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Last weekend, sportsmen and women of an unusually hardy disposition descended on Sherborne, a pre...
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Anewstudyfindsthatblacksondeathrow1ofkillingwhitesaremorelikelytobeexecutedthanwhiteswhokillminorities.Italsoconcludesthatblackswhokill2minoritiesare3likelytobeexecutedthanblackswhokillwhites.ForexamplethereismorethanatwofoldgreaterriskthatanAfrican-Americanwhokilledawhitewillbeexecutedthanawhitepersonwhokillsa4victim.AHispanicisatleast1.45morelikelytobeexecuted6suchanoffenderkillsawhite. Theresearchersofthestudybelievethattherearetwo7explanations..Firstprosecutorsoftenwin8officeiftheywinwell-publicizedcases.Whenablackkillsawhitesuchkillingsgetsmore9andthisideacanbe10bymanyfamouscases.11thecourtjudgesatthestatelevelareoften12toelectionscalledretentionelections.RetentionelectionorjudicialretentionwithintheUnitedStatescourtsystemisaperiodicprocessinwhichthevoter13approvalordisapprovalforthejudgespresently14theirpositionandajudgecanberemovedfromthepositionifthe15ofthecitizensvotehimorherout.Justastheresearchers16outdeathpenaltyis17political. ThefindingsofthestudyinshortshowthatAmericanjusticesystemsclearly18whitelivesmorethanthoseofblacksorHispanics.Theresearchersalsosaytheirfindings19seriousdoubtsabout20thattheU.S.criminaljusticesystemiscolorblind. 6
Itistrueasthemovementcriticsassertthatthepresentwomen’sliberationgroupsarealmostentirelybasedamong"middleclass"womenthatiscollegeandcareerwomen;andtheissuesofpsychologicalandsexualexploitationandtoalesserextentexploitationthroughconsumptionhavebeenthemostprominentones. Itisnotsurprisingthatthewomen’sliberationmovementshouldbeginamongbourgeoiswomenandshouldbedominatedinthebeginningbytheirconsciousnessandtheirparticularconcerns.Radicalwomenaregenerallythepostwarmiddleclassgenerationthatgrewupwiththerighttovotethechanceathighereducationandtrainingforsupportiverolesintheprofessionsandbusiness.Mostofthemareyoungandsophisticatedenoughtohavenotyethadchildrenanddonothavetomarrytosupportthemselves.Incomparisonwithmostwomentheyarecapableofacertainamountofcontrolovertheirlives. Thehigherdevelopmentofbourgeoisdemocraticsocietyallowsthewomenwhobenefitfromeducationandrelativeequalitytoseethecontradictionsbetweenitsrhetoriceverychildcanbecomepresidentandtheiractualplaceinthatsociety.Theworkingclasswomanmightbelievethateducationcouldhavemadeherfinanciallyindependentbuttheeducatedcareerwomanfindsthatmoneyhasnotmadeherindependent.Infactbecauseshehasbeenallowedtoprogresshalfwayontheupward-mobilityladdershecanseetherestofthedistancethatisdeniedheronlybecausesheisawoman.Shecanseethesimilaritybetweenheroppressionandthatofothersectionsofthepopulation.Thusfromtheirownexperienceradicalwomeninthemovementareawareofmorefaultsinthesocietythanracismandimperialism.Becausetheyhavepushedthedemocraticmythtoitslimitstheyknowconcretelyhowitlimitsthem. AtthesametimethatradicalwomenwerelearningaboutAmericansocietytheywerealsobecomingawareofthemalechauvinisminthemovement.Infactthatisusuallythecauseoftheirfirstconscious100verbalizationoftheprejudicetheyfeel;itismoredisillusioningtoknowthatthesamecontradictionexistsbetweenthemovement’srhetoricofequalityanditsrealityforweexpectmoreofourcomrades. Thisrealizationofthedeep-seatedprejudiceagainstthemselvesinthemovementproducestwocommonreactionsamongitswomen:1apreoccupationwiththisimmediatebarrierandperhapsaresultanthopelessnessand2atendencytoretreatinwardtobuythefool’sgoldofcreatingapersonallyliberatedlifestyle. Howeverourconceptofliberationrepresentsaconsciousnessthatconditionshaveforcedonuswhilemostofoursistersarechainedbyotherconditionsbiologicalandeconomicthatoverwhelmtheirhumanityanddesiresforself-fulfillment.Ourbackgroundaccountsforourignoranceaboutthestarkoppressionofwomen’sdailylives. ThebasicdifferencebetweenMiddleClasswomenandotherwomenintheliberationmovementisthat
Anewstudyfindsthatblacksondeathrow1ofkillingwhitesaremorelikelytobeexecutedthanwhiteswhokillminorities.Italsoconcludesthatblackswhokill2minoritiesare3likelytobeexecutedthanblackswhokillwhites.ForexamplethereismorethanatwofoldgreaterriskthatanAfrican-Americanwhokilledawhitewillbeexecutedthanawhitepersonwhokillsa4victim.AHispanicisatleast1.45morelikelytobeexecuted6suchanoffenderkillsawhite. Theresearchersofthestudybelievethattherearetwo7explanations..Firstprosecutorsoftenwin8officeiftheywinwell-publicizedcases.Whenablackkillsawhitesuchkillingsgetsmore9andthisideacanbe10bymanyfamouscases.11thecourtjudgesatthestatelevelareoften12toelectionscalledretentionelections.RetentionelectionorjudicialretentionwithintheUnitedStatescourtsystemisaperiodicprocessinwhichthevoter13approvalordisapprovalforthejudgespresently14theirpositionandajudgecanberemovedfromthepositionifthe15ofthecitizensvotehimorherout.Justastheresearchers16outdeathpenaltyis17political. ThefindingsofthestudyinshortshowthatAmericanjusticesystemsclearly18whitelivesmorethanthoseofblacksorHispanics.Theresearchersalsosaytheirfindings19seriousdoubtsabout20thattheU.S.criminaljusticesystemiscolorblind. 8
Foryearssmokershavebeenexhortedtotaketheinitiativeandquit:useanicotinepatchchewnicotinegumtakeaprescriptionmedicationthatcanhelpcallahelplinejustsayno.Butanewstudyfindsthatstoppingisseldomanindividualdecision.Smokerstendtoquitingroupsthestudyfindswhichmeanssmokingcessationprogramsshouldworkbestiftheyfocusongroupsratherthanindividuals.Italsomeansthatpeoplemayhelpmanymorethanjustthemselvesbyquitting:quittingcanhavearippleeffectpromptinganentiresocialnetworktobreakthehabit. ThestudybyDr.NicholasChristakisofHarvardMedicalSchoolandJamesFowleroftheUniversityofCaliforniaSanDiegofollowedthousandsofsmokersandnonsmokersfor32yearsfrom1971until2003studyingthemaspartofalargenetworkofrelativesco-workersneighborsfriendsandfriendsoffriends. ItwasatimewhenthepercentageofadultsmokersintheUnitedStatesfellto21percentfrom45percent.Astheinvestigatorswatchedthesmokersandtheirsocialnetworkstheysawwhattheysaidwasastrikingeffect—smokershadformedlittlesocialclustersandastheyearswentbyentireclustersofsmokerswerestoppingenmasse.Sowereclustersofclustersthatwereonlylooselyconnected.Dr.Christakisdescribedwatchingthevanishingclustersaslikelyingonyourbackinafieldlookingupatstarsthatwereburningout."It’snotlikeonelittlestarturningoffatatime"hesaid"Wholeconstellationsareblinkingoffatonce." Asclusterafterclusterofsmokersdisappearedthosethatremainedwerepushedtothemarginsofsocietyisolatedwithfewerfriendsfewersocialconnections."Smokersusedtobethecenteroftheparty"Dr.Fowlersaid"butnowthey’vebecomewallflowers.""We’veknownsmokingwasbadforyourphysicalhealth"hesaid"Butthisshowsitalsoisbadforyoursocialhealth.Smokersarelikelytodrivefriendsaway." "Thereisanessentialpublichealthmessage"saidRichardSuzmandirectoroftheofficeofbehavioralandsocialresearchattheNationalInstituteonAgingwhichfinancedthestudy."Obviouslypeoplehavetotakeresponsibilityfortheirbehavior"Mr.Suzmansaid."Butasocialenvironment"headded"canjustoverpowerfreewill."Withsmokingthatcanbeagoodthingresearchersnoted.Buttherealsoisasadside.AsDr.StevenSehroederoftheUniversityofCaliforniaSanFranciscopointedoutinaneditorialaccompanyingthepaper"ariskofthemarginalizationofsmokingisthatitfurtherisolatesthegroupofpeoplewiththehighestrateofsmoking—personswithmentalillnessproblemswithsubstanceabuseorboth. Whichofthefollowingwouldbethebesttitleforthetext
Anewstudyfindsthatblacksondeathrow1ofkillingwhitesaremorelikelytobeexecutedthanwhiteswhokillminorities.Italsoconcludesthatblackswhokill2minoritiesare3likelytobeexecutedthanblackswhokillwhites.ForexamplethereismorethanatwofoldgreaterriskthatanAfrican-Americanwhokilledawhitewillbeexecutedthanawhitepersonwhokillsa4victim.AHispanicisatleast1.45morelikelytobeexecuted6suchanoffenderkillsawhite. Theresearchersofthestudybelievethattherearetwo7explanations..Firstprosecutorsoftenwin8officeiftheywinwell-publicizedcases.Whenablackkillsawhitesuchkillingsgetsmore9andthisideacanbe10bymanyfamouscases.11thecourtjudgesatthestatelevelareoften12toelectionscalledretentionelections.RetentionelectionorjudicialretentionwithintheUnitedStatescourtsystemisaperiodicprocessinwhichthevoter13approvalordisapprovalforthejudgespresently14theirpositionandajudgecanberemovedfromthepositionifthe15ofthecitizensvotehimorherout.Justastheresearchers16outdeathpenaltyis17political. ThefindingsofthestudyinshortshowthatAmericanjusticesystemsclearly18whitelivesmorethanthoseofblacksorHispanics.Theresearchersalsosaytheirfindings19seriousdoubtsabout20thattheU.S.criminaljusticesystemiscolorblind. 4
TheSouthdaleshoppingcentreinMinnesotahasanatriumafoodcourtfountainsandacresofparking.ItsshopsincludeaDairyQueenaVictoria’sSecretandapurveyorofcomicT-shirts.ItmaynotseemlikealandmarkasimportanttoarchitecturalhistoryastheLouvreorNewYork’sWoolworthBuilding.Butitis."ohmygod!"chimesagroupofteenagegirlsonlearningthattheyarestandingintheworld’sfirsttrueshoppingmall."Thatisthecoolestthinganybodyhassaidtousallday." InthepasthalfcenturySouthdaleanditsmanyimitatorshavetransformedshoppinghabitsurbaneconomiesandteenagespeech.Americanowhassome1100enclosedshoppingmallsaccordingtotheInternationalCouncilofShoppingCentres.CloneshaveappearedfromChennaitoMartinique.Yetthemall’sstoryisfarfromtriumphal.InventedbyaEuropeansocialistwhohatedcarsandcametoderidehisowncreationithasamurkyfuture.WhilemallscontinuetomultiplyoutsideAmericatheyaregraduallydyinginthecountrythatpioneeredthem. Southdale’screatorarrivedinAmericaasarefugeefromNazi-occupiedVienna.VictorGruenwasaJewishbohemianwhobegantodesignshopsforfellowimmigrantsinNewYorkafterfailingincabarettheatre.Hisworkwasadmiredpartlyforitsunclutteredmodernistlookwhichseemedrevolutionaryin1930sAmerica.ButGruen’ssecretwasthewayheusedarcadesandeye-leveldisplaycasestolurecustomersintostoresalmostagainsttheirwill.Asacriticcomplainedhisshopswerelikemousetraps.Afewyearslaterthesamewouldbesaidofhisshoppingmalls. Bythe1940sdepartmentstoreswerealreadymovingtothesuburbs.Somehadbeguntobuildadjacentstripsofshopswhichtheyfilledwithboutiquesinanattempttore-createurbanshoppingdistricts.In1947ashoppingcentreopenedinLosAngelesfeaturingtwodepartmentstoresaclusterofsmallshopsandalargecarpark.Itwasineffectanoutdoorshoppingmall.FineforbalmysouthernCaliforniaperhapsbutnotforMinnesota’sharshclimate.CommissionedtobuildashoppingcentreatSouthdalein1956Gruenthrewaroofoverthestructureandinstalledanair-conditioningsystemtokeepthetemperatureat75°F24℃—whichacontemporarypressreleasecalled"EternalSpring".Themallwasborn. Gruengotanextraordinarynumberofthingsrightfirsttime.Hebuiltaslopingroadaroundtheperimeterofthemallsothathalfoftheshoppersenteredonthegroundfloorandhalfonthefirstfloor-somethingthatbecameastandardfeatureofmalls.Southdale’sbalconieswerelowsothatshopperscouldseetheshopsontheflooraboveorbelowthem.Thecarparkhadanimalsignstohelpshoppersrememberthewaybacktotheirvehicles.ItwasasthoughOrvilleandWilburWrighthadnotjustdiscoveredpoweredflightbuthadbuiltaplanewithtraytablesandaduty-freeservice. WhydidcriticscomplainthatGruen’sshopswerelikemousetraps
Educationisoneofthekeywordsofourtime.Amanwithoutaneducationmanyofusbelieveisanunfortunatevictimofunfortunatecircumstancesdeprivedofoneofthegreatesttwentieth-centuryopportunities.Convincedoftheimportanceofeducationmodernstates"invest"ininstitutionsoflearningtogetback"interest"intheformofalargegroupofenlightenedyoungmenandwomenwhoarepotentialleaders.Educationwithitscyclesofinstructionsocarefullyworkedoutispunctuatedbytextbooks--thosepurchasablewellsofwisdom--whatwouldcivilizationbelikewithoutitsbenefits Somuchiscertain:thatwewouldhavedoctorsandpreacherslawyersanddefendantsmarriagesandbirths;butourspiritualoutlookwouldbedifferent.Wewouldlaylessstresson"factsandfigures"andmoreonagoodmemoryonappliedpsychologyandonthecapacityofamantogetalongwithhisfellow-citizens.Ifoureducationalsystemwerefashionedafteritsbooklesspastwewouldhavethemostdemocraticformof"college"imaginable.Amongthepeoplewhomweliketocallsavagesallknowledgeinheritedbytraditionissharedbyall;itistaughttoeverymemberofthetribesothatinthisrespecteverybodyisequallyequippedforlife. Itistheidealconditionofthe"equalstart"whichonlyourmostprogressiveformsofmoderneducationtrytoreachagain.Inprimitiveculturestheobligationtoseekandtoreceivethetraditionalinstructionisbindingonall.Thereareno"illiterates"--ifthetermcanbeappliedtopeopleswithoutascript--whileourowncompulsoryschoolattendancebecamelawinGermanyin1642inFrancein1806andinEngland1976andisstillnon-existentinanumberof"civilized"nations.Thisshowshowlongitwasbeforeweconsidereditnecessarytomakesurethatallourchildrencouldshareintheknowledgeaccumulatedbythe"happyfew"duringthepastcenturies.Educationinthewildernessisnotamatterofmonetarymeans.Allareentitledtoanequalstart.Thereisnoneofthehurrythatinoursocietyoftenhampersthefulldevelopmentofagrowingpersonality.Thereachildgrowsupundertheever-presentattentionofhisparents;thereforethejunglesandthesavagesknowofno"juveniledelinquency".Nonecessityofmakingalivingawayfromhomeresultsinneglectofchildrenandnofatherisconfrontedwithhisinabilityto"buy"aneducationforhischild. Notes:juveniledelinquency青少年犯罪 Accordingtothetextwhichofthefollowingstatementsistrue
IstheliterarycriticlikethepoetrespondingcreativelyintuitivelysubjectivelytothewrittenwordasthepoetrespondstohumanexperienceOristhecriticmorelikeascientistfollowingaseriesofdemonstrableverifiablestepsusinganobjectivemethodofanalysis Forthewomanwhoisapractitioneroffeministliterarycriticismthesubjectivityversusobjectivityorcritic-as-artist-or-scientistdebatehasspecialsignificance;forherthequestionisnotonlyacademicbutpoliticalaswellandherdefinitionwillprovokespecialriskswhicheversideoftheissueitfavors.Ifshedefinesfeministcriticismasobjectiveandscientific--avalidverifiableintellectualmethodthatanyonewhethermanorwomancanperform--thedefinitionnotonlymakesthecritic-as-artistapproachimpossiblebutmayalsohinderaccomplishmentoftheutilitarianpoliticalobjectivesofthosewhoseektochangetheacademicestablishmentanditsthinkingespeciallyaboutsexroles.Ifshedefinesfeministcriticismascreativeandintuitiveprivilegedasartthenherworkbecomesvulnerabletotheprejudicesofstereotypicideasaboutthewaysinwhichwomenthinkandwillbedismissedbymuchoftheacademicestablishment.Becauseoftheseprejudiceswomenwhouseanintuitiveapproachintheircriticismmayfindthemselveschargedwithinabilitytobeanalyticaltobeobjectiveortothinkcritically.Whereasmenmaybefreetoclaimtheroleofcritic-as-artistwomenrundifferentprofessionalriskswhentheychooseintuitionandprivateexperienceascriticalmethodanddefense. Thesequestionsarepoliticalinthesensethatthedebateoverthemwillinevitablybelessanexplorationofabstractmattersinaspiritofdisinterestedinquirythananacademicpowerstruggleinwhichthecareersandprofessionalfortunesofmanywomenscholarsonlynowenteringtheacademicprofessioninsubstantialnumberswillbeatstakeandwiththemthechancesforadistinctivecontributiontohumanisticunderstandingacontributionthatmightbeanimportantinfluenceagainstsexisminoursociety. Aslongastheacademicestablishmentcontinuestoregardobjectiveanalysisas"masculine"andanintuitiveapproachas"feminine"thetheoreticianmuststeeradelicatephilosophicalcoursebetweenthetwo.Ifshewishestoconstructatheoryoffeministcriticismshewouldbewelladvisedtoplaceitwithintheframeworkofageneraltheoryofthecriticalprocessthatisneitherpurelyobjectivenorpurelyintuitive.Hertheoryisthenmorelikelytobecomparedandcontrastedwithothertheoriesofcriticismwithsomedegreeofdispassionatedistance. Accordingtotheauthorthedebatehasspecialsignificanceforthewomanwhoisatheoreticianoffeministliterarycriticismbecause
Anewstudyfindsthatblacksondeathrow1ofkillingwhitesaremorelikelytobeexecutedthanwhiteswhokillminorities.Italsoconcludesthatblackswhokill2minoritiesare3likelytobeexecutedthanblackswhokillwhites.ForexamplethereismorethanatwofoldgreaterriskthatanAfrican-Americanwhokilledawhitewillbeexecutedthanawhitepersonwhokillsa4victim.AHispanicisatleast1.45morelikelytobeexecuted6suchanoffenderkillsawhite. Theresearchersofthestudybelievethattherearetwo7explanations..Firstprosecutorsoftenwin8officeiftheywinwell-publicizedcases.Whenablackkillsawhitesuchkillingsgetsmore9andthisideacanbe10bymanyfamouscases.11thecourtjudgesatthestatelevelareoften12toelectionscalledretentionelections.RetentionelectionorjudicialretentionwithintheUnitedStatescourtsystemisaperiodicprocessinwhichthevoter13approvalordisapprovalforthejudgespresently14theirpositionandajudgecanberemovedfromthepositionifthe15ofthecitizensvotehimorherout.Justastheresearchers16outdeathpenaltyis17political. ThefindingsofthestudyinshortshowthatAmericanjusticesystemsclearly18whitelivesmorethanthoseofblacksorHispanics.Theresearchersalsosaytheirfindings19seriousdoubtsabout20thattheU.S.criminaljusticesystemiscolorblind. 12
[A]TheNeedforScience [B]TheMethodsofScience [C]TheChallengeofUnsolvedProblems [D]TheSpecificFeaturesoftheLawsofScience [E]TheStepsinEstablishingaScientificTheory [F]TheRapidIncreaseofScientificKnowledge Itisthebusinessofthescientisttoaccumulateknowledgeabouttheuniverseandallthatisinit.andtofind.ifheisable.commonfactorswhichunderlieandaccountforthefactsthatheknows.Hechooseswhenhecanthemethodofthe"controlledexperiment". 41.______. Inthecourseofhisinquiriesthescientistmayfindwhathethinksisonecommonexplanationforanincreasingnumberoffacts.Theexplanationifitseemsconsistentlytofitthevariousfactsiscalledahypothesis.Ifahypothesiscontinuestostandthetestofnumerousexperimentsandremainsunshakenitbecomesalaw. 42.______. The"laws"ofsciencedifferfromthe"laws"ofacountryintwoways.Firstascientificlawisliableatanytimetoneedmodifying.Thishappenswhenafactisdiscoveredwhichseemstocontradictwhatthe"law"wouldleadonetoexpect.The"law"mayinfact.havetobeabandonedaltogether.Second.ascientific"law"says"Thisislikelytobetheexplanation"or"Thisaccountsforthefactsasfarasweknowthem".Butthe"law"ofthecountrysays"Youmust..."or"Youmustnot..."Thescientific"law"hasnomoralforce;itisnotbindingonhumanbehaviornorapprovedoropposedbyhumanconscience. 43.______. Theevidenceastothevastnessoftheuniverseandthecomplexityofitsarrangementscontinuestogrowatanamazingrate.Thegapbetweenwhatweknowandallthatcanbeknownseemsnottodiminishbutrathertoincreasewitheverynewdiscovery.Freshunexploredregionsareforeveropeningout.Therapidityofthegrowthofscientificknowledgeinthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturiesisapttogivestudentsandteacherstheimpressionthatnosoonerisaproblemstatedthantheanswerisforthcoming.Amoredetailedstudyofthehistoryofsciencecorrectstheimpressionthatfundamentaldiscoveriesaremadewithdramaticsuddenness.Eveninourpresentagenolessthanfiftyyearsseparatethediscoveryofradioactivityfromtheexplosionofthefirstatomicbomb.Theteachergivinghisbriefaccountsofscientificdiscoveryisapttoforgetthelongperiodsofmisunderstandingoffalsehypothesesandgeneraluncertaintywhichalmostinvariablyprecedetheclearstatementofscientifictruth. 44.______. Thevastmassofinformationwhichscientistshavegainedhasprovidedtheanswertothefundamentalquestionswhichthroughthecenturieshavepuzzledandsometimestorturedthehumanmind.Therearemanysuchquestions.Thestudyofparasiteshasprovidedevidencethatorganismswhichcouldbeself-supportinghavebecomeparasitesbuthardlyanylighthasbeenshedontheproblemofwhytheyshouldhavedoneso.Whatenablesanorganismtorespondtothepoisonoussecretionsofharmfulbacteriaandorganizeitsresourcestodefenditslife 45.______. Toraisethestandardoflivinginanycountrytwothingsarerequiredscientificknowledgeandapopulationsufficientlyeducatedtounderstandhowtoapplyit.Withoutthelattertheexpectedbenefitswillnotcome. Notes:ado麻烦忙乱bebindingon对......有约束力parasite寄生虫shedlighton使某事物更清楚些secretion分泌物 44
Itishardtopredicthowscienceisgoingtoturnoutandifitisreallygoodscienceitisimpossibletopredict.Ifthethingstobefoundareactuallynewtheyarebydefinitionunknowninadvance.Youcannotmakechoicesinthismatter.46Youeitherhavescienceoryoudon’tandifyouhaveityouareobligedtoacceptthesurprisinganddisturbingpiecesofinformationalongwiththeneatandpromptlyusefulbits. TheonlysolidpieceofscientifictruthaboutwhichIfeeltotallyconfidentisthatweaxeprofoundlyignorantaboutnature.IndeedIregardthisasthemajordiscoveryofthepasthundredyearsofbiology.Itisinitswayanilluminatingpieceofnews.47Itwouldhaveamazedthebrightestmindsofthe18thcenturyEnlightenmenttobetoldbyanyofushowlittleweknowandhowbewilderingseemsthewayahead.48Itisthissuddenconfrontationwiththedepthandscopeofignorancethatrepresentsthemostsignificantcontributionofthe20thcenturysciencetothehumanintellect.Inearliertimesweeitherpretendedtounderstandhowthingsworkedorignoredtheproblemorsimplymadeupstoriestofillthegaps.Nowthatwehavebegunexploringinearnestwearegettingglimpsesofhowhugethequestionsareandhowfarfrombeinganswered.Becauseofthiswearedepressed.49Itisnotsobadbeingignorantifyouaretotallyignorant;thehardthingisknowinginsomedetailtherealityofignorancetheworstspotsandhereandtherethenot-so-badspotsbutnotruelightattheendofthetunnelnorevenanytunnelsthatcanyetbetrusted. Butwearemakingabeginningandthereoughttobesomesatisfaction.Thereareprobablynoquestionswecanthinkupthatcan’tbeansweredsoonerorlaterincludingeventhematterofconsciousness.50Tobesuretheremaywellbequestionswecan’tthinkupeverandthereforelimitstothereachofhumanintellectbutthatisanothermatter.Withinourlimitsweshouldbeabletoworkourwaythroughtoallouranswersifwekeepatitlongenoughandpayattention. 48Itisthissuddenconfrontationwiththedepthandscopeofignorancethatrepresentsthemostsignificantcontributionofthe20thcenturysciencetothehumanintellect.
Anewstudyfindsthatblacksondeathrow1ofkillingwhitesaremorelikelytobeexecutedthanwhiteswhokillminorities.Italsoconcludesthatblackswhokill2minoritiesare3likelytobeexecutedthanblackswhokillwhites.ForexamplethereismorethanatwofoldgreaterriskthatanAfrican-Americanwhokilledawhitewillbeexecutedthanawhitepersonwhokillsa4victim.AHispanicisatleast1.45morelikelytobeexecuted6suchanoffenderkillsawhite. Theresearchersofthestudybelievethattherearetwo7explanations..Firstprosecutorsoftenwin8officeiftheywinwell-publicizedcases.Whenablackkillsawhitesuchkillingsgetsmore9andthisideacanbe10bymanyfamouscases.11thecourtjudgesatthestatelevelareoften12toelectionscalledretentionelections.RetentionelectionorjudicialretentionwithintheUnitedStatescourtsystemisaperiodicprocessinwhichthevoter13approvalordisapprovalforthejudgespresently14theirpositionandajudgecanberemovedfromthepositionifthe15ofthecitizensvotehimorherout.Justastheresearchers16outdeathpenaltyis17political. ThefindingsofthestudyinshortshowthatAmericanjusticesystemsclearly18whitelivesmorethanthoseofblacksorHispanics.Theresearchersalsosaytheirfindings19seriousdoubtsabout20thattheU.S.criminaljusticesystemiscolorblind. 20
IstheliterarycriticlikethepoetrespondingcreativelyintuitivelysubjectivelytothewrittenwordasthepoetrespondstohumanexperienceOristhecriticmorelikeascientistfollowingaseriesofdemonstrableverifiablestepsusinganobjectivemethodofanalysis Forthewomanwhoisapractitioneroffeministliterarycriticismthesubjectivityversusobjectivityorcritic-as-artist-or-scientistdebatehasspecialsignificance;forherthequestionisnotonlyacademicbutpoliticalaswellandherdefinitionwillprovokespecialriskswhicheversideoftheissueitfavors.Ifshedefinesfeministcriticismasobjectiveandscientific--avalidverifiableintellectualmethodthatanyonewhethermanorwomancanperform--thedefinitionnotonlymakesthecritic-as-artistapproachimpossiblebutmayalsohinderaccomplishmentoftheutilitarianpoliticalobjectivesofthosewhoseektochangetheacademicestablishmentanditsthinkingespeciallyaboutsexroles.Ifshedefinesfeministcriticismascreativeandintuitiveprivilegedasartthenherworkbecomesvulnerabletotheprejudicesofstereotypicideasaboutthewaysinwhichwomenthinkandwillbedismissedbymuchoftheacademicestablishment.Becauseoftheseprejudiceswomenwhouseanintuitiveapproachintheircriticismmayfindthemselveschargedwithinabilitytobeanalyticaltobeobjectiveortothinkcritically.Whereasmenmaybefreetoclaimtheroleofcritic-as-artistwomenrundifferentprofessionalriskswhentheychooseintuitionandprivateexperienceascriticalmethodanddefense. Thesequestionsarepoliticalinthesensethatthedebateoverthemwillinevitablybelessanexplorationofabstractmattersinaspiritofdisinterestedinquirythananacademicpowerstruggleinwhichthecareersandprofessionalfortunesofmanywomenscholarsonlynowenteringtheacademicprofessioninsubstantialnumberswillbeatstakeandwiththemthechancesforadistinctivecontributiontohumanisticunderstandingacontributionthatmightbeanimportantinfluenceagainstsexisminoursociety. Aslongastheacademicestablishmentcontinuestoregardobjectiveanalysisas"masculine"andanintuitiveapproachas"feminine"thetheoreticianmuststeeradelicatephilosophicalcoursebetweenthetwo.Ifshewishestoconstructatheoryoffeministcriticismshewouldbewelladvisedtoplaceitwithintheframeworkofageneraltheoryofthecriticalprocessthatisneitherpurelyobjectivenorpurelyintuitive.Hertheoryisthenmorelikelytobecomparedandcontrastedwithothertheoriesofcriticismwithsomedegreeofdispassionatedistance. ItcanbeinferredthattheauthorwoulddefineaspoliticalLine1Para.3thequestionsthat
Anewstudyfindsthatblacksondeathrow1ofkillingwhitesaremorelikelytobeexecutedthanwhiteswhokillminorities.Italsoconcludesthatblackswhokill2minoritiesare3likelytobeexecutedthanblackswhokillwhites.ForexamplethereismorethanatwofoldgreaterriskthatanAfrican-Americanwhokilledawhitewillbeexecutedthanawhitepersonwhokillsa4victim.AHispanicisatleast1.45morelikelytobeexecuted6suchanoffenderkillsawhite. Theresearchersofthestudybelievethattherearetwo7explanations..Firstprosecutorsoftenwin8officeiftheywinwell-publicizedcases.Whenablackkillsawhitesuchkillingsgetsmore9andthisideacanbe10bymanyfamouscases.11thecourtjudgesatthestatelevelareoften12toelectionscalledretentionelections.RetentionelectionorjudicialretentionwithintheUnitedStatescourtsystemisaperiodicprocessinwhichthevoter13approvalordisapprovalforthejudgespresently14theirpositionandajudgecanberemovedfromthepositionifthe15ofthecitizensvotehimorherout.Justastheresearchers16outdeathpenaltyis17political. ThefindingsofthestudyinshortshowthatAmericanjusticesystemsclearly18whitelivesmorethanthoseofblacksorHispanics.Theresearchersalsosaytheirfindings19seriousdoubtsabout20thattheU.S.criminaljusticesystemiscolorblind. 10
Foryearssmokershavebeenexhortedtotaketheinitiativeandquit:useanicotinepatchchewnicotinegumtakeaprescriptionmedicationthatcanhelpcallahelplinejustsayno.Butanewstudyfindsthatstoppingisseldomanindividualdecision.Smokerstendtoquitingroupsthestudyfindswhichmeanssmokingcessationprogramsshouldworkbestiftheyfocusongroupsratherthanindividuals.Italsomeansthatpeoplemayhelpmanymorethanjustthemselvesbyquitting:quittingcanhavearippleeffectpromptinganentiresocialnetworktobreakthehabit. ThestudybyDr.NicholasChristakisofHarvardMedicalSchoolandJamesFowleroftheUniversityofCaliforniaSanDiegofollowedthousandsofsmokersandnonsmokersfor32yearsfrom1971until2003studyingthemaspartofalargenetworkofrelativesco-workersneighborsfriendsandfriendsoffriends. ItwasatimewhenthepercentageofadultsmokersintheUnitedStatesfellto21percentfrom45percent.Astheinvestigatorswatchedthesmokersandtheirsocialnetworkstheysawwhattheysaidwasastrikingeffect—smokershadformedlittlesocialclustersandastheyearswentbyentireclustersofsmokerswerestoppingenmasse.Sowereclustersofclustersthatwereonlylooselyconnected.Dr.Christakisdescribedwatchingthevanishingclustersaslikelyingonyourbackinafieldlookingupatstarsthatwereburningout."It’snotlikeonelittlestarturningoffatatime"hesaid"Wholeconstellationsareblinkingoffatonce." Asclusterafterclusterofsmokersdisappearedthosethatremainedwerepushedtothemarginsofsocietyisolatedwithfewerfriendsfewersocialconnections."Smokersusedtobethecenteroftheparty"Dr.Fowlersaid"butnowthey’vebecomewallflowers.""We’veknownsmokingwasbadforyourphysicalhealth"hesaid"Butthisshowsitalsoisbadforyoursocialhealth.Smokersarelikelytodrivefriendsaway." "Thereisanessentialpublichealthmessage"saidRichardSuzmandirectoroftheofficeofbehavioralandsocialresearchattheNationalInstituteonAgingwhichfinancedthestudy."Obviouslypeoplehavetotakeresponsibilityfortheirbehavior"Mr.Suzmansaid."Butasocialenvironment"headded"canjustoverpowerfreewill."Withsmokingthatcanbeagoodthingresearchersnoted.Buttherealsoisasadside.AsDr.StevenSehroederoftheUniversityofCaliforniaSanFranciscopointedoutinaneditorialaccompanyingthepaper"ariskofthemarginalizationofsmokingisthatitfurtherisolatesthegroupofpeoplewiththehighestrateofsmoking—personswithmentalillnessproblemswithsubstanceabuseorboth. Whichofthefollowingstatementsistrueaccordingtotheopeningparagraph
Anewstudyfindsthatblacksondeathrow1ofkillingwhitesaremorelikelytobeexecutedthanwhiteswhokillminorities.Italsoconcludesthatblackswhokill2minoritiesare3likelytobeexecutedthanblackswhokillwhites.ForexamplethereismorethanatwofoldgreaterriskthatanAfrican-Americanwhokilledawhitewillbeexecutedthanawhitepersonwhokillsa4victim.AHispanicisatleast1.45morelikelytobeexecuted6suchanoffenderkillsawhite. Theresearchersofthestudybelievethattherearetwo7explanations..Firstprosecutorsoftenwin8officeiftheywinwell-publicizedcases.Whenablackkillsawhitesuchkillingsgetsmore9andthisideacanbe10bymanyfamouscases.11thecourtjudgesatthestatelevelareoften12toelectionscalledretentionelections.RetentionelectionorjudicialretentionwithintheUnitedStatescourtsystemisaperiodicprocessinwhichthevoter13approvalordisapprovalforthejudgespresently14theirpositionandajudgecanberemovedfromthepositionifthe15ofthecitizensvotehimorherout.Justastheresearchers16outdeathpenaltyis17political. ThefindingsofthestudyinshortshowthatAmericanjusticesystemsclearly18whitelivesmorethanthoseofblacksorHispanics.Theresearchersalsosaytheirfindings19seriousdoubtsabout20thattheU.S.criminaljusticesystemiscolorblind. 14
Historianshaveonlyrecentlybeguntonotetheincreaseindemandforluxurygoodsandservicesthattookplaceineighteenth-centuryEngland.MeKendrickhasexploredtheWedgewoodFirm’sremarkablesuccessinmarketingluxurypottery.Plumbhaswrittenabouttheproliferationofprovincialtheatersmusicalfestivalsandchildren’stoysandbooks.Whilethefeatofthisconsumerrevolutionishardlyindoubtthreekeyquestionsremain:WhoweretheconsumersWhatweretheirmotivesAndwhatweretheeffectsofthenewdemandforluxuries Ananswertothefirstofthesehasbeendifficulttoobtain.Althoughithasbeenpossibletoinferfromthegoodsandserviceactuallyproducedwhatmanufacturersandservicingtradesthoughttheircustomerswantedonlyastudyofrelevantpersonaldocumentswrittenbyactualconsumerswillprovideaprecisepictureofwhowantedwhat.Westillneedtoknowhowlargethisconsumermarketwasandhowfardownthesocialscaletheconsumerdemandforluxurygoodspenetrated.WithregardtothislastquestionwemightnoteinpassingthatThompsonwhilerightlyrestoringlaboringpeopletothestageofeighteenth-centuryEnglishhistoryhasprobablyexaggeratedtheoppositionofthesepeopletotheinroadsofcapitalistconsumerismingeneral:forexamplelaboringpeopleineighteenth-centuryEnglandreadilyshiftedfromhome-brewedbeertostandardizedbeerproducedbyhugeheavilycapitalizedurbanbreweries. Toanswerthequestionofwhyconsumersbecamesoeagertobuysomehistorianshavepointedtotheabilityofmanufacturerstoadvertiseinarelativelyuncensoredpress.Thishoweverhardlyseemsasufficientanswer.MeKendriekfavorsaViablemodelofconspicuousconsumptionstimulatedbycompetitionforstatus.The"middlingsort"boughtgoodsandservicesbecausetheywantedtofollowfashionssetbytherich.Againwemaywonderwhetherthisexplanationissufficient.Donotpeopleenjoybuyingthingsasaformofself-gratificationIfsoconsumerismcouldbeseenasaproductoftheriseofnewconceptsofindividualismandmaterialismbutnotnecessarilyofthefrenzyforconspicuouscompetition. FinallywhatweretheconsequencesofthisconsumerdemandforluxuriesMeKendriekclaimsthatitgoesalongwaytowardexplainingthecomingoftheIndustrialRevolution.ButdoesitWhatforexampledoestheproductionofhigh-qualitypotteriesandtoyshavetodowiththedevelopmentofironmanufactureortextilemillsItisperfectlypossiMeGohavethepsychologyandrealityofconsumersocietywithoutaheavyindustrialsector. Thatfutureexplorationofthesekeyquestionsisundoubtedlynecessaryshouldnothoweverdiminishtheforceoftheconclusionofrecentstudies:theinsatiabledemandinthetenth-centuryEnglandforfrivolousaswellasusefulgoodsandservicesforeshadowsourownworld. TheauthorusestheexampleintheendofParagraph2to
Foryearssmokershavebeenexhortedtotaketheinitiativeandquit:useanicotinepatchchewnicotinegumtakeaprescriptionmedicationthatcanhelpcallahelplinejustsayno.Butanewstudyfindsthatstoppingisseldomanindividualdecision.Smokerstendtoquitingroupsthestudyfindswhichmeanssmokingcessationprogramsshouldworkbestiftheyfocusongroupsratherthanindividuals.Italsomeansthatpeoplemayhelpmanymorethanjustthemselvesbyquitting:quittingcanhavearippleeffectpromptinganentiresocialnetworktobreakthehabit. ThestudybyDr.NicholasChristakisofHarvardMedicalSchoolandJamesFowleroftheUniversityofCaliforniaSanDiegofollowedthousandsofsmokersandnonsmokersfor32yearsfrom1971until2003studyingthemaspartofalargenetworkofrelativesco-workersneighborsfriendsandfriendsoffriends. ItwasatimewhenthepercentageofadultsmokersintheUnitedStatesfellto21percentfrom45percent.Astheinvestigatorswatchedthesmokersandtheirsocialnetworkstheysawwhattheysaidwasastrikingeffect—smokershadformedlittlesocialclustersandastheyearswentbyentireclustersofsmokerswerestoppingenmasse.Sowereclustersofclustersthatwereonlylooselyconnected.Dr.Christakisdescribedwatchingthevanishingclustersaslikelyingonyourbackinafieldlookingupatstarsthatwereburningout."It’snotlikeonelittlestarturningoffatatime"hesaid"Wholeconstellationsareblinkingoffatonce." Asclusterafterclusterofsmokersdisappearedthosethatremainedwerepushedtothemarginsofsocietyisolatedwithfewerfriendsfewersocialconnections."Smokersusedtobethecenteroftheparty"Dr.Fowlersaid"butnowthey’vebecomewallflowers.""We’veknownsmokingwasbadforyourphysicalhealth"hesaid"Butthisshowsitalsoisbadforyoursocialhealth.Smokersarelikelytodrivefriendsaway." "Thereisanessentialpublichealthmessage"saidRichardSuzmandirectoroftheofficeofbehavioralandsocialresearchattheNationalInstituteonAgingwhichfinancedthestudy."Obviouslypeoplehavetotakeresponsibilityfortheirbehavior"Mr.Suzmansaid."Butasocialenvironment"headded"canjustoverpowerfreewill."Withsmokingthatcanbeagoodthingresearchersnoted.Buttherealsoisasadside.AsDr.StevenSehroederoftheUniversityofCaliforniaSanFranciscopointedoutinaneditorialaccompanyingthepaper"ariskofthemarginalizationofsmokingisthatitfurtherisolatesthegroupofpeoplewiththehighestrateofsmoking—personswithmentalillnessproblemswithsubstanceabuseorboth. Bysayingbutnowthey’vebecomewallflowersLine3Paragraph4Dr.Fowlerintendstoshowthat
Educationisoneofthekeywordsofourtime.Amanwithoutaneducationmanyofusbelieveisanunfortunatevictimofunfortunatecircumstancesdeprivedofoneofthegreatesttwentieth-centuryopportunities.Convincedoftheimportanceofeducationmodernstates"invest"ininstitutionsoflearningtogetback"interest"intheformofalargegroupofenlightenedyoungmenandwomenwhoarepotentialleaders.Educationwithitscyclesofinstructionsocarefullyworkedoutispunctuatedbytextbooks--thosepurchasablewellsofwisdom--whatwouldcivilizationbelikewithoutitsbenefits Somuchiscertain:thatwewouldhavedoctorsandpreacherslawyersanddefendantsmarriagesandbirths;butourspiritualoutlookwouldbedifferent.Wewouldlaylessstresson"factsandfigures"andmoreonagoodmemoryonappliedpsychologyandonthecapacityofamantogetalongwithhisfellow-citizens.Ifoureducationalsystemwerefashionedafteritsbooklesspastwewouldhavethemostdemocraticformof"college"imaginable.Amongthepeoplewhomweliketocallsavagesallknowledgeinheritedbytraditionissharedbyall;itistaughttoeverymemberofthetribesothatinthisrespecteverybodyisequallyequippedforlife. Itistheidealconditionofthe"equalstart"whichonlyourmostprogressiveformsofmoderneducationtrytoreachagain.Inprimitiveculturestheobligationtoseekandtoreceivethetraditionalinstructionisbindingonall.Thereareno"illiterates"--ifthetermcanbeappliedtopeopleswithoutascript--whileourowncompulsoryschoolattendancebecamelawinGermanyin1642inFrancein1806andinEngland1976andisstillnon-existentinanumberof"civilized"nations.Thisshowshowlongitwasbeforeweconsidereditnecessarytomakesurethatallourchildrencouldshareintheknowledgeaccumulatedbythe"happyfew"duringthepastcenturies.Educationinthewildernessisnotamatterofmonetarymeans.Allareentitledtoanequalstart.Thereisnoneofthehurrythatinoursocietyoftenhampersthefulldevelopmentofagrowingpersonality.Thereachildgrowsupundertheever-presentattentionofhisparents;thereforethejunglesandthesavagesknowofno"juveniledelinquency".Nonecessityofmakingalivingawayfromhomeresultsinneglectofchildrenandnofatherisconfrontedwithhisinabilityto"buy"aneducationforhischild. Notes:juveniledelinquency青少年犯罪 Accordingtothetexttheauthorseemstobe
Directions: Writeanessayof160--200wordsbasedonthefollowingtopic. MyIdealFutureJob Inyouressayyoushould 1stateclearlywhatyouridealfuturejobis 2illustratewhyyouwouldliketotakethisjoband 3drawanatureconclusiontoyouressay. YoushouldwriteneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.
Anewstudyfindsthatblacksondeathrow1ofkillingwhitesaremorelikelytobeexecutedthanwhiteswhokillminorities.Italsoconcludesthatblackswhokill2minoritiesare3likelytobeexecutedthanblackswhokillwhites.ForexamplethereismorethanatwofoldgreaterriskthatanAfrican-Americanwhokilledawhitewillbeexecutedthanawhitepersonwhokillsa4victim.AHispanicisatleast1.45morelikelytobeexecuted6suchanoffenderkillsawhite. Theresearchersofthestudybelievethattherearetwo7explanations..Firstprosecutorsoftenwin8officeiftheywinwell-publicizedcases.Whenablackkillsawhitesuchkillingsgetsmore9andthisideacanbe10bymanyfamouscases.11thecourtjudgesatthestatelevelareoften12toelectionscalledretentionelections.RetentionelectionorjudicialretentionwithintheUnitedStatescourtsystemisaperiodicprocessinwhichthevoter13approvalordisapprovalforthejudgespresently14theirpositionandajudgecanberemovedfromthepositionifthe15ofthecitizensvotehimorherout.Justastheresearchers16outdeathpenaltyis17political. ThefindingsofthestudyinshortshowthatAmericanjusticesystemsclearly18whitelivesmorethanthoseofblacksorHispanics.Theresearchersalsosaytheirfindings19seriousdoubtsabout20thattheU.S.criminaljusticesystemiscolorblind. 2
TheSouthdaleshoppingcentreinMinnesotahasanatriumafoodcourtfountainsandacresofparking.ItsshopsincludeaDairyQueenaVictoria’sSecretandapurveyorofcomicT-shirts.ItmaynotseemlikealandmarkasimportanttoarchitecturalhistoryastheLouvreorNewYork’sWoolworthBuilding.Butitis."ohmygod!"chimesagroupofteenagegirlsonlearningthattheyarestandingintheworld’sfirsttrueshoppingmall."Thatisthecoolestthinganybodyhassaidtousallday." InthepasthalfcenturySouthdaleanditsmanyimitatorshavetransformedshoppinghabitsurbaneconomiesandteenagespeech.Americanowhassome1100enclosedshoppingmallsaccordingtotheInternationalCouncilofShoppingCentres.CloneshaveappearedfromChennaitoMartinique.Yetthemall’sstoryisfarfromtriumphal.InventedbyaEuropeansocialistwhohatedcarsandcametoderidehisowncreationithasamurkyfuture.WhilemallscontinuetomultiplyoutsideAmericatheyaregraduallydyinginthecountrythatpioneeredthem. Southdale’screatorarrivedinAmericaasarefugeefromNazi-occupiedVienna.VictorGruenwasaJewishbohemianwhobegantodesignshopsforfellowimmigrantsinNewYorkafterfailingincabarettheatre.Hisworkwasadmiredpartlyforitsunclutteredmodernistlookwhichseemedrevolutionaryin1930sAmerica.ButGruen’ssecretwasthewayheusedarcadesandeye-leveldisplaycasestolurecustomersintostoresalmostagainsttheirwill.Asacriticcomplainedhisshopswerelikemousetraps.Afewyearslaterthesamewouldbesaidofhisshoppingmalls. Bythe1940sdepartmentstoreswerealreadymovingtothesuburbs.Somehadbeguntobuildadjacentstripsofshopswhichtheyfilledwithboutiquesinanattempttore-createurbanshoppingdistricts.In1947ashoppingcentreopenedinLosAngelesfeaturingtwodepartmentstoresaclusterofsmallshopsandalargecarpark.Itwasineffectanoutdoorshoppingmall.FineforbalmysouthernCaliforniaperhapsbutnotforMinnesota’sharshclimate.CommissionedtobuildashoppingcentreatSouthdalein1956Gruenthrewaroofoverthestructureandinstalledanair-conditioningsystemtokeepthetemperatureat75°F24℃—whichacontemporarypressreleasecalled"EternalSpring".Themallwasborn. Gruengotanextraordinarynumberofthingsrightfirsttime.Hebuiltaslopingroadaroundtheperimeterofthemallsothathalfoftheshoppersenteredonthegroundfloorandhalfonthefirstfloor-somethingthatbecameastandardfeatureofmalls.Southdale’sbalconieswerelowsothatshopperscouldseetheshopsontheflooraboveorbelowthem.Thecarparkhadanimalsignstohelpshoppersrememberthewaybacktotheirvehicles.ItwasasthoughOrvilleandWilburWrighthadnotjustdiscoveredpoweredflightbuthadbuiltaplanewithtraytablesandaduty-freeservice. AccordingtothetextwhichofthefollowingisTRUE
Historianshaveonlyrecentlybeguntonotetheincreaseindemandforluxurygoodsandservicesthattookplaceineighteenth-centuryEngland.MeKendrickhasexploredtheWedgewoodFirm’sremarkablesuccessinmarketingluxurypottery.Plumbhaswrittenabouttheproliferationofprovincialtheatersmusicalfestivalsandchildren’stoysandbooks.Whilethefeatofthisconsumerrevolutionishardlyindoubtthreekeyquestionsremain:WhoweretheconsumersWhatweretheirmotivesAndwhatweretheeffectsofthenewdemandforluxuries Ananswertothefirstofthesehasbeendifficulttoobtain.Althoughithasbeenpossibletoinferfromthegoodsandserviceactuallyproducedwhatmanufacturersandservicingtradesthoughttheircustomerswantedonlyastudyofrelevantpersonaldocumentswrittenbyactualconsumerswillprovideaprecisepictureofwhowantedwhat.Westillneedtoknowhowlargethisconsumermarketwasandhowfardownthesocialscaletheconsumerdemandforluxurygoodspenetrated.WithregardtothislastquestionwemightnoteinpassingthatThompsonwhilerightlyrestoringlaboringpeopletothestageofeighteenth-centuryEnglishhistoryhasprobablyexaggeratedtheoppositionofthesepeopletotheinroadsofcapitalistconsumerismingeneral:forexamplelaboringpeopleineighteenth-centuryEnglandreadilyshiftedfromhome-brewedbeertostandardizedbeerproducedbyhugeheavilycapitalizedurbanbreweries. Toanswerthequestionofwhyconsumersbecamesoeagertobuysomehistorianshavepointedtotheabilityofmanufacturerstoadvertiseinarelativelyuncensoredpress.Thishoweverhardlyseemsasufficientanswer.MeKendriekfavorsaViablemodelofconspicuousconsumptionstimulatedbycompetitionforstatus.The"middlingsort"boughtgoodsandservicesbecausetheywantedtofollowfashionssetbytherich.Againwemaywonderwhetherthisexplanationissufficient.Donotpeopleenjoybuyingthingsasaformofself-gratificationIfsoconsumerismcouldbeseenasaproductoftheriseofnewconceptsofindividualismandmaterialismbutnotnecessarilyofthefrenzyforconspicuouscompetition. FinallywhatweretheconsequencesofthisconsumerdemandforluxuriesMeKendriekclaimsthatitgoesalongwaytowardexplainingthecomingoftheIndustrialRevolution.ButdoesitWhatforexampledoestheproductionofhigh-qualitypotteriesandtoyshavetodowiththedevelopmentofironmanufactureortextilemillsItisperfectlypossiMeGohavethepsychologyandrealityofconsumersocietywithoutaheavyindustrialsector. Thatfutureexplorationofthesekeyquestionsisundoubtedlynecessaryshouldnothoweverdiminishtheforceoftheconclusionofrecentstudies:theinsatiabledemandinthetenth-centuryEnglandforfrivolousaswellasusefulgoodsandservicesforeshadowsourownworld. WhatdoestheauthorthinkofMcKendrick’sclaimabouttheluxuryconsumptionconsequences
Itishardtopredicthowscienceisgoingtoturnoutandifitisreallygoodscienceitisimpossibletopredict.Ifthethingstobefoundareactuallynewtheyarebydefinitionunknowninadvance.Youcannotmakechoicesinthismatter.46Youeitherhavescienceoryoudon’tandifyouhaveityouareobligedtoacceptthesurprisinganddisturbingpiecesofinformationalongwiththeneatandpromptlyusefulbits. TheonlysolidpieceofscientifictruthaboutwhichIfeeltotallyconfidentisthatweaxeprofoundlyignorantaboutnature.IndeedIregardthisasthemajordiscoveryofthepasthundredyearsofbiology.Itisinitswayanilluminatingpieceofnews.47Itwouldhaveamazedthebrightestmindsofthe18thcenturyEnlightenmenttobetoldbyanyofushowlittleweknowandhowbewilderingseemsthewayahead.48Itisthissuddenconfrontationwiththedepthandscopeofignorancethatrepresentsthemostsignificantcontributionofthe20thcenturysciencetothehumanintellect.Inearliertimesweeitherpretendedtounderstandhowthingsworkedorignoredtheproblemorsimplymadeupstoriestofillthegaps.Nowthatwehavebegunexploringinearnestwearegettingglimpsesofhowhugethequestionsareandhowfarfrombeinganswered.Becauseofthiswearedepressed.49Itisnotsobadbeingignorantifyouaretotallyignorant;thehardthingisknowinginsomedetailtherealityofignorancetheworstspotsandhereandtherethenot-so-badspotsbutnotruelightattheendofthetunnelnorevenanytunnelsthatcanyetbetrusted. Butwearemakingabeginningandthereoughttobesomesatisfaction.Thereareprobablynoquestionswecanthinkupthatcan’tbeansweredsoonerorlaterincludingeventhematterofconsciousness.50Tobesuretheremaywellbequestionswecan’tthinkupeverandthereforelimitstothereachofhumanintellectbutthatisanothermatter.Withinourlimitsweshouldbeabletoworkourwaythroughtoallouranswersifwekeepatitlongenoughandpayattention. 50Tobesuretheremaywellbequestionswecan’tthinkupeverandthereforelimitstothereachofhumanintellectbutthatisanothermatter.
Itistrueasthemovementcriticsassertthatthepresentwomen’sliberationgroupsarealmostentirelybasedamong"middleclass"womenthatiscollegeandcareerwomen;andtheissuesofpsychologicalandsexualexploitationandtoalesserextentexploitationthroughconsumptionhavebeenthemostprominentones. Itisnotsurprisingthatthewomen’sliberationmovementshouldbeginamongbourgeoiswomenandshouldbedominatedinthebeginningbytheirconsciousnessandtheirparticularconcerns.Radicalwomenaregenerallythepostwarmiddleclassgenerationthatgrewupwiththerighttovotethechanceathighereducationandtrainingforsupportiverolesintheprofessionsandbusiness.Mostofthemareyoungandsophisticatedenoughtohavenotyethadchildrenanddonothavetomarrytosupportthemselves.Incomparisonwithmostwomentheyarecapableofacertainamountofcontrolovertheirlives. Thehigherdevelopmentofbourgeoisdemocraticsocietyallowsthewomenwhobenefitfromeducationandrelativeequalitytoseethecontradictionsbetweenitsrhetoriceverychildcanbecomepresidentandtheiractualplaceinthatsociety.Theworkingclasswomanmightbelievethateducationcouldhavemadeherfinanciallyindependentbuttheeducatedcareerwomanfindsthatmoneyhasnotmadeherindependent.Infactbecauseshehasbeenallowedtoprogresshalfwayontheupward-mobilityladdershecanseetherestofthedistancethatisdeniedheronlybecausesheisawoman.Shecanseethesimilaritybetweenheroppressionandthatofothersectionsofthepopulation.Thusfromtheirownexperienceradicalwomeninthemovementareawareofmorefaultsinthesocietythanracismandimperialism.Becausetheyhavepushedthedemocraticmythtoitslimitstheyknowconcretelyhowitlimitsthem. AtthesametimethatradicalwomenwerelearningaboutAmericansocietytheywerealsobecomingawareofthemalechauvinisminthemovement.Infactthatisusuallythecauseoftheirfirstconscious100verbalizationoftheprejudicetheyfeel;itismoredisillusioningtoknowthatthesamecontradictionexistsbetweenthemovement’srhetoricofequalityanditsrealityforweexpectmoreofourcomrades. Thisrealizationofthedeep-seatedprejudiceagainstthemselvesinthemovementproducestwocommonreactionsamongitswomen:1apreoccupationwiththisimmediatebarrierandperhapsaresultanthopelessnessand2atendencytoretreatinwardtobuythefool’sgoldofcreatingapersonallyliberatedlifestyle. Howeverourconceptofliberationrepresentsaconsciousnessthatconditionshaveforcedonuswhilemostofoursistersarechainedbyotherconditionsbiologicalandeconomicthatoverwhelmtheirhumanityanddesiresforself-fulfillment.Ourbackgroundaccountsforourignoranceaboutthestarkoppressionofwomen’sdailylives. Whatdoradicalwomenexpectmorefromtheirmalecounterparts
Anewstudyfindsthatblacksondeathrow1ofkillingwhitesaremorelikelytobeexecutedthanwhiteswhokillminorities.Italsoconcludesthatblackswhokill2minoritiesare3likelytobeexecutedthanblackswhokillwhites.ForexamplethereismorethanatwofoldgreaterriskthatanAfrican-Americanwhokilledawhitewillbeexecutedthanawhitepersonwhokillsa4victim.AHispanicisatleast1.45morelikelytobeexecuted6suchanoffenderkillsawhite. Theresearchersofthestudybelievethattherearetwo7explanations..Firstprosecutorsoftenwin8officeiftheywinwell-publicizedcases.Whenablackkillsawhitesuchkillingsgetsmore9andthisideacanbe10bymanyfamouscases.11thecourtjudgesatthestatelevelareoften12toelectionscalledretentionelections.RetentionelectionorjudicialretentionwithintheUnitedStatescourtsystemisaperiodicprocessinwhichthevoter13approvalordisapprovalforthejudgespresently14theirpositionandajudgecanberemovedfromthepositionifthe15ofthecitizensvotehimorherout.Justastheresearchers16outdeathpenaltyis17political. ThefindingsofthestudyinshortshowthatAmericanjusticesystemsclearly18whitelivesmorethanthoseofblacksorHispanics.Theresearchersalsosaytheirfindings19seriousdoubtsabout20thattheU.S.criminaljusticesystemiscolorblind. 18
[A]TheNeedforScience [B]TheMethodsofScience [C]TheChallengeofUnsolvedProblems [D]TheSpecificFeaturesoftheLawsofScience [E]TheStepsinEstablishingaScientificTheory [F]TheRapidIncreaseofScientificKnowledge Itisthebusinessofthescientisttoaccumulateknowledgeabouttheuniverseandallthatisinit.andtofind.ifheisable.commonfactorswhichunderlieandaccountforthefactsthatheknows.Hechooseswhenhecanthemethodofthe"controlledexperiment". 41.______. Inthecourseofhisinquiriesthescientistmayfindwhathethinksisonecommonexplanationforanincreasingnumberoffacts.Theexplanationifitseemsconsistentlytofitthevariousfactsiscalledahypothesis.Ifahypothesiscontinuestostandthetestofnumerousexperimentsandremainsunshakenitbecomesalaw. 42.______. The"laws"ofsciencedifferfromthe"laws"ofacountryintwoways.Firstascientificlawisliableatanytimetoneedmodifying.Thishappenswhenafactisdiscoveredwhichseemstocontradictwhatthe"law"wouldleadonetoexpect.The"law"mayinfact.havetobeabandonedaltogether.Second.ascientific"law"says"Thisislikelytobetheexplanation"or"Thisaccountsforthefactsasfarasweknowthem".Butthe"law"ofthecountrysays"Youmust..."or"Youmustnot..."Thescientific"law"hasnomoralforce;itisnotbindingonhumanbehaviornorapprovedoropposedbyhumanconscience. 43.______. Theevidenceastothevastnessoftheuniverseandthecomplexityofitsarrangementscontinuestogrowatanamazingrate.Thegapbetweenwhatweknowandallthatcanbeknownseemsnottodiminishbutrathertoincreasewitheverynewdiscovery.Freshunexploredregionsareforeveropeningout.Therapidityofthegrowthofscientificknowledgeinthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturiesisapttogivestudentsandteacherstheimpressionthatnosoonerisaproblemstatedthantheanswerisforthcoming.Amoredetailedstudyofthehistoryofsciencecorrectstheimpressionthatfundamentaldiscoveriesaremadewithdramaticsuddenness.Eveninourpresentagenolessthanfiftyyearsseparatethediscoveryofradioactivityfromtheexplosionofthefirstatomicbomb.Theteachergivinghisbriefaccountsofscientificdiscoveryisapttoforgetthelongperiodsofmisunderstandingoffalsehypothesesandgeneraluncertaintywhichalmostinvariablyprecedetheclearstatementofscientifictruth. 44.______. Thevastmassofinformationwhichscientistshavegainedhasprovidedtheanswertothefundamentalquestionswhichthroughthecenturieshavepuzzledandsometimestorturedthehumanmind.Therearemanysuchquestions.Thestudyofparasiteshasprovidedevidencethatorganismswhichcouldbeself-supportinghavebecomeparasitesbuthardlyanylighthasbeenshedontheproblemofwhytheyshouldhavedoneso.Whatenablesanorganismtorespondtothepoisonoussecretionsofharmfulbacteriaandorganizeitsresourcestodefenditslife 45.______. Toraisethestandardoflivinginanycountrytwothingsarerequiredscientificknowledgeandapopulationsufficientlyeducatedtounderstandhowtoapplyit.Withoutthelattertheexpectedbenefitswillnotcome. Notes:ado麻烦忙乱bebindingon对......有约束力parasite寄生虫shedlighton使某事物更清楚些secretion分泌物 42
Anewstudyfindsthatblacksondeathrow1ofkillingwhitesaremorelikelytobeexecutedthanwhiteswhokillminorities.Italsoconcludesthatblackswhokill2minoritiesare3likelytobeexecutedthanblackswhokillwhites.ForexamplethereismorethanatwofoldgreaterriskthatanAfrican-Americanwhokilledawhitewillbeexecutedthanawhitepersonwhokillsa4victim.AHispanicisatleast1.45morelikelytobeexecuted6suchanoffenderkillsawhite. Theresearchersofthestudybelievethattherearetwo7explanations..Firstprosecutorsoftenwin8officeiftheywinwell-publicizedcases.Whenablackkillsawhitesuchkillingsgetsmore9andthisideacanbe10bymanyfamouscases.11thecourtjudgesatthestatelevelareoften12toelectionscalledretentionelections.RetentionelectionorjudicialretentionwithintheUnitedStatescourtsystemisaperiodicprocessinwhichthevoter13approvalordisapprovalforthejudgespresently14theirpositionandajudgecanberemovedfromthepositionifthe15ofthecitizensvotehimorherout.Justastheresearchers16outdeathpenaltyis17political. ThefindingsofthestudyinshortshowthatAmericanjusticesystemsclearly18whitelivesmorethanthoseofblacksorHispanics.Theresearchersalsosaytheirfindings19seriousdoubtsabout20thattheU.S.criminaljusticesystemiscolorblind. 16
Itishardtopredicthowscienceisgoingtoturnoutandifitisreallygoodscienceitisimpossibletopredict.Ifthethingstobefoundareactuallynewtheyarebydefinitionunknowninadvance.Youcannotmakechoicesinthismatter.46Youeitherhavescienceoryoudon’tandifyouhaveityouareobligedtoacceptthesurprisinganddisturbingpiecesofinformationalongwiththeneatandpromptlyusefulbits. TheonlysolidpieceofscientifictruthaboutwhichIfeeltotallyconfidentisthatweaxeprofoundlyignorantaboutnature.IndeedIregardthisasthemajordiscoveryofthepasthundredyearsofbiology.Itisinitswayanilluminatingpieceofnews.47Itwouldhaveamazedthebrightestmindsofthe18thcenturyEnlightenmenttobetoldbyanyofushowlittleweknowandhowbewilderingseemsthewayahead.48Itisthissuddenconfrontationwiththedepthandscopeofignorancethatrepresentsthemostsignificantcontributionofthe20thcenturysciencetothehumanintellect.Inearliertimesweeitherpretendedtounderstandhowthingsworkedorignoredtheproblemorsimplymadeupstoriestofillthegaps.Nowthatwehavebegunexploringinearnestwearegettingglimpsesofhowhugethequestionsareandhowfarfrombeinganswered.Becauseofthiswearedepressed.49Itisnotsobadbeingignorantifyouaretotallyignorant;thehardthingisknowinginsomedetailtherealityofignorancetheworstspotsandhereandtherethenot-so-badspotsbutnotruelightattheendofthetunnelnorevenanytunnelsthatcanyetbetrusted. Butwearemakingabeginningandthereoughttobesomesatisfaction.Thereareprobablynoquestionswecanthinkupthatcan’tbeansweredsoonerorlaterincludingeventhematterofconsciousness.50Tobesuretheremaywellbequestionswecan’tthinkupeverandthereforelimitstothereachofhumanintellectbutthatisanothermatter.Withinourlimitsweshouldbeabletoworkourwaythroughtoallouranswersifwekeepatitlongenoughandpayattention. 46Youeitherhavescienceoryoudon’tandifyouhaveityouareobligedtoacceptthesurprisinganddisturbingpiecesofinformationalongwiththeneatandpromptlyusefulbits.
Itistrueasthemovementcriticsassertthatthepresentwomen’sliberationgroupsarealmostentirelybasedamong"middleclass"womenthatiscollegeandcareerwomen;andtheissuesofpsychologicalandsexualexploitationandtoalesserextentexploitationthroughconsumptionhavebeenthemostprominentones. Itisnotsurprisingthatthewomen’sliberationmovementshouldbeginamongbourgeoiswomenandshouldbedominatedinthebeginningbytheirconsciousnessandtheirparticularconcerns.Radicalwomenaregenerallythepostwarmiddleclassgenerationthatgrewupwiththerighttovotethechanceathighereducationandtrainingforsupportiverolesintheprofessionsandbusiness.Mostofthemareyoungandsophisticatedenoughtohavenotyethadchildrenanddonothavetomarrytosupportthemselves.Incomparisonwithmostwomentheyarecapableofacertainamountofcontrolovertheirlives. Thehigherdevelopmentofbourgeoisdemocraticsocietyallowsthewomenwhobenefitfromeducationandrelativeequalitytoseethecontradictionsbetweenitsrhetoriceverychildcanbecomepresidentandtheiractualplaceinthatsociety.Theworkingclasswomanmightbelievethateducationcouldhavemadeherfinanciallyindependentbuttheeducatedcareerwomanfindsthatmoneyhasnotmadeherindependent.Infactbecauseshehasbeenallowedtoprogresshalfwayontheupward-mobilityladdershecanseetherestofthedistancethatisdeniedheronlybecausesheisawoman.Shecanseethesimilaritybetweenheroppressionandthatofothersectionsofthepopulation.Thusfromtheirownexperienceradicalwomeninthemovementareawareofmorefaultsinthesocietythanracismandimperialism.Becausetheyhavepushedthedemocraticmythtoitslimitstheyknowconcretelyhowitlimitsthem. AtthesametimethatradicalwomenwerelearningaboutAmericansocietytheywerealsobecomingawareofthemalechauvinisminthemovement.Infactthatisusuallythecauseoftheirfirstconscious100verbalizationoftheprejudicetheyfeel;itismoredisillusioningtoknowthatthesamecontradictionexistsbetweenthemovement’srhetoricofequalityanditsrealityforweexpectmoreofourcomrades. Thisrealizationofthedeep-seatedprejudiceagainstthemselvesinthemovementproducestwocommonreactionsamongitswomen:1apreoccupationwiththisimmediatebarrierandperhapsaresultanthopelessnessand2atendencytoretreatinwardtobuythefool’sgoldofcreatingapersonallyliberatedlifestyle. Howeverourconceptofliberationrepresentsaconsciousnessthatconditionshaveforcedonuswhilemostofoursistersarechainedbyotherconditionsbiologicalandeconomicthatoverwhelmtheirhumanityanddesiresforself-fulfillment.Ourbackgroundaccountsforourignoranceaboutthestarkoppressionofwomen’sdailylives. Theauthorimpliesinthelastparagraphthat
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