferenceinQuebecsaidmoreresearchwasneededtodeterminetheseriousnessofthechangesandtheirimpactonthebrainorthebody. ThestudyatFinland’sRadiationandNuclearSafetyAuthorityfoundthatexposuretoradiationfrommobilephonescancauseincreasedactivityinhundredsofproteinsinhumancellsgrowninalaboratoryhesaid. "Weknowthatthereissomebiologicalresponse.Wecandetectitwithourverysensitiveapproachesbutwedonotknowwhetheritcanhaveanyphysiologicaleffectsonthehumanbrainorhumanbody"Leszczynskisaid. NonethelessthestudytheinitialfindingsofwhichwerepublishedlastmonthinthescientificjournalDifferentiationraisesnewquestionsaboutwhethermobilephoneradiationcanweaker/thebrain’sprotectiveshieldagainstharmfulsubstances. Thestudyfocusedonchangesincellsthatlinebloodvesselsandonwhethersuchchangescouldweakenthefunctioningoftheblood-brainbarrierwhichpreventspotentiallyharmfulsubstancesfromenteringthebrainfromthebloodstreamLeszczynskisaid. Thestudyfoundthataproteincalledhsp27linkedtothefunctioningofthebloodbrainbarriershowedincreasedactivityduetoirradiationandpointedtoapossibilitythatsuchactivitycouldmaketheshieldmorepermeablehesaid. "Increasedproteinactivitymightcausecellstoshrink--notthebloodvesselsbutthecellsthemselves—andthentinygapscouldappearbetweenthosecellsthroughwhichsomemoleculescouldpass."hesaid. LeszczynskideclinedtospeculateonwhatkindofhealthrisksthatcouldposebutsaidaFrenchstudyindicatedthatheadachefatigueandsleepdisorderscouldresult. "Thesearenotlife-threateningproblemsbutcancausealotofdiscomfort"hesaidaddingthataSwedishgrouphadalsosuggestedapossiblelinkwithAlzheimer’sdisease. "WherethetruthisIdonotknow"hesaid. Leszczynskisaidthathehiswifeandchildrenusemobilephonesandhesaidthathedidnotthinkhisstudysuggestedanyneedfornewrestrictionsonmobilephoneuse. Accordingtothepassagewhatwouldbethefutureoftheuseofmobilephone
By1800abouthalfthepopulationofBrazilhadcomefromAfrica.SohadabouthalfthepopulationofVenezuela.SohadasmallerbutstilllargepartofallthepopulationofTrans-AtlanticrepublicswhetherinNorthCentralorSouthAfricaorintheCaribbeanislands.ItwasthesemenandwomenofAfricandescentconqueredthewildernessoftheAmericasclearingandworkingincountlessfarmsandplantationsfoundingandopeninginnumerableminesofironorpreciousmetals.HarshandpainfulasitwastheoverseasslavetradelikethenotmuchlesspainfulmovementofmillionsofhungryandjoblessmenandwomenfromEuropelaidthefoundationsofAmericanrepublics.TheseAfricansbeyondtheseashavetheirplaceinthestoryofAfricathestoryofWestAfricaforwhattheyattemptedandachievedwasalsoareflectionofthestrongandindependentcivilizationfromwhichtheycame.ConsiderforexampletheheroicandsuccessfulstruggleforindependenceconductedbytheslavesoftheCaribbeanlandofSt.Domingue.In1789atthemomentoftheFrenchRevolutionthisFrenchcolonyintheCaribbeanwasprobablythewealthiestcolonyintheworld.ItstensofthousandsofAfricanslave-workersproducedenormousquantitiesofsugarwholeEuropeancommunitieslivedofftheprofits. WhennewsoftheRevolutioninFrancereachedSt.Dominguetheseslavesclaimedtheirshareinitsidealsandbenefits.Theydemandedtheirfreedom.Whendeniedthistheyroseinrevoltagainsttheirmasters.InyearsofhardfightingagainstlargearmiessentbyFranceandafterwardsagainstlargearmiessentbyBritainthesemenofSt.DominguewontheirfreedomandfoundedtheRepublicofHaiti.Yetmorethanhalfthesesoldiersoffreedomhadmadethe"middlepassage"acrosstheAtlantic.MorethanhalfinotherwordshadbeenborninAfricahadspenttheirchildhoodinAfricaandhadlearnedinAfricatheirrespectforfreedom;whilenearlyalltherestwerethechildrenofparentsorgrandparentsborninAfrica.AndtheywereledbyAfricans:bymenofgeniusandcouragesuchasBoukmantheunforgettableToussaintLouvertureandDessalines. RaisedbyToussaintandhisAfricansthebanneroffreedomacrosstheAtlanticwascarriedfrompeopletopeople.Manythrewofftheirbondage.LargenumbersofmenofAfricanoriginfoughtinthearmiesthatmadetheUnitedStateswhattheyaretoday.ItwasageneralofAfricandescentAntonioMaceowholedthemilitarystruggleforCubanindependenceagainstSpainin1868. LikeothermenofvisionMaceohadnotimeforracismforthefalseideathatoneraceofmenisbetterorworsethananyother.SomeofthewhitesofCubadisagreedwithhim.TheywereSpanishsettlerswhothoughtthatwhitewasgoingtobebetterthanblackeveninanindependentCuba. OnedayMaceowasapproachedbyaSpanishCubanwhosuggestedthattheregimentsofindependencearmyshouldbedividedintowhitesandnon-whites.MaceomadehimareplywhichbecamefamousinCuba."Ifyouwerenotwhite"Maceosaidtothisman"Iwouldhaveyoushotonthespot.ButIdonotwishtobeaccusedofbeingracialistasyouareandsoIletyougobutwiththewarningthatIshallnotbesopatientanothertime.Therevolutionhasnocolor." ItcouldbeinferredthatthewriterthinksthatincomparisonwiththemovementofmillionsofhungryandjoblesspeoplefromEuropetheoverseasslavetradewas
Effectivecommunicationisessentialforallorganisations.ItlinkstheactivitiesofthevariouspartsoftheorganisationandensuresthateveryoneisworkingtowardsaCommongoal.Itisalsoextremelyimportantformotivatingemployees.Staffneedtoknowhowtheyaregettingonwhattheyaredoingrightandinwhichareastheycouldimprove.Workingalonecanbeextremelydifficultanditismucheasierifsomeonetakesaninterestandprovidessupport.Employeesneedtounderstandwhytheirjobisimportantandhowitcontributestotheoverallsuccessofthefirm.Personalcommunicationshouldalsoincludetargetsetting.Peopleusuallyrespondwelltogoalsprovidedtheseareagreedbetweenthemanagerandsubordinateandnotimposed. Howeverfirmsoftenhavecommunicationsproblemsthatcanunderminetheirperformance.Inmanycasestheseproblemsoccurbecausemessagesarepassedoninaninappropriateway.Thereareofcourseseveralwaysofconveyinginformationtoothersintheorganisation.Theseincludespeakingtothemdirectlye-mailingtelephoningorsendingamemo.Themostappropriatemethoddependsonwhatexactlyitisyouarecommunicating.Forexampleanythingthatisparticularlysensitiveorconfidentialsuchasanemployee’sappraisalshouldbedoneface-to-face. Oneofthemainproblemsforseniorexecutivesisthattheydonothavethetimeorresourcesneededtocommunicateeffectively.Inlargecompaniesforexampleitisimpossibleforseniormanagerstomeetanddiscussprogresswitheachemployeeindividually.Obviouslythistaskcanbedelegatedbutatthecostofcreatingagapbetweenseniormanagementandstaff.Asaresultmanagersareoftenforcedtouseothermethodsofcommunication.Likememosornoteseveniftheyknowthesearenotnecessarilythemostsuitablemeansofpassingonmessages. Theuseoftechnologysuchase-mailmobilephonesandnetworksystemisspeedingupcommunicationimmensely.Howeverthisdoesnotmeanthatmoreinvestmentintechnologyautomaticallyprovesbeneficialsystemscanbecomeoutdatedoremployeesmaylackappropriatetraining.Therearemanycommunicationstoolsnowavailablebutafirmcannotaffordallofthem.Evenifitcoulditdoesnotactuallyneedthemall.Thepotentialgainsmustbeweighedupagainstthecostsandfirmsshouldrealisethatmorecommunicationdoesnotnecessarilymeanbettercommunication. Asthenumberofpeopleinvolvedinanorganisationincreasetheuseofwrittencommunicationrisesevenfaster.Insteadofaquickconversationtosortsomethingoutnumerousmessagescanbepassedbackwardsandforwards.Thiscanleadtoatremendousamountofpaperworkandisoftenlesseffectivethanfacetofacecommunication.Whenyouareactuallytalkingtosomeoneyoucandiscussthingsuntilyouarehappytheyhaveunderstoodandfeedbackisimmediate.Withwrittenmessageshoweveryouareneverquitesurehowitwillbereceived.Whatyouthinkyouhavesaidandwhattheotherpersonthinksyouhavesaidcanbeverydifferent. Theamountofwritteninformationgeneratedinlargeorganisationstodaycanleadtocommunicationoverload.Somuchinformationisgatheredthatitgetsinthe-wayofmakingdecisions.Takealookattheaveragemanager’sdeskandyouwillseetheproblem—itisoftencoveredinlettersreportsandmemos.Thisoverloadcanleadtoinefficiencies.Forexamplemanagersmaynotbeabletofindtheinformationtheywantwhentheyneedit.Communicationisalsobecomingmoredifficultwiththechangesoccurringinemploymentpatterns.Withmorepeopleworkingpart-timeandworkingfromhomemanagingcommunicationisbecomingincreasinglycomplex. Accordingtothearticlewhatistheeffectofreceivinglargeamountsofwritteninformation
AstudybyscientistsinFinlandhasfoundthatmobilephoneradiationcancausechangesinhumancellsthatmightaffectthebraintheleaderoftheresearchteamsaid. ButDariusLeszczynskiwhoheadedthe2-yearstudyandwillpresentfindingsnextweekataconferenceinQuebecsaidmoreresearchwasneededtodeterminetheseriousnessofthechangesandtheirimpactonthebrainorthebody. ThestudyatFinland’sRadiationandNuclearSafetyAuthorityfoundthatexposuretoradiationfrommobilephonescancauseincreasedactivityinhundredsofproteinsinhumancellsgrowninalaboratoryhesaid. "Weknowthatthereissomebiologicalresponse.Wecandetectitwithourverysensitiveapproachesbutwedonotknowwhetheritcanhaveanyphysiologicaleffectsonthehumanbrainorhumanbody"Leszczynskisaid. NonethelessthestudytheinitialfindingsofwhichwerepublishedlastmonthinthescientificjournalDifferentiationraisesnewquestionsaboutwhethermobilephoneradiationcanweaker/thebrain’sprotectiveshieldagainstharmfulsubstances. Thestudyfocusedonchangesincellsthatlinebloodvesselsandonwhethersuchchangescouldweakenthefunctioningoftheblood-brainbarrierwhichpreventspotentiallyharmfulsubstancesfromenteringthebrainfromthebloodstreamLeszczynskisaid. Thestudyfoundthataproteincalledhsp27linkedtothefunctioningofthebloodbrainbarriershowedincreasedactivityduetoirradiationandpointedtoapossibilitythatsuchactivitycouldmaketheshieldmorepermeablehesaid. "Increasedproteinactivitymightcausecellstoshrink--notthebloodvesselsbutthecellsthemselves—andthentinygapscouldappearbetweenthosecellsthroughwhichsomemoleculescouldpass."hesaid. LeszczynskideclinedtospeculateonwhatkindofhealthrisksthatcouldposebutsaidaFrenchstudyindicatedthatheadachefatigueandsleepdisorderscouldresult. "Thesearenotlife-threateningproblemsbutcancausealotofdiscomfort"hesaidaddingthataSwedishgrouphadalsosuggestedapossiblelinkwithAlzheimer’sdisease. "WherethetruthisIdonotknow"hesaid. Leszczynskisaidthathehiswifeandchildrenusemobilephonesandhesaidthathedidnotthinkhisstudysuggestedanyneedfornewrestrictionsonmobilephoneuse. What’stheresultoftheFrenchstudy
Themajorityofpeopleaboutnineoutoftenareright-handed.1untilrecentlypeoplewhowereleft-handedwereconsidered2andoncechildrenshowedthistendencytheywereforcedtousetheirrighthands.Todayleft-handednessisgenerally3butitisstilladisadvantageinaworld4mostpeopleareright-handed.Forexamplemosttoolsandimplementsarestill5forright-handedpeople. Insports6contrastdoingthingswiththelefthandorfoot.isoftenanadvantage.Throwingkickingpunchingorbattingfromthe"7"sidemayresultinthrowing8manyopponentswhoaremoreaccustomedtodealingwiththe9ofplayerswhoareright-handed.Thisiswhyinmany10ataprofessionallevela11proportionofplayersareleft-handedthaninthepopulationasawhole. Theword"right"inmanylanguagesmeans"correct"oris12withlawfulnesswhereasthewordsassociated13"left"suchas"sinister"generallyhave14associations.Moreoveramonganumberofprimitivepeoplesthereis15closeassociationbetweendeathandthelefthand. Inthepastin16westernsocietieschildrenwereoftenforcedtousetheirrighthandsespeciallytowritewith.Insomecasesthelefthandwas17behindthechild’sbacksothatitcouldnotbeused.Ifinthefuturetheyareallowedtochoose18willcertainlybemoreleft-handersandprobably19peoplewithminorpsychologicaldisturbancesasaresultofbeingforcedtousetheir20hand. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.18
Themajorityofpeopleaboutnineoutoftenareright-handed.1untilrecentlypeoplewhowereleft-handedwereconsidered2andoncechildrenshowedthistendencytheywereforcedtousetheirrighthands.Todayleft-handednessisgenerally3butitisstilladisadvantageinaworld4mostpeopleareright-handed.Forexamplemosttoolsandimplementsarestill5forright-handedpeople. Insports6contrastdoingthingswiththelefthandorfoot.isoftenanadvantage.Throwingkickingpunchingorbattingfromthe"7"sidemayresultinthrowing8manyopponentswhoaremoreaccustomedtodealingwiththe9ofplayerswhoareright-handed.Thisiswhyinmany10ataprofessionallevela11proportionofplayersareleft-handedthaninthepopulationasawhole. Theword"right"inmanylanguagesmeans"correct"oris12withlawfulnesswhereasthewordsassociated13"left"suchas"sinister"generallyhave14associations.Moreoveramonganumberofprimitivepeoplesthereis15closeassociationbetweendeathandthelefthand. Inthepastin16westernsocietieschildrenwereoftenforcedtousetheirrighthandsespeciallytowritewith.Insomecasesthelefthandwas17behindthechild’sbacksothatitcouldnotbeused.Ifinthefuturetheyareallowedtochoose18willcertainlybemoreleft-handersandprobably19peoplewithminorpsychologicaldisturbancesasaresultofbeingforcedtousetheir20hand. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.16
[A]Humanhistorycontainsgreatstoriesthatcanhelpusappreciatemoreaboutpastlife. [B]Thegreatachievementcanprovidemotivationforlearners. [C]Makingusmorehumanmorethananythingelseisthepurposeofstudyinghistory. [D]Learninghistorycanleadamorecolorfullife. [E]Historycantelluswhenweshouldgiveup. [F]Historycanteachusalessonfromitsmistakes. Thespeakerallegesthatstudyinghistoryisvaluableonlyinsofarasitisrelevanttoourdailylives.Ifindthisallegationtobespecious.Itwronglysuggeststhathistoryisnototherwiseinstructiveandthatitsrelevancetooureverydaylivesislimited.Tothecontrarystudyinghistoryprovidesinspirationinnumerablelessonsforlivingandusefulvalueclarificationandperspective—allofwhichhelpusdecidehowtoliveourlives. 41.______ Tobeginwithlearningaboutgreathumanachievementsofthepastprovidesinspiration.Forexampleastudentinspiredbythecourageandtenacityofhistory’sgreatexplorersmightdecideasaresulttopursueacareerinarcheologyoceanographyorastronomy.Thisdecisioncaninturnprofoundlyaffectthatstudent’severydaylife—inschoolandbeyond.Evenforstudentsnotinclinedtopursuethesesortsofcareersstudyinghistoricalexamplesofcourageinthefaceofadversitycanprovidemotivationtofacetheirownpersonalfearsinlife.Inshortlearningaboutgrandaccomplishmentsofthepastcanhelpusgetthroughtheeverydaybusinessoflivingwhateverthatbusinessmightbebyemboldeningusandliftingourspirits. 42.______ Inadditionmistakesofthepastcanteachusasasocietyhowtoavoidrepeatingthosemistakes.Forexamplehistorycanteachustheinappropriatenessofaddressingcertainsocialissuesparticularlymoralonesonasocietallevel.AttemptstolegislatemoralityinvariablyfailasaptlyillustratedbytheProhibitionexperimentintheU.S.duringthe1930s.Hopefullyasasocietywecanapplythislessonbyadoptingamoreenlightenedlegislativeapproachtowardsuchissuesasfreespeechcriminalizationofdrugusecriminaljusticeandequalrightsunderthelaw. 43.______ Studyinghumanhistorycanalsohelpusunderstandandappreciatethemoresvaluesandidealsofpastcultures.Aheightenedawarenessofculturalevolutioninturnhelpsusformulateinformedandreflectivevaluesandidealsforourselves.Basedonthesevaluesandidealsstudentscandeterminetheirauthenticlifepathaswellashowtheyshouldallottheirtimeandinteractwithothersonaday-to-daybasis. 44.______ Finallyitmightbetemptingtoimplyfromthespeaker’sallegationthatstudyinghistoryhaslittlerelevanceevenforthemundanechoresthatoccupysomuchofourtimeeachdayandthereforeisoflittlevalue.Howeverfromhistorywelearnnottotakeeverydayactivitiesandthingsforgranted.Byunderstandingthehistoryofmoneyandbankingwecantransformanotherwiseroutinetriptothebankintoanenlightenedexperienceoravisittothegrocerystoreintoanhomagetothemanyinventorsscientistsengineersandentrepreneursofthepastwhohavemadesuchconveniencepossibletoday.Andwecanfullyappreciateourfreedomtogoaboutourdaffyliveslargelyaswechooseonlybyunderstandingourpoliticalheritage.Inshortappreciatinghistorycanservetoelevateoureverydaychorestorichermoreinterestingandmoreenjoyableexperiences. 45.______ Insumthespeakerfailstorecognizethatinallouractivitiesanddecisions--fromourgrandesttoourmostrote--historycaninspireinformguideandnurture.Inthefinalanalysistostudyhistoryistogainthecapacitytobemorehuman--andIwouldbehard-pressedtoimagineaworthierend. 44
Effectivecommunicationisessentialforallorganisations.ItlinkstheactivitiesofthevariouspartsoftheorganisationandensuresthateveryoneisworkingtowardsaCommongoal.Itisalsoextremelyimportantformotivatingemployees.Staffneedtoknowhowtheyaregettingonwhattheyaredoingrightandinwhichareastheycouldimprove.Workingalonecanbeextremelydifficultanditismucheasierifsomeonetakesaninterestandprovidessupport.Employeesneedtounderstandwhytheirjobisimportantandhowitcontributestotheoverallsuccessofthefirm.Personalcommunicationshouldalsoincludetargetsetting.Peopleusuallyrespondwelltogoalsprovidedtheseareagreedbetweenthemanagerandsubordinateandnotimposed. Howeverfirmsoftenhavecommunicationsproblemsthatcanunderminetheirperformance.Inmanycasestheseproblemsoccurbecausemessagesarepassedoninaninappropriateway.Thereareofcourseseveralwaysofconveyinginformationtoothersintheorganisation.Theseincludespeakingtothemdirectlye-mailingtelephoningorsendingamemo.Themostappropriatemethoddependsonwhatexactlyitisyouarecommunicating.Forexampleanythingthatisparticularlysensitiveorconfidentialsuchasanemployee’sappraisalshouldbedoneface-to-face. Oneofthemainproblemsforseniorexecutivesisthattheydonothavethetimeorresourcesneededtocommunicateeffectively.Inlargecompaniesforexampleitisimpossibleforseniormanagerstomeetanddiscussprogresswitheachemployeeindividually.Obviouslythistaskcanbedelegatedbutatthecostofcreatingagapbetweenseniormanagementandstaff.Asaresultmanagersareoftenforcedtouseothermethodsofcommunication.Likememosornoteseveniftheyknowthesearenotnecessarilythemostsuitablemeansofpassingonmessages. Theuseoftechnologysuchase-mailmobilephonesandnetworksystemisspeedingupcommunicationimmensely.Howeverthisdoesnotmeanthatmoreinvestmentintechnologyautomaticallyprovesbeneficialsystemscanbecomeoutdatedoremployeesmaylackappropriatetraining.Therearemanycommunicationstoolsnowavailablebutafirmcannotaffordallofthem.Evenifitcoulditdoesnotactuallyneedthemall.Thepotentialgainsmustbeweighedupagainstthecostsandfirmsshouldrealisethatmorecommunicationdoesnotnecessarilymeanbettercommunication. Asthenumberofpeopleinvolvedinanorganisationincreasetheuseofwrittencommunicationrisesevenfaster.Insteadofaquickconversationtosortsomethingoutnumerousmessagescanbepassedbackwardsandforwards.Thiscanleadtoatremendousamountofpaperworkandisoftenlesseffectivethanfacetofacecommunication.Whenyouareactuallytalkingtosomeoneyoucandiscussthingsuntilyouarehappytheyhaveunderstoodandfeedbackisimmediate.Withwrittenmessageshoweveryouareneverquitesurehowitwillbereceived.Whatyouthinkyouhavesaidandwhattheotherpersonthinksyouhavesaidcanbeverydifferent. Theamountofwritteninformationgeneratedinlargeorganisationstodaycanleadtocommunicationoverload.Somuchinformationisgatheredthatitgetsinthe-wayofmakingdecisions.Takealookattheaveragemanager’sdeskandyouwillseetheproblem—itisoftencoveredinlettersreportsandmemos.Thisoverloadcanleadtoinefficiencies.Forexamplemanagersmaynotbeabletofindtheinformationtheywantwhentheyneedit.Communicationisalsobecomingmoredifficultwiththechangesoccurringinemploymentpatterns.Withmorepeopleworkingpart-timeandworkingfromhomemanagingcommunicationisbecomingincreasinglycomplex. Accordingtothewriterthebestwayofachievingeffectivecommunicationisto
Themajorityofpeopleaboutnineoutoftenareright-handed.1untilrecentlypeoplewhowereleft-handedwereconsidered2andoncechildrenshowedthistendencytheywereforcedtousetheirrighthands.Todayleft-handednessisgenerally3butitisstilladisadvantageinaworld4mostpeopleareright-handed.Forexamplemosttoolsandimplementsarestill5forright-handedpeople. Insports6contrastdoingthingswiththelefthandorfoot.isoftenanadvantage.Throwingkickingpunchingorbattingfromthe"7"sidemayresultinthrowing8manyopponentswhoaremoreaccustomedtodealingwiththe9ofplayerswhoareright-handed.Thisiswhyinmany10ataprofessionallevela11proportionofplayersareleft-handedthaninthepopulationasawhole. Theword"right"inmanylanguagesmeans"correct"oris12withlawfulnesswhereasthewordsassociated13"left"suchas"sinister"generallyhave14associations.Moreoveramonganumberofprimitivepeoplesthereis15closeassociationbetweendeathandthelefthand. Inthepastin16westernsocietieschildrenwereoftenforcedtousetheirrighthandsespeciallytowritewith.Insomecasesthelefthandwas17behindthechild’sbacksothatitcouldnotbeused.Ifinthefuturetheyareallowedtochoose18willcertainlybemoreleft-handersandprobably19peoplewithminorpsychologicaldisturbancesasaresultofbeingforcedtousetheir20hand. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.8
Themajorityofpeopleaboutnineoutoftenareright-handed.1untilrecentlypeoplewhowereleft-handedwereconsidered2andoncechildrenshowedthistendencytheywereforcedtousetheirrighthands.Todayleft-handednessisgenerally3butitisstilladisadvantageinaworld4mostpeopleareright-handed.Forexamplemosttoolsandimplementsarestill5forright-handedpeople. Insports6contrastdoingthingswiththelefthandorfoot.isoftenanadvantage.Throwingkickingpunchingorbattingfromthe"7"sidemayresultinthrowing8manyopponentswhoaremoreaccustomedtodealingwiththe9ofplayerswhoareright-handed.Thisiswhyinmany10ataprofessionallevela11proportionofplayersareleft-handedthaninthepopulationasawhole. Theword"right"inmanylanguagesmeans"correct"oris12withlawfulnesswhereasthewordsassociated13"left"suchas"sinister"generallyhave14associations.Moreoveramonganumberofprimitivepeoplesthereis15closeassociationbetweendeathandthelefthand. Inthepastin16westernsocietieschildrenwereoftenforcedtousetheirrighthandsespeciallytowritewith.Insomecasesthelefthandwas17behindthechild’sbacksothatitcouldnotbeused.Ifinthefuturetheyareallowedtochoose18willcertainlybemoreleft-handersandprobably19peoplewithminorpsychologicaldisturbancesasaresultofbeingforcedtousetheir20hand. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.14
Themajorityofpeopleaboutnineoutoftenareright-handed.1untilrecentlypeoplewhowereleft-handedwereconsidered2andoncechildrenshowedthistendencytheywereforcedtousetheirrighthands.Todayleft-handednessisgenerally3butitisstilladisadvantageinaworld4mostpeopleareright-handed.Forexamplemosttoolsandimplementsarestill5forright-handedpeople. Insports6contrastdoingthingswiththelefthandorfoot.isoftenanadvantage.Throwingkickingpunchingorbattingfromthe"7"sidemayresultinthrowing8manyopponentswhoaremoreaccustomedtodealingwiththe9ofplayerswhoareright-handed.Thisiswhyinmany10ataprofessionallevela11proportionofplayersareleft-handedthaninthepopulationasawhole. Theword"right"inmanylanguagesmeans"correct"oris12withlawfulnesswhereasthewordsassociated13"left"suchas"sinister"generallyhave14associations.Moreoveramonganumberofprimitivepeoplesthereis15closeassociationbetweendeathandthelefthand. Inthepastin16westernsocietieschildrenwereoftenforcedtousetheirrighthandsespeciallytowritewith.Insomecasesthelefthandwas17behindthechild’sbacksothatitcouldnotbeused.Ifinthefuturetheyareallowedtochoose18willcertainlybemoreleft-handersandprobably19peoplewithminorpsychologicaldisturbancesasaresultofbeingforcedtousetheir20hand. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.10
Themajorityofpeopleaboutnineoutoftenareright-handed.1untilrecentlypeoplewhowereleft-handedwereconsidered2andoncechildrenshowedthistendencytheywereforcedtousetheirrighthands.Todayleft-handednessisgenerally3butitisstilladisadvantageinaworld4mostpeopleareright-handed.Forexamplemosttoolsandimplementsarestill5forright-handedpeople. Insports6contrastdoingthingswiththelefthandorfoot.isoftenanadvantage.Throwingkickingpunchingorbattingfromthe"7"sidemayresultinthrowing8manyopponentswhoaremoreaccustomedtodealingwiththe9ofplayerswhoareright-handed.Thisiswhyinmany10ataprofessionallevela11proportionofplayersareleft-handedthaninthepopulationasawhole. Theword"right"inmanylanguagesmeans"correct"oris12withlawfulnesswhereasthewordsassociated13"left"suchas"sinister"generallyhave14associations.Moreoveramonganumberofprimitivepeoplesthereis15closeassociationbetweendeathandthelefthand. Inthepastin16westernsocietieschildrenwereoftenforcedtousetheirrighthandsespeciallytowritewith.Insomecasesthelefthandwas17behindthechild’sbacksothatitcouldnotbeused.Ifinthefuturetheyareallowedtochoose18willcertainlybemoreleft-handersandprobably19peoplewithminorpsychologicaldisturbancesasaresultofbeingforcedtousetheir20hand. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.12
Cultureisthesumtotalofallthetraditionscustomsbeliefandwaysoflifeofagivengroupofhumanbeings.Inthissenseeverygrouphasaculturehoweversavageundevelopedoruncivilizeditmayseemtous. Totheprofessionalanthropologistthereisnointrinsicsuperiorityofonecultureoveranotherjustastotheprofessionallinguistthereisnointrinsichierarchyamonglanguages. Peopleoncethoughtofthelanguagesofbackwardgroupsassavageundevelopedformofspeechconsistinglargelyofgruntsandgroans.Whileitispossiblethatlanguageingeneralbeganasaseriesofgruntsandgroansitisafactestablishedbythestudyof"backward"languagesthatnospokentongueanswersthatdescriptiontoday.Mostlanguagesofuncivilizedgroupsarebyourmostseverestandardsextremelycomplexdelicateandingeniouspiecesofmachineryforthetransferofideas.Theyfallbehindthewesternlanguagesnotintheirsoundpatternsorgrammaticalstructureswhichusuallyarefullyadequateforalllanguageneedsbutonlyintheirvocabularieswhichreflecttheobjectsandactivitiesknowntotheirspeakers.Eveninthisdepartmenthowevertwothingsaretohenoted:1.Alllanguagesseemtopossessthemachineryforvocabularyexpansion;eitherbyputtingtogetherwordsalreadyinexistenceorbyborrowingthemfromotherlanguagesandadaptingthemtotheirownsystem.2.Theobjectsandactivitiesrequiringnamesanddistinctionsin"backward"languageswhiledifferentfromours;areoftensurprisinglynumerousandcomplicated.Awesternlanguagedistinguishesmerelybetweentwodegreesofremoteness"this"and"that";somelanguagesoftheAmericanIndiansdistinguishbetweenwhatisclosetothespeakerorthepersonaddressedorremotefrombothoroutofsightorinthepastorinthefuture. Thisstudyoflanguageinturncastsanewlightupontheclaimoftheanthropologiststhatallculturesaretoviewedindependentlyandwithoutideasofrankorhierarchy. Judgingfromthepassagetheauthormightbe
Researchersinvestigatingbrainsizeandmentalabilitysaytheirworkoffersevidencethateducationprotectsthemindfromthebrain’sphysicaldeterioration. 46isknownthatthebrainshrinksasthebodyagesbuttheeffectsonmentalabilityaredifferentfrompersontoperson.Interestinglyinastudyofelderlymenandwomenthosewhohadmoreeducationactuallyhadmorebrainshrinkage. "Thatmayseemlikebadnews"saidstudyauthorDr.EdwardCoffeyaprofessorofpsychiatryandofneurologyatHenryFordHealthSysteminDetroit. 47Howeverheexplainedthefindingsuggeststhateducationallowspeopletowithstandmorebraintissuelossbeforetheirmentalfunctioningbeginstobreakdown.. ThestudypublishedintheJulyissueofNeurologyisthefirsttoprovidebiologicalevidencetosupportaconceptcalledthe"reserve"hypothesisaccordingtotheresearchers.Inrecentyearsinvestigatorshavedevelopedtheideathatpeoplewhoaremoreeducatedhavegreatercognitivereservestodrawuponasthebrainages;inessencetheyhavemorebraintissuetospare. 48Examiningbrainscansof320healthymenandwomenaged66to90researchersfoundthatforeachyearofeducationthesubjectshadtherewasgreatershrinkageoftheouterlayerofthebrainknownasthecortex.Yetontestsofcognitionandmemoryallparticipantsscoredintherangeindicatingnormal. "Everyonehassomedegreeofbrainshrinkage"Coffeysaid."Peopleloseonaverage2.5percentperdecadestartinginadulthood." Thereishowevera"remarkablerange"ofshrinkageamongpeoplewhoshownosignsofmentaldeclineCoffeynoted.Overallhealthhesaidaccountsforsomedifferencesinbrainsize.Alcoholordruguseaswellasmedicalconditionssuchasdiabetesandhighbloodpressurecontributetobraintissuelossthroughoutadulthood. IntheabsenceofsuchmedicalconditionsCoffeysaideducationlevelhelpsexplaintherangeofbrainshrinkageexhibitedamongthementally-fitelderly.Themore-educatedcanwithstandgreaterloss. 49Coffeyandcolleaguesgaugedshrinkageofthecortexbymeasuringthecerebrospinalfluidsurroundingthebrain.Thegreatertheamountoffluidthegreaterthecorticalshrinkage. Controllingforthehealthfactorsthatcontributetobraininjurytheresearchersfoundthateducationwasrelatedtotheseverityofbrainshrinkage.Foreachyearofeducationfromfirstgradeonsubjectshadanaverageof1.77millilitersmorecerebrospinalfluidaroundthebrain.Justhoweducationmightaffectbraincellsisunknown. 50Intheirreporttheresearchersspeculatedthatinpeoplewithmoreeducationcertainbrainstructuresdeeperthanthecortexmaystayintacttocompensateforcorticalshrinkage. Examiningbrainscansof320healthymenandwomenaged66to90researchersfoundthatforeachyearofeducationthesubjectshadtherewasgreatershrinkageoftheouterlayerofthebrainknownasthecortex.
Themajorityofpeopleaboutnineoutoftenareright-handed.1untilrecentlypeoplewhowereleft-handedwereconsidered2andoncechildrenshowedthistendencytheywereforcedtousetheirrighthands.Todayleft-handednessisgenerally3butitisstilladisadvantageinaworld4mostpeopleareright-handed.Forexamplemosttoolsandimplementsarestill5forright-handedpeople. Insports6contrastdoingthingswiththelefthandorfoot.isoftenanadvantage.Throwingkickingpunchingorbattingfromthe"7"sidemayresultinthrowing8manyopponentswhoaremoreaccustomedtodealingwiththe9ofplayerswhoareright-handed.Thisiswhyinmany10ataprofessionallevela11proportionofplayersareleft-handedthaninthepopulationasawhole. Theword"right"inmanylanguagesmeans"correct"oris12withlawfulnesswhereasthewordsassociated13"left"suchas"sinister"generallyhave14associations.Moreoveramonganumberofprimitivepeoplesthereis15closeassociationbetweendeathandthelefthand. Inthepastin16westernsocietieschildrenwereoftenforcedtousetheirrighthandsespeciallytowritewith.Insomecasesthelefthandwas17behindthechild’sbacksothatitcouldnotbeused.Ifinthefuturetheyareallowedtochoose18willcertainlybemoreleft-handersandprobably19peoplewithminorpsychologicaldisturbancesasaresultofbeingforcedtousetheir20hand. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.4
Themajorityofpeopleaboutnineoutoftenareright-handed.1untilrecentlypeoplewhowereleft-handedwereconsidered2andoncechildrenshowedthistendencytheywereforcedtousetheirrighthands.Todayleft-handednessisgenerally3butitisstilladisadvantageinaworld4mostpeopleareright-handed.Forexamplemosttoolsandimplementsarestill5forright-handedpeople. Insports6contrastdoingthingswiththelefthandorfoot.isoftenanadvantage.Throwingkickingpunchingorbattingfromthe"7"sidemayresultinthrowing8manyopponentswhoaremoreaccustomedtodealingwiththe9ofplayerswhoareright-handed.Thisiswhyinmany10ataprofessionallevela11proportionofplayersareleft-handedthaninthepopulationasawhole. Theword"right"inmanylanguagesmeans"correct"oris12withlawfulnesswhereasthewordsassociated13"left"suchas"sinister"generallyhave14associations.Moreoveramonganumberofprimitivepeoplesthereis15closeassociationbetweendeathandthelefthand. Inthepastin16westernsocietieschildrenwereoftenforcedtousetheirrighthandsespeciallytowritewith.Insomecasesthelefthandwas17behindthechild’sbacksothatitcouldnotbeused.Ifinthefuturetheyareallowedtochoose18willcertainlybemoreleft-handersandprobably19peoplewithminorpsychologicaldisturbancesasaresultofbeingforcedtousetheir20hand. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.6
Themajorityofpeopleaboutnineoutoftenareright-handed.1untilrecentlypeoplewhowereleft-handedwereconsidered2andoncechildrenshowedthistendencytheywereforcedtousetheirrighthands.Todayleft-handednessisgenerally3butitisstilladisadvantageinaworld4mostpeopleareright-handed.Forexamplemosttoolsandimplementsarestill5forright-handedpeople. Insports6contrastdoingthingswiththelefthandorfoot.isoftenanadvantage.Throwingkickingpunchingorbattingfromthe"7"sidemayresultinthrowing8manyopponentswhoaremoreaccustomedtodealingwiththe9ofplayerswhoareright-handed.Thisiswhyinmany10ataprofessionallevela11proportionofplayersareleft-handedthaninthepopulationasawhole. Theword"right"inmanylanguagesmeans"correct"oris12withlawfulnesswhereasthewordsassociated13"left"suchas"sinister"generallyhave14associations.Moreoveramonganumberofprimitivepeoplesthereis15closeassociationbetweendeathandthelefthand. Inthepastin16westernsocietieschildrenwereoftenforcedtousetheirrighthandsespeciallytowritewith.Insomecasesthelefthandwas17behindthechild’sbacksothatitcouldnotbeused.Ifinthefuturetheyareallowedtochoose18willcertainlybemoreleft-handersandprobably19peoplewithminorpsychologicaldisturbancesasaresultofbeingforcedtousetheir20hand. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.20
[A]Humanhistorycontainsgreatstoriesthatcanhelpusappreciatemoreaboutpastlife. [B]Thegreatachievementcanprovidemotivationforlearners. [C]Makingusmorehumanmorethananythingelseisthepurposeofstudyinghistory. [D]Learninghistorycanleadamorecolorfullife. [E]Historycantelluswhenweshouldgiveup. [F]Historycanteachusalessonfromitsmistakes. Thespeakerallegesthatstudyinghistoryisvaluableonlyinsofarasitisrelevanttoourdailylives.Ifindthisallegationtobespecious.Itwronglysuggeststhathistoryisnototherwiseinstructiveandthatitsrelevancetooureverydaylivesislimited.Tothecontrarystudyinghistoryprovidesinspirationinnumerablelessonsforlivingandusefulvalueclarificationandperspective—allofwhichhelpusdecidehowtoliveourlives. 41.______ Tobeginwithlearningaboutgreathumanachievementsofthepastprovidesinspiration.Forexampleastudentinspiredbythecourageandtenacityofhistory’sgreatexplorersmightdecideasaresulttopursueacareerinarcheologyoceanographyorastronomy.Thisdecisioncaninturnprofoundlyaffectthatstudent’severydaylife—inschoolandbeyond.Evenforstudentsnotinclinedtopursuethesesortsofcareersstudyinghistoricalexamplesofcourageinthefaceofadversitycanprovidemotivationtofacetheirownpersonalfearsinlife.Inshortlearningaboutgrandaccomplishmentsofthepastcanhelpusgetthroughtheeverydaybusinessoflivingwhateverthatbusinessmightbebyemboldeningusandliftingourspirits. 42.______ Inadditionmistakesofthepastcanteachusasasocietyhowtoavoidrepeatingthosemistakes.Forexamplehistorycanteachustheinappropriatenessofaddressingcertainsocialissuesparticularlymoralonesonasocietallevel.AttemptstolegislatemoralityinvariablyfailasaptlyillustratedbytheProhibitionexperimentintheU.S.duringthe1930s.Hopefullyasasocietywecanapplythislessonbyadoptingamoreenlightenedlegislativeapproachtowardsuchissuesasfreespeechcriminalizationofdrugusecriminaljusticeandequalrightsunderthelaw. 43.______ Studyinghumanhistorycanalsohelpusunderstandandappreciatethemoresvaluesandidealsofpastcultures.Aheightenedawarenessofculturalevolutioninturnhelpsusformulateinformedandreflectivevaluesandidealsforourselves.Basedonthesevaluesandidealsstudentscandeterminetheirauthenticlifepathaswellashowtheyshouldallottheirtimeandinteractwithothersonaday-to-daybasis. 44.______ Finallyitmightbetemptingtoimplyfromthespeaker’sallegationthatstudyinghistoryhaslittlerelevanceevenforthemundanechoresthatoccupysomuchofourtimeeachdayandthereforeisoflittlevalue.Howeverfromhistorywelearnnottotakeeverydayactivitiesandthingsforgranted.Byunderstandingthehistoryofmoneyandbankingwecantransformanotherwiseroutinetriptothebankintoanenlightenedexperienceoravisittothegrocerystoreintoanhomagetothemanyinventorsscientistsengineersandentrepreneursofthepastwhohavemadesuchconveniencepossibletoday.Andwecanfullyappreciateourfreedomtogoaboutourdaffyliveslargelyaswechooseonlybyunderstandingourpoliticalheritage.Inshortappreciatinghistorycanservetoelevateoureverydaychorestorichermoreinterestingandmoreenjoyableexperiences. 45.______ Insumthespeakerfailstorecognizethatinallouractivitiesanddecisions--fromourgrandesttoourmostrote--historycaninspireinformguideandnurture.Inthefinalanalysistostudyhistoryistogainthecapacitytobemorehuman--andIwouldbehard-pressedtoimagineaworthierend. 42
Effectivecommunicationisessentialforallorganisations.ItlinkstheactivitiesofthevariouspartsoftheorganisationandensuresthateveryoneisworkingtowardsaCommongoal.Itisalsoextremelyimportantformotivatingemployees.Staffneedtoknowhowtheyaregettingonwhattheyaredoingrightandinwhichareastheycouldimprove.Workingalonecanbeextremelydifficultanditismucheasierifsomeonetakesaninterestandprovidessupport.Employeesneedtounderstandwhytheirjobisimportantandhowitcontributestotheoverallsuccessofthefirm.Personalcommunicationshouldalsoincludetargetsetting.Peopleusuallyrespondwelltogoalsprovidedtheseareagreedbetweenthemanagerandsubordinateandnotimposed. Howeverfirmsoftenhavecommunicationsproblemsthatcanunderminetheirperformance.Inmanycasestheseproblemsoccurbecausemessagesarepassedoninaninappropriateway.Thereareofcourseseveralwaysofconveyinginformationtoothersintheorganisation.Theseincludespeakingtothemdirectlye-mailingtelephoningorsendingamemo.Themostappropriatemethoddependsonwhatexactlyitisyouarecommunicating.Forexampleanythingthatisparticularlysensitiveorconfidentialsuchasanemployee’sappraisalshouldbedoneface-to-face. Oneofthemainproblemsforseniorexecutivesisthattheydonothavethetimeorresourcesneededtocommunicateeffectively.Inlargecompaniesforexampleitisimpossibleforseniormanagerstomeetanddiscussprogresswitheachemployeeindividually.Obviouslythistaskcanbedelegatedbutatthecostofcreatingagapbetweenseniormanagementandstaff.Asaresultmanagersareoftenforcedtouseothermethodsofcommunication.Likememosornoteseveniftheyknowthesearenotnecessarilythemostsuitablemeansofpassingonmessages. Theuseoftechnologysuchase-mailmobilephonesandnetworksystemisspeedingupcommunicationimmensely.Howeverthisdoesnotmeanthatmoreinvestmentintechnologyautomaticallyprovesbeneficialsystemscanbecomeoutdatedoremployeesmaylackappropriatetraining.Therearemanycommunicationstoolsnowavailablebutafirmcannotaffordallofthem.Evenifitcoulditdoesnotactuallyneedthemall.Thepotentialgainsmustbeweighedupagainstthecostsandfirmsshouldrealisethatmorecommunicationdoesnotnecessarilymeanbettercommunication. Asthenumberofpeopleinvolvedinanorganisationincreasetheuseofwrittencommunicationrisesevenfaster.Insteadofaquickconversationtosortsomethingoutnumerousmessagescanbepassedbackwardsandforwards.Thiscanleadtoatremendousamountofpaperworkandisoftenlesseffectivethanfacetofacecommunication.Whenyouareactuallytalkingtosomeoneyoucandiscussthingsuntilyouarehappytheyhaveunderstoodandfeedbackisimmediate.Withwrittenmessageshoweveryouareneverquitesurehowitwillbereceived.Whatyouthinkyouhavesaidandwhattheotherpersonthinksyouhavesaidcanbeverydifferent. Theamountofwritteninformationgeneratedinlargeorganisationstodaycanleadtocommunicationoverload.Somuchinformationisgatheredthatitgetsinthe-wayofmakingdecisions.Takealookattheaveragemanager’sdeskandyouwillseetheproblem—itisoftencoveredinlettersreportsandmemos.Thisoverloadcanleadtoinefficiencies.Forexamplemanagersmaynotbeabletofindtheinformationtheywantwhentheyneedit.Communicationisalsobecomingmoredifficultwiththechangesoccurringinemploymentpatterns.Withmorepeopleworkingpart-timeandworkingfromhomemanagingcommunicationisbecomingincreasinglycomplex. Whatadviceisgivenaboutthecommunicationtoolsmadeavailablebytechnology
Cultureisthesumtotalofallthetraditionscustomsbeliefandwaysoflifeofagivengroupofhumanbeings.Inthissenseeverygrouphasaculturehoweversavageundevelopedoruncivilizeditmayseemtous. Totheprofessionalanthropologistthereisnointrinsicsuperiorityofonecultureoveranotherjustastotheprofessionallinguistthereisnointrinsichierarchyamonglanguages. Peopleoncethoughtofthelanguagesofbackwardgroupsassavageundevelopedformofspeechconsistinglargelyofgruntsandgroans.Whileitispossiblethatlanguageingeneralbeganasaseriesofgruntsandgroansitisafactestablishedbythestudyof"backward"languagesthatnospokentongueanswersthatdescriptiontoday.Mostlanguagesofuncivilizedgroupsarebyourmostseverestandardsextremelycomplexdelicateandingeniouspiecesofmachineryforthetransferofideas.Theyfallbehindthewesternlanguagesnotintheirsoundpatternsorgrammaticalstructureswhichusuallyarefullyadequateforalllanguageneedsbutonlyintheirvocabularieswhichreflecttheobjectsandactivitiesknowntotheirspeakers.Eveninthisdepartmenthowevertwothingsaretohenoted:1.Alllanguagesseemtopossessthemachineryforvocabularyexpansion;eitherbyputtingtogetherwordsalreadyinexistenceorbyborrowingthemfromotherlanguagesandadaptingthemtotheirownsystem.2.Theobjectsandactivitiesrequiringnamesanddistinctionsin"backward"languageswhiledifferentfromours;areoftensurprisinglynumerousandcomplicated.Awesternlanguagedistinguishesmerelybetweentwodegreesofremoteness"this"and"that";somelanguagesoftheAmericanIndiansdistinguishbetweenwhatisclosetothespeakerorthepersonaddressedorremotefrombothoroutofsightorinthepastorinthefuture. Thisstudyoflanguageinturncastsanewlightupontheclaimoftheanthropologiststhatallculturesaretoviewedindependentlyandwithoutideasofrankorhierarchy. TheexampleofAmericanIndianlanguagesinthepassageistoillustratethat
By1800abouthalfthepopulationofBrazilhadcomefromAfrica.SohadabouthalfthepopulationofVenezuela.SohadasmallerbutstilllargepartofallthepopulationofTrans-AtlanticrepublicswhetherinNorthCentralorSouthAfricaorintheCaribbeanislands.ItwasthesemenandwomenofAfricandescentconqueredthewildernessoftheAmericasclearingandworkingincountlessfarmsandplantationsfoundingandopeninginnumerableminesofironorpreciousmetals.HarshandpainfulasitwastheoverseasslavetradelikethenotmuchlesspainfulmovementofmillionsofhungryandjoblessmenandwomenfromEuropelaidthefoundationsofAmericanrepublics.TheseAfricansbeyondtheseashavetheirplaceinthestoryofAfricathestoryofWestAfricaforwhattheyattemptedandachievedwasalsoareflectionofthestrongandindependentcivilizationfromwhichtheycame.ConsiderforexampletheheroicandsuccessfulstruggleforindependenceconductedbytheslavesoftheCaribbeanlandofSt.Domingue.In1789atthemomentoftheFrenchRevolutionthisFrenchcolonyintheCaribbeanwasprobablythewealthiestcolonyintheworld.ItstensofthousandsofAfricanslave-workersproducedenormousquantitiesofsugarwholeEuropeancommunitieslivedofftheprofits. WhennewsoftheRevolutioninFrancereachedSt.Dominguetheseslavesclaimedtheirshareinitsidealsandbenefits.Theydemandedtheirfreedom.Whendeniedthistheyroseinrevoltagainsttheirmasters.InyearsofhardfightingagainstlargearmiessentbyFranceandafterwardsagainstlargearmiessentbyBritainthesemenofSt.DominguewontheirfreedomandfoundedtheRepublicofHaiti.Yetmorethanhalfthesesoldiersoffreedomhadmadethe"middlepassage"acrosstheAtlantic.MorethanhalfinotherwordshadbeenborninAfricahadspenttheirchildhoodinAfricaandhadlearnedinAfricatheirrespectforfreedom;whilenearlyalltherestwerethechildrenofparentsorgrandparentsborninAfrica.AndtheywereledbyAfricans:bymenofgeniusandcouragesuchasBoukmantheunforgettableToussaintLouvertureandDessalines. RaisedbyToussaintandhisAfricansthebanneroffreedomacrosstheAtlanticwascarriedfrompeopletopeople.Manythrewofftheirbondage.LargenumbersofmenofAfricanoriginfoughtinthearmiesthatmadetheUnitedStateswhattheyaretoday.ItwasageneralofAfricandescentAntonioMaceowholedthemilitarystruggleforCubanindependenceagainstSpainin1868. LikeothermenofvisionMaceohadnotimeforracismforthefalseideathatoneraceofmenisbetterorworsethananyother.SomeofthewhitesofCubadisagreedwithhim.TheywereSpanishsettlerswhothoughtthatwhitewasgoingtobebetterthanblackeveninanindependentCuba. OnedayMaceowasapproachedbyaSpanishCubanwhosuggestedthattheregimentsofindependencearmyshouldbedividedintowhitesandnon-whites.MaceomadehimareplywhichbecamefamousinCuba."Ifyouwerenotwhite"Maceosaidtothisman"Iwouldhaveyoushotonthespot.ButIdonotwishtobeaccusedofbeingracialistasyouareandsoIletyougobutwiththewarningthatIshallnotbesopatientanothertime.Therevolutionhasnocolor." MaceodecidednottoshoottheSpanishCubanbecause
Researchersinvestigatingbrainsizeandmentalabilitysaytheirworkoffersevidencethateducationprotectsthemindfromthebrain’sphysicaldeterioration. 46isknownthatthebrainshrinksasthebodyagesbuttheeffectsonmentalabilityaredifferentfrompersontoperson.Interestinglyinastudyofelderlymenandwomenthosewhohadmoreeducationactuallyhadmorebrainshrinkage. "Thatmayseemlikebadnews"saidstudyauthorDr.EdwardCoffeyaprofessorofpsychiatryandofneurologyatHenryFordHealthSysteminDetroit. 47Howeverheexplainedthefindingsuggeststhateducationallowspeopletowithstandmorebraintissuelossbeforetheirmentalfunctioningbeginstobreakdown.. ThestudypublishedintheJulyissueofNeurologyisthefirsttoprovidebiologicalevidencetosupportaconceptcalledthe"reserve"hypothesisaccordingtotheresearchers.Inrecentyearsinvestigatorshavedevelopedtheideathatpeoplewhoaremoreeducatedhavegreatercognitivereservestodrawuponasthebrainages;inessencetheyhavemorebraintissuetospare. 48Examiningbrainscansof320healthymenandwomenaged66to90researchersfoundthatforeachyearofeducationthesubjectshadtherewasgreatershrinkageoftheouterlayerofthebrainknownasthecortex.Yetontestsofcognitionandmemoryallparticipantsscoredintherangeindicatingnormal. "Everyonehassomedegreeofbrainshrinkage"Coffeysaid."Peopleloseonaverage2.5percentperdecadestartinginadulthood." Thereishowevera"remarkablerange"ofshrinkageamongpeoplewhoshownosignsofmentaldeclineCoffeynoted.Overallhealthhesaidaccountsforsomedifferencesinbrainsize.Alcoholordruguseaswellasmedicalconditionssuchasdiabetesandhighbloodpressurecontributetobraintissuelossthroughoutadulthood. IntheabsenceofsuchmedicalconditionsCoffeysaideducationlevelhelpsexplaintherangeofbrainshrinkageexhibitedamongthementally-fitelderly.Themore-educatedcanwithstandgreaterloss. 49Coffeyandcolleaguesgaugedshrinkageofthecortexbymeasuringthecerebrospinalfluidsurroundingthebrain.Thegreatertheamountoffluidthegreaterthecorticalshrinkage. Controllingforthehealthfactorsthatcontributetobraininjurytheresearchersfoundthateducationwasrelatedtotheseverityofbrainshrinkage.Foreachyearofeducationfromfirstgradeonsubjectshadanaverageof1.77millilitersmorecerebrospinalfluidaroundthebrain.Justhoweducationmightaffectbraincellsisunknown. 50Intheirreporttheresearchersspeculatedthatinpeoplewithmoreeducationcertainbrainstructuresdeeperthanthecortexmaystayintacttocompensateforcorticalshrinkage. isknownthatthebrainshrinksasthebodyagesbuttheeffectsonmentalabilityaredifferentfrompersontoperson.
By1800abouthalfthepopulationofBrazilhadcomefromAfrica.SohadabouthalfthepopulationofVenezuela.SohadasmallerbutstilllargepartofallthepopulationofTrans-AtlanticrepublicswhetherinNorthCentralorSouthAfricaorintheCaribbeanislands.ItwasthesemenandwomenofAfricandescentconqueredthewildernessoftheAmericasclearingandworkingincountlessfarmsandplantationsfoundingandopeninginnumerableminesofironorpreciousmetals.HarshandpainfulasitwastheoverseasslavetradelikethenotmuchlesspainfulmovementofmillionsofhungryandjoblessmenandwomenfromEuropelaidthefoundationsofAmericanrepublics.TheseAfricansbeyondtheseashavetheirplaceinthestoryofAfricathestoryofWestAfricaforwhattheyattemptedandachievedwasalsoareflectionofthestrongandindependentcivilizationfromwhichtheycame.ConsiderforexampletheheroicandsuccessfulstruggleforindependenceconductedbytheslavesoftheCaribbeanlandofSt.Domingue.In1789atthemomentoftheFrenchRevolutionthisFrenchcolonyintheCaribbeanwasprobablythewealthiestcolonyintheworld.ItstensofthousandsofAfricanslave-workersproducedenormousquantitiesofsugarwholeEuropeancommunitieslivedofftheprofits. WhennewsoftheRevolutioninFrancereachedSt.Dominguetheseslavesclaimedtheirshareinitsidealsandbenefits.Theydemandedtheirfreedom.Whendeniedthistheyroseinrevoltagainsttheirmasters.InyearsofhardfightingagainstlargearmiessentbyFranceandafterwardsagainstlargearmiessentbyBritainthesemenofSt.DominguewontheirfreedomandfoundedtheRepublicofHaiti.Yetmorethanhalfthesesoldiersoffreedomhadmadethe"middlepassage"acrosstheAtlantic.MorethanhalfinotherwordshadbeenborninAfricahadspenttheirchildhoodinAfricaandhadlearnedinAfricatheirrespectforfreedom;whilenearlyalltherestwerethechildrenofparentsorgrandparentsborninAfrica.AndtheywereledbyAfricans:bymenofgeniusandcouragesuchasBoukmantheunforgettableToussaintLouvertureandDessalines. RaisedbyToussaintandhisAfricansthebanneroffreedomacrosstheAtlanticwascarriedfrompeopletopeople.Manythrewofftheirbondage.LargenumbersofmenofAfricanoriginfoughtinthearmiesthatmadetheUnitedStateswhattheyaretoday.ItwasageneralofAfricandescentAntonioMaceowholedthemilitarystruggleforCubanindependenceagainstSpainin1868. LikeothermenofvisionMaceohadnotimeforracismforthefalseideathatoneraceofmenisbetterorworsethananyother.SomeofthewhitesofCubadisagreedwithhim.TheywereSpanishsettlerswhothoughtthatwhitewasgoingtobebetterthanblackeveninanindependentCuba. OnedayMaceowasapproachedbyaSpanishCubanwhosuggestedthattheregimentsofindependencearmyshouldbedividedintowhitesandnon-whites.MaceomadehimareplywhichbecamefamousinCuba."Ifyouwerenotwhite"Maceosaidtothisman"Iwouldhaveyoushotonthespot.ButIdonotwishtobeaccusedofbeingracialistasyouareandsoIletyougobutwiththewarningthatIshallnotbesopatientanothertime.Therevolutionhasnocolor." TotheauthortheimportantthingabouttherevolutionofSt.Domingueisthat
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