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StartingwithhisreviewofSkinner’sVerbalBehaviorNoamChomskyhadledthepsycholinguistswhoarguethatmanhasdevelopedaninnate天生的capacityfordealingwiththelinguisticuniversalscommontoalllanguages.Experienceandlearningthenprovideonlyinformationaboutthe1instancesofthoseuniversalaspectsoflanguagewhichareneededtocommunicatewithotherpeoplewithinaparticularlanguage2. Thislinguisticapproach3theviewthatlanguageisbuiltuponlearnedassociationsbetweenwords.Whatislearnedisnotstringsofwordsperse本身but4rulesthatenableaspeakerto5aninfinitevarietyofnovelsentences.6singlewordsarelearnedasconcepts:theydonotstandinaone-to-one7withtheparticularthingsignifiedbut8allmembersofageneralclass. Thisviewoftheinnateaspectoflanguagelearningisatfirstnotreadily9intoexistingpsychologicalframeworksand10achallengethathasstimulatedmuchthoughtandnewresearchdirections.Chomskyarguesthatapreconditionforlanguagedevelopmentistheexistenceofcertainprinciples"intrinsic原有的tothemind"thatprovideinvariantstructures11perceivinglearningandthinking.Language12alloftheseprocesses;thusitsstudy13ourtheoriesofknowledgeingeneral. Basictothismodeloflanguageisthenotionthatachild’slearningoflanguageisakindoftheory14.It’sthoughttobeaccomplished15explicitinstruction16ofintelligencelevelatanearlyagewhenheisnotcapableofothercomplex17ormotorachievementsandwithrelativelylittlereliabledatatogoon.18thechildconstructsatheoryofanideallanguagewhichhasbroad19power.Chomskyarguesthatallchildrencouldnotdevelopthesamebasictheory20itnotfortheinnateexistenceofpropertiesofmentalorganizationwhichlimitthepossiblepropertiesoflanguages. 12
InFebruaryof1997DollythefirstsuccessfulmammalianclonewasborninEdinburghScotland.WiththeextensivenewscoverageofthismomentouseventthestudyofgeneticengineeringandrecombinantDNAwasthrownintothepublicspotlight. 41__________Muchofthisunfoundedfearisbaseduponmemoriesofpoorlyresearchedsciencefictionnovelsfearoftheunknownanda"growingmistrustofscience". 42__________Forexampleitwillbepossibleforcowstobegeneticallyengineeredtoproducepharmaceuticalsintheirmilk.Thismeansthatvaccinationshotsandpillswouldbecomeobsolete.Babiescouldbebroughtupimmunetodiseasesbysimplybeingfedthismilk.ImaginetheimpactonthequalityoflifeforpeoplewholiveinthirdworldcountrieslikeSomalia.Wholecountriescouldbemadehealthyandimmunetodisease. 43__________Ricedoesnotprovideallofthenutrientsthatthebodyneedsandinthesecountriesotherfoodisveryscarce.Ifriceorbreadanothermajorstaplearegeneticallyengineeredtocontainadditionalnecessaryvitaminsandmineralsthenwecouldgoalongwaytowardswipingoutmalnutritionallovertheworld. 44__________Organtransplantsandcosmeticprocedureslikesiliconebreastimplantsthatmaycausediseasewouldsoonceasetoexist.Insteadofusingmaterialsforeigntothebodyforsuchproceduresdoctorswillbeabletomanufacturebonefatconnectivetissueorcartilagethatmatchthepatient’stissuesexactlythusensuringthattheneededtissuewillbefreeofrejectionbytheirimmunesystem.Victimsofterribleaccidentsthatdeformthefaceandbodywouldbeabletohavetheirfeaturesrepairedwithnewsafertechnology. 45__________ Throughouttimepeoplehavealwaysbeenafraidofnewtechnologyandthepoweritmightpossess.Whenthecarwasfirstinventedsomecontemporaryscientistswereconvincedthatthehumanbodycouldnotsurviveatspeedsashighastwentymilesperhour.Atonetimebirthcontrolpillsinvitrofertilizationandhearttransplantswerecriticizedonthesamegrounds. Geneticengineeringisanextremelynewaspectofourtechnologicalresearchandshouldatallcostsbeallowedtodevelopfurther.Theimmensepossiblebenefitsfromgeneticengineeringareendlessandshouldnotbeoverlooked.Geneticengineeringthenisatoolthathumanscanusetocuremanyoftheirproblems. [A]Eventhoughtherisksaregreatthebeneficialpossibilitiesareendless.Geneticengineeringshouldbeallowedtoprogressbecauseofthepotentialbenefitsforthehumanspeciesoutweightheconsequences. [B]Scientistsareonlybeginningtoexplorethedangersandbenefitsofgeneticengineering.YetinsteadofseeingtheimmensepotentialbenefitsmuchoftheAmericanpublicisautomaticallyrejectingthisfieldofresearch. [C]Geneticengineeringalsohasthepowertocureinfertilitywhichapainfulrealitythatmanycouplesthroughouttheworldface. [D]Evenwithallthesemiraculousbenefitsmanypeoplethroughouttheworldfeelthattheissueofgeneticengineeringisabsolutelypreposterousandextremelyunethical.Suchopinionsareunderstandableconsideringthatthemajorityofpeoplearealwaysgoingtobeafraidoftheunknown. [E]Malnutritionacommonprobleminmanythirdworldcountrieswhereimpoverishedpeoplesrelyonasinglecropsuchasriceforthemainstapleoftheirdietcouldalsopossiblybecuredwithgeneticengineering. [F]Butperhapstheareathatstandstobenefitthemostfromgeneticengineeringismedicine. [G]Geneticengineeringislikeperformingheartsurgerywithashovel.ScientistsdonotyetunderstandlivingsystemscompletelyenoughtoperformDNAsurgerywithoutcreatingmutationswhichcouldbeharmfultotheenvironmentandourhealth. 42
Thetopicofcloninghasbeenapoliticallyandethicallycontroversialonesinceitsverybeginning.Whilethemoralandphilosophicalaspectsoftheissuesareentirelyuptotheinterpretationoftheindividualtheapplicationofcloningtechnologycanbestudiedobjectively.Manyinthescientificcommunityadvocatetheuseofcloningforthepreservationandsupportofendangeredspeciesofanimalswhichasidefromcloninghavenootherpracticalhopeforavoidingextinction. Thegoaloftheuseofcloningtoavoidextinctionisthereintroductionofnewgenesintothegenepoolofspecieswithfewsurvivorsensuringthemaintenanceandexpansionofgeneticdiversity.LikelycandidatesforthistechniquearespeciesknowntohaveveryfewsurvivingmemberssuchastheAfricanBongoAntelopetheSumatranTigerandtheChineseGiantPanda.InthecaseofGiantPandasomeartificialtechniquesforcreatingoffspringhavealreadybeenperformedperhapspavingthewayforcloningasthenextstepintheprocess. Withtheestimatedpopulationofonlyabout1000GiantPandasleftintheworldtheurgencyofthesituationhasledtodesperatemeasures.OnepandawasbornthroughthetechniqueofartificialinseminationintheSanDiegoZoointheUnitedStates."HuaMei"wasbornin1999afterherparentsHsing-HsingandLing-Linghadtroubleconceivingnaturally. TheplantoincreasetheGiantPandapopulationthroughtheuseofcloninginvolvestheuseofaspeciesrelatedtotheGiantPandatheAmericanBlackBear.EggcellswillberemovedfromfemaleblackbearsandthenfertilizedwithPandacellssuchasthosefromLing-LingorHsing-Hsing.Thefertilizedembryowillthenre-implantedintotheblackbearwhereitwillgrowandmatureuntilanewpandaisdeliveredfromtheblackbearhost. Criticsofcloningtechnologyarguethattheemphasisoncloningasamethodbywhichtopreservespecieswilldrawfundingawayfromothermethodssuchashabitatpreservationandconservation.Proponentsofcloningcounterthatmanycountriesinwhichmanyendangeredspeciesexistaretoopoortoprotectandmaintainthespecies’habitatsanywaymakingcloningtechnologytheonlypracticalwaytoensurethatthosespeciessurvivetofuturegenerations.Theissueisstillhotlydebatedasbothsidesweighthebenefitsthatcouldbeachievedagainsttherisksandethicalconcernsthatconstantlyaccompanyanyargumentontheissue. Paragraph4iswritteninorderto
Thetopicofcloninghasbeenapoliticallyandethicallycontroversialonesinceitsverybeginning.Whilethemoralandphilosophicalaspectsoftheissuesareentirelyuptotheinterpretationoftheindividualtheapplicationofcloningtechnologycanbestudiedobjectively.Manyinthescientificcommunityadvocatetheuseofcloningforthepreservationandsupportofendangeredspeciesofanimalswhichasidefromcloninghavenootherpracticalhopeforavoidingextinction. Thegoaloftheuseofcloningtoavoidextinctionisthereintroductionofnewgenesintothegenepoolofspecieswithfewsurvivorsensuringthemaintenanceandexpansionofgeneticdiversity.LikelycandidatesforthistechniquearespeciesknowntohaveveryfewsurvivingmemberssuchastheAfricanBongoAntelopetheSumatranTigerandtheChineseGiantPanda.InthecaseofGiantPandasomeartificialtechniquesforcreatingoffspringhavealreadybeenperformedperhapspavingthewayforcloningasthenextstepintheprocess. Withtheestimatedpopulationofonlyabout1000GiantPandasleftintheworldtheurgencyofthesituationhasledtodesperatemeasures.OnepandawasbornthroughthetechniqueofartificialinseminationintheSanDiegoZoointheUnitedStates."HuaMei"wasbornin1999afterherparentsHsing-HsingandLing-Linghadtroubleconceivingnaturally. TheplantoincreasetheGiantPandapopulationthroughtheuseofcloninginvolvestheuseofaspeciesrelatedtotheGiantPandatheAmericanBlackBear.EggcellswillberemovedfromfemaleblackbearsandthenfertilizedwithPandacellssuchasthosefromLing-LingorHsing-Hsing.Thefertilizedembryowillthenre-implantedintotheblackbearwhereitwillgrowandmatureuntilanewpandaisdeliveredfromtheblackbearhost. Criticsofcloningtechnologyarguethattheemphasisoncloningasamethodbywhichtopreservespecieswilldrawfundingawayfromothermethodssuchashabitatpreservationandconservation.Proponentsofcloningcounterthatmanycountriesinwhichmanyendangeredspeciesexistaretoopoortoprotectandmaintainthespecies’habitatsanywaymakingcloningtechnologytheonlypracticalwaytoensurethatthosespeciessurvivetofuturegenerations.Theissueisstillhotlydebatedasbothsidesweighthebenefitsthatcouldbeachievedagainsttherisksandethicalconcernsthatconstantlyaccompanyanyargumentontheissue. Itcanbeinferredfromtheinformationgiveninthetextthatthebestcandidateforcloningwouldbe
ForyearsInternetmerchantshavepouredmillionsofdollarsintonewtechnologiestomaketheirsiteseasiertouse.Sowhyaren’tonlinecustomershappier Customersatisfactionlevelshaveremainedalmostflatthroughthelastseveralyears.TheproblemaccordingtoLarryFreedchiefexecutiveofaconsultingandresearchfirmcalledForeSeeResultsisnotsomuchthatconsumershaveignoredthemanyimprovementsmadeinrecentyears.RatherhesaidtheystillexpectmorefromInternetshoppingthanithasdelivered. "Ifwewalkintoalocalstorewedon’texpectthatexperiencetobebetterthanitwasacoupleyearsago"Mr.Freedsaid."Butweexpectsitestobebetter.Thebargoesupeveryyear."InForeSee’slatestsurveyreleasedlastmonthjustfivee-commercesitesregisteredscoreshigherthan80outof100andnositescoredhigherthan85.Itwasmuchthesamestoryayearagowhenjustfivescoredhigherthan80withnositesurpassing85."Scoreshaveinchedupovertimeforthebeste-commercecompaniesbuttheoverallnumbershaven’tmoveddrastically"Mr.Freedsaid."Atthesametimethoughifyoudon’tdoanythingyouseeyourscoresdropsteadily." ThatdynamichasbeenachallengeforonlinemerchantsandinvestorswhoadecadeagoenvisionedInternetstoresasrelativelyinexpensiveandthereforeextremelyprofitableoperations.NowsomeobserverspredictafuturewhereonlineretailerswillessentiallyadoptsomethingliketheQVCmodelwithsalesstaffpitchingthesite’smerchandisewithpolishedvideopresentationsproducedinahigh-techtelevisionstudio. QVC.comisevolvinginthatdirection.TheWebsitewhichsoldmorethan$1billioninmerchandisein2006hasforthelastfiveyearsletvisitorswatchalivefeedofthenetwork’sbroadcast.ButinrecentmonthsQVC.comhasalsogivenvisitorsthechancetowatcharchivesofentireshowsandinthecomingmonthsvisitorswillbeabletofindmorevideosegmentsfromrecentshowsfeaturingindividualproductsthatremaininstock.BobMyersseniorvicepresidentofQVC.comsaidtheWebsite’svideosalesmanshipisespeciallyeffectivewhencombinedwithdetailedproductinformationcustomerreviewsandmultiplephotographs. Abouteightmonthsagoforinstanceacustomersaidthatshecouldnotdeterminethesizeofahandbagfromthephotographsonthesitebecauseshecouldnottelltheheightofthemodelwhowasholdingit.Withintwoweeksthesitetestedandintroducedanewsystemshowingthebagswithwomenofthreedifferentheights.Theresultswereimmediate:womenwhosawthenewphotographsboughtthebagsatleast10percentmorefrequentlythanthosewhohadnot. StillMr.Myerssaidvideoisacriticallyimportantelementtosales."E-commercestartedwithtelevisioncommerce"hesaid."Thesiteswhoengageandentertaincustomerswillbewinninghereinthenearfuture."Suchaprospectisnotnecessarilydauntingtoothere-commerceexecutives.GordonMageeheadofInternetmarketingforDrs.Foster&SmithbasedinaRhinelanderWis.saidatransitiontovideo"willbeseamlessforus."ThecompanyMr.Mageesaidhasinrecentweeksdiscussedputtingsomeofitsproductonvideo"socustomerscouldseea360-degreeviewtheydon’thavetomanipulatethemselves. TheresultofForeSee’srecentsurveyshowsthat
Directions: Writeanessayof160-200wordsbasedonthefollowingpicture.Inyouressayyoushould 1describethepicturebriefly 2explainitsintendedmeaningandthen 3supportyourviewwithanexample/examples YoushouldwriteneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.20points
ItishardtoboxagainstasouthpawasApolloCreedfoundoutwhenhefoughtRockyBalboainthefirstofaninterminableseriesofmovies.While"Rocky"isfictionthestrategicadvantageofbeingleft-handedinafightisveryrealsimplybecausemostright-handedpeoplehavelittleexperienceoffightingleft-handersbutnotviceversa.Andthesamecompetitiveadvantageisenjoyedbyleft-handersinothersportssuchastennisandcricket. Theorthodoxviewofhumanhandednessisthatitisconnectedtothebilateralspecializationofthebrainthathasconcentratedlanguage-processingfunctionsontheleftsideofthatorgan.Becauselongagointheevolutionarypastanancestorofhumansandallothervertebrateanimalsunderwentacontortionthattwisteditsheadaround180°relativetoitsbodytheleftsideofthebraincontrolstherightsideofthebodyandviceversa.Inhumanstheleftbrainandthustherightbodyisusuallydominant.Andonaverageleft-handersaresmallerandlighterthanright-handers.Thatshouldputthematanevolutionarydisadvantage.Sportingadvantagenotwithstandingthereforetheexistenceofleft-handednessposesaproblemforbiologists.ButCharlotteFaurieandMichelRaymondoftheUniversityofMontpellierⅡinFrancethinktheyknowtheanswer.AstheyreportintheProceedingsoftheRoyalSocietythereisaclueintheadvantageseeninboxing. Asanyschoolboycouldtellyouwinningfightsenhancesyourstatus.Ifinprehistorythistranslatedintoincreasedreproductivesuccessitmighthavebeenenoughtomaintainacertainproportionofleft-handersinthepopulationbybalancingthecostsofbeingleft-handedwiththeadvantagesgainedinfighting.Ifthatistruethentherewillbeahigherproportionofleft-handersinsocietieswithhigherlevelsofviolencesincetheadvantagesofbeingleft-handedwillbeenhancedinsuchsocieties.DrFaurieandDrRaymondsetouttotestthishypothesis. Fightinginmodernsocietiesofteninvolvestheuseoftechnologynotablyfirearmsthatisunlikelytogiveanyadvantagetoleft-handers.SoDrFaurieandDrRaymonddecidedtoconfinetheirinvestigationtotheproportionofleft-handersandthelevelofviolencebynumberofhomicidesintraditionalsocieties. Bytrawlingtheliteraturecheckingwithpolicedepartmentsandevengoingoutintothefieldandaskingpeoplethetworesearchersfoundthattheproportionofleft-handersinatraditionalsocietyisindeedcorrelatedwithitshomiciderate.Oneofthehighestproportionsofleft-handersforexamplewasfoundamongtheYanomamoofSouthAmerica.RaidingandwarfarearecentraltoYanomamoculture.Themurderrateis4per1000inhabitantsperyearcomparedwithforexample0.068inNewYork.AndaccordingtoDrFaurieandDrRaymond22.6%ofYanomamoareleft-handed.IncontrastDioula-speakingpeopleofBurkinaFasoinWestAfricaarevirtualpacifists.Thereareonly0.013murdersper1000inhabitantsamongthemandonly3.4%ofthepopulationisleft-handed. Whilethereisnosuggestionthatleft-handedpeoplearemoreviolentthantheright-handeditlooksasthoughtheyaremoresuccessfullyviolent.Perhapsthathelpstoexplainthedoublemeaningoftheword"sinister". ThestoryofApolloCreedismentionedinthepassagetoshowthat
StartingwithhisreviewofSkinner’sVerbalBehaviorNoamChomskyhadledthepsycholinguistswhoarguethatmanhasdevelopedaninnate天生的capacityfordealingwiththelinguisticuniversalscommontoalllanguages.Experienceandlearningthenprovideonlyinformationaboutthe1instancesofthoseuniversalaspectsoflanguagewhichareneededtocommunicatewithotherpeoplewithinaparticularlanguage2. Thislinguisticapproach3theviewthatlanguageisbuiltuponlearnedassociationsbetweenwords.Whatislearnedisnotstringsofwordsperse本身but4rulesthatenableaspeakerto5aninfinitevarietyofnovelsentences.6singlewordsarelearnedasconcepts:theydonotstandinaone-to-one7withtheparticularthingsignifiedbut8allmembersofageneralclass. Thisviewoftheinnateaspectoflanguagelearningisatfirstnotreadily9intoexistingpsychologicalframeworksand10achallengethathasstimulatedmuchthoughtandnewresearchdirections.Chomskyarguesthatapreconditionforlanguagedevelopmentistheexistenceofcertainprinciples"intrinsic原有的tothemind"thatprovideinvariantstructures11perceivinglearningandthinking.Language12alloftheseprocesses;thusitsstudy13ourtheoriesofknowledgeingeneral. Basictothismodeloflanguageisthenotionthatachild’slearningoflanguageisakindoftheory14.It’sthoughttobeaccomplished15explicitinstruction16ofintelligencelevelatanearlyagewhenheisnotcapableofothercomplex17ormotorachievementsandwithrelativelylittlereliabledatatogoon.18thechildconstructsatheoryofanideallanguagewhichhasbroad19power.Chomskyarguesthatallchildrencouldnotdevelopthesamebasictheory20itnotfortheinnateexistenceofpropertiesofmentalorganizationwhichlimitthepossiblepropertiesoflanguages. 20
ItishardtoboxagainstasouthpawasApolloCreedfoundoutwhenhefoughtRockyBalboainthefirstofaninterminableseriesofmovies.While"Rocky"isfictionthestrategicadvantageofbeingleft-handedinafightisveryrealsimplybecausemostright-handedpeoplehavelittleexperienceoffightingleft-handersbutnotviceversa.Andthesamecompetitiveadvantageisenjoyedbyleft-handersinothersportssuchastennisandcricket. Theorthodoxviewofhumanhandednessisthatitisconnectedtothebilateralspecializationofthebrainthathasconcentratedlanguage-processingfunctionsontheleftsideofthatorgan.Becauselongagointheevolutionarypastanancestorofhumansandallothervertebrateanimalsunderwentacontortionthattwisteditsheadaround180°relativetoitsbodytheleftsideofthebraincontrolstherightsideofthebodyandviceversa.Inhumanstheleftbrainandthustherightbodyisusuallydominant.Andonaverageleft-handersaresmallerandlighterthanright-handers.Thatshouldputthematanevolutionarydisadvantage.Sportingadvantagenotwithstandingthereforetheexistenceofleft-handednessposesaproblemforbiologists.ButCharlotteFaurieandMichelRaymondoftheUniversityofMontpellierⅡinFrancethinktheyknowtheanswer.AstheyreportintheProceedingsoftheRoyalSocietythereisaclueintheadvantageseeninboxing. Asanyschoolboycouldtellyouwinningfightsenhancesyourstatus.Ifinprehistorythistranslatedintoincreasedreproductivesuccessitmighthavebeenenoughtomaintainacertainproportionofleft-handersinthepopulationbybalancingthecostsofbeingleft-handedwiththeadvantagesgainedinfighting.Ifthatistruethentherewillbeahigherproportionofleft-handersinsocietieswithhigherlevelsofviolencesincetheadvantagesofbeingleft-handedwillbeenhancedinsuchsocieties.DrFaurieandDrRaymondsetouttotestthishypothesis. Fightinginmodernsocietiesofteninvolvestheuseoftechnologynotablyfirearmsthatisunlikelytogiveanyadvantagetoleft-handers.SoDrFaurieandDrRaymonddecidedtoconfinetheirinvestigationtotheproportionofleft-handersandthelevelofviolencebynumberofhomicidesintraditionalsocieties. Bytrawlingtheliteraturecheckingwithpolicedepartmentsandevengoingoutintothefieldandaskingpeoplethetworesearchersfoundthattheproportionofleft-handersinatraditionalsocietyisindeedcorrelatedwithitshomiciderate.Oneofthehighestproportionsofleft-handersforexamplewasfoundamongtheYanomamoofSouthAmerica.RaidingandwarfarearecentraltoYanomamoculture.Themurderrateis4per1000inhabitantsperyearcomparedwithforexample0.068inNewYork.AndaccordingtoDrFaurieandDrRaymond22.6%ofYanomamoareleft-handed.IncontrastDioula-speakingpeopleofBurkinaFasoinWestAfricaarevirtualpacifists.Thereareonly0.013murdersper1000inhabitantsamongthemandonly3.4%ofthepopulationisleft-handed. Whilethereisnosuggestionthatleft-handedpeoplearemoreviolentthantheright-handeditlooksasthoughtheyaremoresuccessfullyviolent.Perhapsthathelpstoexplainthedoublemeaningoftheword"sinister". Whichofthefollowingmightbethebesttitleforthepassage
Irememberonenightafewyearsagowhenmydaughterwasfranticwithworry.AftermyHarvardExtensionSchoolclassesIusuallyarrivedatthebusstationnearmyhomeby11p.m.butonthatnightIwasnowheretobefound.Mydaughterwasnervous.Itwasn’tsafeforasinglewomantowalkaloneonthestreetsatnightespeciallyoneasdefenselessasIam:IcanslayamuggerwithmysharpwitbutIamjusttooshorttodoanyrealphysicaldamage. Thatnightmydaughtercheckedthebusstationdrovearoundthestreetsandcontactedsomefriends.Butshecouldn’tfindme--untilshecalledmyastronomyprofessorwhotoldherthatIwasontopoftheScienceCenterusingthetelescopetogazeatthestars.UnawareofthetimeIhadgottenlostintheheavensandwasonlythinkingaboutthenewthingsIhadlearnedthatnightinclass. ThisstoryillustratesahabitIhavedevelopedovertheyears:Ilosetrackofthetimewhenitcomestolearning.41.Imayhavestartedlate;butIwillcontinuetolearnaslongasIamablebecausethereisnogreaterfeelinginmyopinionthantravelingtoafarawaycountryasIhaveandbeingabletoidentifybysightthepaintingofafamousartistthestatueofanobscuresculptorthecathedralofanancientarchitect.42.SoIwillcontinuetotakeclassesandtellmystory. Latelyitseemsthateveryoneisaskingme"Marywhatadvicedoyouhaveforotherstudents"SowhileIhaveyouallhereImgoingtoeasemyburdenofansweringyoueachindividually:43.SolistentomewhenItellyouthis:Knowledgeispower. MystudieswereinterruptedwhenIwasinthe7thgradebacksometimearoundWorldWarI.IlovedschoolbutIwasforcedtoleaveittocareformyfamily.Iwascon-signedtoworkinaRhodeIslandcottonmillwhereIlaboredformanyyears.Ieventuallymarriedandraised5children20grandchildrenand18great-grandchildren.ButallthewhileIfeltinferiortothosearoundme.IknewIwasassmartasacollegegraduate.IknewIwascapableofdoingajobwell—Ihadproveditbyrunningasuccessfulfamilybusinessfordecadesthatstillexists.ButIwantedmore.IwantedtofeelconfidentwhenIspokeandIWantedpeopletorespectmyopinions.Doesitsurpriseyoutodiscoverhowmuchyouhaveincommonwithan89yearoldwoman44. 45.Thatbeliefiswhathasmotivatedmeforthelast75yearstogetthisdegree.ItisalsothemissionoftheHarvardExtensionSchool.WithoutthesupportIreceivedfromthisschoolImightnothavegraduateduntilIwas100--aphrasethatmanyofyouhaveprobablyusedinjest. [A]IfthesayingistruethatwisdomcomeswithageyoumaysafelyassumethatIamoneofthewisestpeopleinthishallandpossiblyatthisuniversitytoday. [B]fknowthatmanyofyougraduatestodaywhetheryouwere’bornin1907or1967havefacedsimilarbarrierstocompletingyourstudiesandhavesometimesfeltinferioraroundthoseyouworkorsocializewithjustbecauseyoudidn’thaveadegree. [C]Ifyouhavetreatededucationasyourmaingoalandnotassmeanstoanend.thenyoutoohaveprobablybeenclaimedasamissingpersononceinyouracademiccareerwhetheryouwerelostinthestarsorthestacksofWidenerLibrary. [D]ButIamheretodaylikeyouare--toprovethatitcanbedone;thatthepowergainedbyunderstandingandappreciatingtheworldarounduscanbeobtainedbyanyoneregardlessofsocialstatuspersonalchallenges.orage. [E]Howelsedoyouexplainawomanwhobeganhighschoolatage71andwhoisgraduatingwithabachelorsdegreeat89 [F]Andyoutooknowthatthejourneywasworthitandthatthepowerofknowledgemakesmethemostformidable89-year-oldwomanatthebusstop. [G]Ihavefoundthattheworldisafinalexamthatyoucanneverbepreparedenoughfor. 42
Thetopicofcloninghasbeenapoliticallyandethicallycontroversialonesinceitsverybeginning.Whilethemoralandphilosophicalaspectsoftheissuesareentirelyuptotheinterpretationoftheindividualtheapplicationofcloningtechnologycanbestudiedobjectively.Manyinthescientificcommunityadvocatetheuseofcloningforthepreservationandsupportofendangeredspeciesofanimalswhichasidefromcloninghavenootherpracticalhopeforavoidingextinction. Thegoaloftheuseofcloningtoavoidextinctionisthereintroductionofnewgenesintothegenepoolofspecieswithfewsurvivorsensuringthemaintenanceandexpansionofgeneticdiversity.LikelycandidatesforthistechniquearespeciesknowntohaveveryfewsurvivingmemberssuchastheAfricanBongoAntelopetheSumatranTigerandtheChineseGiantPanda.InthecaseofGiantPandasomeartificialtechniquesforcreatingoffspringhavealreadybeenperformedperhapspavingthewayforcloningasthenextstepintheprocess. Withtheestimatedpopulationofonlyabout1000GiantPandasleftintheworldtheurgencyofthesituationhasledtodesperatemeasures.OnepandawasbornthroughthetechniqueofartificialinseminationintheSanDiegoZoointheUnitedStates."HuaMei"wasbornin1999afterherparentsHsing-HsingandLing-Linghadtroubleconceivingnaturally. TheplantoincreasetheGiantPandapopulationthroughtheuseofcloninginvolvestheuseofaspeciesrelatedtotheGiantPandatheAmericanBlackBear.EggcellswillberemovedfromfemaleblackbearsandthenfertilizedwithPandacellssuchasthosefromLing-LingorHsing-Hsing.Thefertilizedembryowillthenre-implantedintotheblackbearwhereitwillgrowandmatureuntilanewpandaisdeliveredfromtheblackbearhost. Criticsofcloningtechnologyarguethattheemphasisoncloningasamethodbywhichtopreservespecieswilldrawfundingawayfromothermethodssuchashabitatpreservationandconservation.Proponentsofcloningcounterthatmanycountriesinwhichmanyendangeredspeciesexistaretoopoortoprotectandmaintainthespecies’habitatsanywaymakingcloningtechnologytheonlypracticalwaytoensurethatthosespeciessurvivetofuturegenerations.Theissueisstillhotlydebatedasbothsidesweighthebenefitsthatcouldbeachievedagainsttherisksandethicalconcernsthatconstantlyaccompanyanyargumentontheissue. Theauthorraisestheissueofethicalconsiderationincloninginparagraph1inorderto
StartingwithhisreviewofSkinner’sVerbalBehaviorNoamChomskyhadledthepsycholinguistswhoarguethatmanhasdevelopedaninnate天生的capacityfordealingwiththelinguisticuniversalscommontoalllanguages.Experienceandlearningthenprovideonlyinformationaboutthe1instancesofthoseuniversalaspectsoflanguagewhichareneededtocommunicatewithotherpeoplewithinaparticularlanguage2. Thislinguisticapproach3theviewthatlanguageisbuiltuponlearnedassociationsbetweenwords.Whatislearnedisnotstringsofwordsperse本身but4rulesthatenableaspeakerto5aninfinitevarietyofnovelsentences.6singlewordsarelearnedasconcepts:theydonotstandinaone-to-one7withtheparticularthingsignifiedbut8allmembersofageneralclass. Thisviewoftheinnateaspectoflanguagelearningisatfirstnotreadily9intoexistingpsychologicalframeworksand10achallengethathasstimulatedmuchthoughtandnewresearchdirections.Chomskyarguesthatapreconditionforlanguagedevelopmentistheexistenceofcertainprinciples"intrinsic原有的tothemind"thatprovideinvariantstructures11perceivinglearningandthinking.Language12alloftheseprocesses;thusitsstudy13ourtheoriesofknowledgeingeneral. Basictothismodeloflanguageisthenotionthatachild’slearningoflanguageisakindoftheory14.It’sthoughttobeaccomplished15explicitinstruction16ofintelligencelevelatanearlyagewhenheisnotcapableofothercomplex17ormotorachievementsandwithrelativelylittlereliabledatatogoon.18thechildconstructsatheoryofanideallanguagewhichhasbroad19power.Chomskyarguesthatallchildrencouldnotdevelopthesamebasictheory20itnotfortheinnateexistenceofpropertiesofmentalorganizationwhichlimitthepossiblepropertiesoflanguages. 18
Arsenicanaturallyoccurringpoisonandcarcinogenfoundingroundwaterisstronglylinkedtoadult-onsetdiabetesU.S.researcherssaidonTuesday.Odorlesstastelesscolorlessandeasilysolubleinwaterorwinearsenichaslongbeenafearedpoison.Aheavydoseisdetectableinacorpsebutresearcherssaysmallamountsofarsenicmaysickenpeoplegradually. Dr.AnaNavas-AeienandcolleaguesatJohnsHopkinsUniversityinBaltimorefounda"relativelystrong"associationbetweencommonlyfoundlevelsofarsenicinurineandtype2diabetesinastudyofAmericanadults."Itseemsthereismaybenosafelevelofarsenic."Navas-Aciensaidinatelephoneinterview."Worldwideit’sahugeproblem"shesaid."Aswaterbecomesascarceresource.thesituationbecomesevenmoreserious." ArsenicraisestheriskforcancersofthebladderlungkidneyskinandpossiblytheprostateNavas-Aciensaid.The20percentofnearly800studyparticipantswhohadthemostarsenicintheirbodiesatolerable16.5microgramsperliterofurinehad3.6timestheriskofdevelopinglate-onsetdiabetesthanthoseinthebottom20percentwhohad3microgramsperliter.Levelsofarsenicwere26percenthigherinpeoplewithlate-onsetortype2diabetesthanthosewithoutthediseasethestudyfound. TheU.S.governmentsetsalimitfordrinkingwaterat10microgramsofarsenicperliterwhichisexceededinthewaterconsumedby13millionAmericanswhomostlyliveinruralareasthatrelyonwellstobringupgroundwatertheresearcherswroteintheJournaloftheAmericanMedicalAssociation.ArseniccontaminatesdrinkingwaterformillionsofpeopleinBangladeshpartsofCentralEuropeChileArgentinaandthewesternUnitedStateswheregroundwateristhesourceofdrinkingwaterandthelandhashigherconcentrationsofarsenic. Overall7.8percentofAmericansarebelievedtohavediabetesalthoughsomedonotknowit.Atleast90percentofcasesarethetype2varietyinwhichthebodylosesitsabilitytouseinsulinproperly.Navas-Aciensaidarsenicmayplayasignificantroleindiabetesincidencebutitisdifficulttosayhowmuch.Arseniccanaccumulateinthebodyandcanruinthebody’sabilitytouseinsulinandperformthevitaltaskofconvertingbloodsugarintoenergy.Normallyinsulinfitsintocellsviamoleculardoorwayscalledreceptorswhichinturnsignalthecelltomoveglucoseinsidebutarsenicentersthecellandsomehowblockstheactivity.Seafoodisanothersourceofarsenicbuttheorganicformfoundinshellfishandsomefishhasacarbonmoleculeattachedandposesnorisktohealthshesaid. Thesituationofarsenicinwatercausingdiabetesisworsenedby
Irememberonenightafewyearsagowhenmydaughterwasfranticwithworry.AftermyHarvardExtensionSchoolclassesIusuallyarrivedatthebusstationnearmyhomeby11p.m.butonthatnightIwasnowheretobefound.Mydaughterwasnervous.Itwasn’tsafeforasinglewomantowalkaloneonthestreetsatnightespeciallyoneasdefenselessasIam:IcanslayamuggerwithmysharpwitbutIamjusttooshorttodoanyrealphysicaldamage. Thatnightmydaughtercheckedthebusstationdrovearoundthestreetsandcontactedsomefriends.Butshecouldn’tfindme--untilshecalledmyastronomyprofessorwhotoldherthatIwasontopoftheScienceCenterusingthetelescopetogazeatthestars.UnawareofthetimeIhadgottenlostintheheavensandwasonlythinkingaboutthenewthingsIhadlearnedthatnightinclass. ThisstoryillustratesahabitIhavedevelopedovertheyears:Ilosetrackofthetimewhenitcomestolearning.41.Imayhavestartedlate;butIwillcontinuetolearnaslongasIamablebecausethereisnogreaterfeelinginmyopinionthantravelingtoafarawaycountryasIhaveandbeingabletoidentifybysightthepaintingofafamousartistthestatueofanobscuresculptorthecathedralofanancientarchitect.42.SoIwillcontinuetotakeclassesandtellmystory. Latelyitseemsthateveryoneisaskingme"Marywhatadvicedoyouhaveforotherstudents"SowhileIhaveyouallhereImgoingtoeasemyburdenofansweringyoueachindividually:43.SolistentomewhenItellyouthis:Knowledgeispower. MystudieswereinterruptedwhenIwasinthe7thgradebacksometimearoundWorldWarI.IlovedschoolbutIwasforcedtoleaveittocareformyfamily.Iwascon-signedtoworkinaRhodeIslandcottonmillwhereIlaboredformanyyears.Ieventuallymarriedandraised5children20grandchildrenand18great-grandchildren.ButallthewhileIfeltinferiortothosearoundme.IknewIwasassmartasacollegegraduate.IknewIwascapableofdoingajobwell—Ihadproveditbyrunningasuccessfulfamilybusinessfordecadesthatstillexists.ButIwantedmore.IwantedtofeelconfidentwhenIspokeandIWantedpeopletorespectmyopinions.Doesitsurpriseyoutodiscoverhowmuchyouhaveincommonwithan89yearoldwoman44. 45.Thatbeliefiswhathasmotivatedmeforthelast75yearstogetthisdegree.ItisalsothemissionoftheHarvardExtensionSchool.WithoutthesupportIreceivedfromthisschoolImightnothavegraduateduntilIwas100--aphrasethatmanyofyouhaveprobablyusedinjest. [A]IfthesayingistruethatwisdomcomeswithageyoumaysafelyassumethatIamoneofthewisestpeopleinthishallandpossiblyatthisuniversitytoday. [B]fknowthatmanyofyougraduatestodaywhetheryouwere’bornin1907or1967havefacedsimilarbarrierstocompletingyourstudiesandhavesometimesfeltinferioraroundthoseyouworkorsocializewithjustbecauseyoudidn’thaveadegree. [C]Ifyouhavetreatededucationasyourmaingoalandnotassmeanstoanend.thenyoutoohaveprobablybeenclaimedasamissingpersononceinyouracademiccareerwhetheryouwerelostinthestarsorthestacksofWidenerLibrary. [D]ButIamheretodaylikeyouare--toprovethatitcanbedone;thatthepowergainedbyunderstandingandappreciatingtheworldarounduscanbeobtainedbyanyoneregardlessofsocialstatuspersonalchallenges.orage. [E]Howelsedoyouexplainawomanwhobeganhighschoolatage71andwhoisgraduatingwithabachelorsdegreeat89 [F]Andyoutooknowthatthejourneywasworthitandthatthepowerofknowledgemakesmethemostformidable89-year-oldwomanatthebusstop. [G]Ihavefoundthattheworldisafinalexamthatyoucanneverbepreparedenoughfor. 44
ItishardtoboxagainstasouthpawasApolloCreedfoundoutwhenhefoughtRockyBalboainthefirstofaninterminableseriesofmovies.While"Rocky"isfictionthestrategicadvantageofbeingleft-handedinafightisveryrealsimplybecausemostright-handedpeoplehavelittleexperienceoffightingleft-handersbutnotviceversa.Andthesamecompetitiveadvantageisenjoyedbyleft-handersinothersportssuchastennisandcricket. Theorthodoxviewofhumanhandednessisthatitisconnectedtothebilateralspecializationofthebrainthathasconcentratedlanguage-processingfunctionsontheleftsideofthatorgan.Becauselongagointheevolutionarypastanancestorofhumansandallothervertebrateanimalsunderwentacontortionthattwisteditsheadaround180°relativetoitsbodytheleftsideofthebraincontrolstherightsideofthebodyandviceversa.Inhumanstheleftbrainandthustherightbodyisusuallydominant.Andonaverageleft-handersaresmallerandlighterthanright-handers.Thatshouldputthematanevolutionarydisadvantage.Sportingadvantagenotwithstandingthereforetheexistenceofleft-handednessposesaproblemforbiologists.ButCharlotteFaurieandMichelRaymondoftheUniversityofMontpellierⅡinFrancethinktheyknowtheanswer.AstheyreportintheProceedingsoftheRoyalSocietythereisaclueintheadvantageseeninboxing. Asanyschoolboycouldtellyouwinningfightsenhancesyourstatus.Ifinprehistorythistranslatedintoincreasedreproductivesuccessitmighthavebeenenoughtomaintainacertainproportionofleft-handersinthepopulationbybalancingthecostsofbeingleft-handedwiththeadvantagesgainedinfighting.Ifthatistruethentherewillbeahigherproportionofleft-handersinsocietieswithhigherlevelsofviolencesincetheadvantagesofbeingleft-handedwillbeenhancedinsuchsocieties.DrFaurieandDrRaymondsetouttotestthishypothesis. Fightinginmodernsocietiesofteninvolvestheuseoftechnologynotablyfirearmsthatisunlikelytogiveanyadvantagetoleft-handers.SoDrFaurieandDrRaymonddecidedtoconfinetheirinvestigationtotheproportionofleft-handersandthelevelofviolencebynumberofhomicidesintraditionalsocieties. Bytrawlingtheliteraturecheckingwithpolicedepartmentsandevengoingoutintothefieldandaskingpeoplethetworesearchersfoundthattheproportionofleft-handersinatraditionalsocietyisindeedcorrelatedwithitshomiciderate.Oneofthehighestproportionsofleft-handersforexamplewasfoundamongtheYanomamoofSouthAmerica.RaidingandwarfarearecentraltoYanomamoculture.Themurderrateis4per1000inhabitantsperyearcomparedwithforexample0.068inNewYork.AndaccordingtoDrFaurieandDrRaymond22.6%ofYanomamoareleft-handed.IncontrastDioula-speakingpeopleofBurkinaFasoinWestAfricaarevirtualpacifists.Thereareonly0.013murdersper1000inhabitantsamongthemandonly3.4%ofthepopulationisleft-handed. Whilethereisnosuggestionthatleft-handedpeoplearemoreviolentthantheright-handeditlooksasthoughtheyaremoresuccessfullyviolent.Perhapsthathelpstoexplainthedoublemeaningoftheword"sinister". Theresearcherschoosetocarryouttheirstudyintraditionalsocietiesbecause
Law-and-orderisthelongest-runningandprobablythebest-lovedpoliticalissueintheU.S.history. 46YetitispainfullyapparentthatmillionsofAmericanswhowouldneverthinkofthemselvesaslawbreakersletalonecriminalsaretakingincreasinglibertieswiththelegalcodesthataredesignedtoprotectandnourishtheirsociety.Indeedtherearemomentstodaywhenitseemsasthoughthescofflawrepresentsthewaveothefuture.47HarvardSociologistDavidRiesmansuspectsthatamajorityofAmericanshaveblithelytakentocommittingsupposedlyminorderelictionsasamatterofcourse.AlreadyRiesmansaystheethicofU.S.societyisindangerofbecomingthis."you’reafoolifyouobeytherules." NothingcouldbemoreobviousthantheevidencesupportingRiesman.Scofflawsaboundinamazingvariety.Thegraffiti-proneturnpublicsurfacesintovisualrubbish.Bicyclistsoftenrideasthoughtwo-wheeledvehiclesareexemptfromalltrafficlaws.Litterbugsconverttheircommunitiesintotrashdumps.48Widespreadflurriesofordinanceshavefailedtoclearpublicplacesofhigh-decibelportableradiosjustasearlierlawsfailedtowipeoutthebeer-soakedhooliganismthatplaguesmanyparks.TobaccoaddictsremainhopelesslyblindtosignsthatsayNOSMOKING.Respectablydressedpotsmokersnolongerbothertoduckoutofpublicsighttopassaroundajoint.Theflagrantuseofcocaineisafesteringscandalinmiddle-and-upper-classlife.AndthentherearehelloEverybody!thejaywalkers. Thedangersofscofflawryvarywidely.49Thepersonwhoillegallyspitsonthesidewalkremainsdisgustingbutclearlyposeslessrisktoothersthanthecompanythatillegallyburieshazardouschemicalwasteinanunauthorizedlocation.Thefarebeateronthesubwaypresentslessthreattolifethanthelandlordwhoignoresfiresafetystatutes.Themostimmediatelyandmeasurablydangerousscofflawryhoweveralsohappenstobethemostvisible.TheculpritistheAmericandriverwhoselawlessactivitiestodayadduptoacolossalpublicnuisance.50Thehazardsrangefromroutinedoubleparkingthatjamscitystreetstothedrunkdrivingthatkillssome25000peopleandinjuresatleast650000othersyearly.IllegalspeedingonopenhighwaysNewsurveysshowthatonsomeinterstatehighways83%ofalldriversarecurrentlyignoringthefederal55mphspeedlimit. 48Widespreadflurriesofordinanceshavefailedtoclearpublicplacesofhigh-decibelportableradiosjustasearlierlawsfailedtowipeoutthebeer-soakedhooliganismthatplaguesmanyparks.
StartingwithhisreviewofSkinner’sVerbalBehaviorNoamChomskyhadledthepsycholinguistswhoarguethatmanhasdevelopedaninnate天生的capacityfordealingwiththelinguisticuniversalscommontoalllanguages.Experienceandlearningthenprovideonlyinformationaboutthe1instancesofthoseuniversalaspectsoflanguagewhichareneededtocommunicatewithotherpeoplewithinaparticularlanguage2. Thislinguisticapproach3theviewthatlanguageisbuiltuponlearnedassociationsbetweenwords.Whatislearnedisnotstringsofwordsperse本身but4rulesthatenableaspeakerto5aninfinitevarietyofnovelsentences.6singlewordsarelearnedasconcepts:theydonotstandinaone-to-one7withtheparticularthingsignifiedbut8allmembersofageneralclass. Thisviewoftheinnateaspectoflanguagelearningisatfirstnotreadily9intoexistingpsychologicalframeworksand10achallengethathasstimulatedmuchthoughtandnewresearchdirections.Chomskyarguesthatapreconditionforlanguagedevelopmentistheexistenceofcertainprinciples"intrinsic原有的tothemind"thatprovideinvariantstructures11perceivinglearningandthinking.Language12alloftheseprocesses;thusitsstudy13ourtheoriesofknowledgeingeneral. Basictothismodeloflanguageisthenotionthatachild’slearningoflanguageisakindoftheory14.It’sthoughttobeaccomplished15explicitinstruction16ofintelligencelevelatanearlyagewhenheisnotcapableofothercomplex17ormotorachievementsandwithrelativelylittlereliabledatatogoon.18thechildconstructsatheoryofanideallanguagewhichhasbroad19power.Chomskyarguesthatallchildrencouldnotdevelopthesamebasictheory20itnotfortheinnateexistenceofpropertiesofmentalorganizationwhichlimitthepossiblepropertiesoflanguages. 2
StartingwithhisreviewofSkinner’sVerbalBehaviorNoamChomskyhadledthepsycholinguistswhoarguethatmanhasdevelopedaninnate天生的capacityfordealingwiththelinguisticuniversalscommontoalllanguages.Experienceandlearningthenprovideonlyinformationaboutthe1instancesofthoseuniversalaspectsoflanguagewhichareneededtocommunicatewithotherpeoplewithinaparticularlanguage2. Thislinguisticapproach3theviewthatlanguageisbuiltuponlearnedassociationsbetweenwords.Whatislearnedisnotstringsofwordsperse本身but4rulesthatenableaspeakerto5aninfinitevarietyofnovelsentences.6singlewordsarelearnedasconcepts:theydonotstandinaone-to-one7withtheparticularthingsignifiedbut8allmembersofageneralclass. Thisviewoftheinnateaspectoflanguagelearningisatfirstnotreadily9intoexistingpsychologicalframeworksand10achallengethathasstimulatedmuchthoughtandnewresearchdirections.Chomskyarguesthatapreconditionforlanguagedevelopmentistheexistenceofcertainprinciples"intrinsic原有的tothemind"thatprovideinvariantstructures11perceivinglearningandthinking.Language12alloftheseprocesses;thusitsstudy13ourtheoriesofknowledgeingeneral. Basictothismodeloflanguageisthenotionthatachild’slearningoflanguageisakindoftheory14.It’sthoughttobeaccomplished15explicitinstruction16ofintelligencelevelatanearlyagewhenheisnotcapableofothercomplex17ormotorachievementsandwithrelativelylittlereliabledatatogoon.18thechildconstructsatheoryofanideallanguagewhichhasbroad19power.Chomskyarguesthatallchildrencouldnotdevelopthesamebasictheory20itnotfortheinnateexistenceofpropertiesofmentalorganizationwhichlimitthepossiblepropertiesoflanguages. 10
InFebruaryof1997DollythefirstsuccessfulmammalianclonewasborninEdinburghScotland.WiththeextensivenewscoverageofthismomentouseventthestudyofgeneticengineeringandrecombinantDNAwasthrownintothepublicspotlight. 41__________Muchofthisunfoundedfearisbaseduponmemoriesofpoorlyresearchedsciencefictionnovelsfearoftheunknownanda"growingmistrustofscience". 42__________Forexampleitwillbepossibleforcowstobegeneticallyengineeredtoproducepharmaceuticalsintheirmilk.Thismeansthatvaccinationshotsandpillswouldbecomeobsolete.Babiescouldbebroughtupimmunetodiseasesbysimplybeingfedthismilk.ImaginetheimpactonthequalityoflifeforpeoplewholiveinthirdworldcountrieslikeSomalia.Wholecountriescouldbemadehealthyandimmunetodisease. 43__________Ricedoesnotprovideallofthenutrientsthatthebodyneedsandinthesecountriesotherfoodisveryscarce.Ifriceorbreadanothermajorstaplearegeneticallyengineeredtocontainadditionalnecessaryvitaminsandmineralsthenwecouldgoalongwaytowardswipingoutmalnutritionallovertheworld. 44__________Organtransplantsandcosmeticprocedureslikesiliconebreastimplantsthatmaycausediseasewouldsoonceasetoexist.Insteadofusingmaterialsforeigntothebodyforsuchproceduresdoctorswillbeabletomanufacturebonefatconnectivetissueorcartilagethatmatchthepatient’stissuesexactlythusensuringthattheneededtissuewillbefreeofrejectionbytheirimmunesystem.Victimsofterribleaccidentsthatdeformthefaceandbodywouldbeabletohavetheirfeaturesrepairedwithnewsafertechnology. 45__________ Throughouttimepeoplehavealwaysbeenafraidofnewtechnologyandthepoweritmightpossess.Whenthecarwasfirstinventedsomecontemporaryscientistswereconvincedthatthehumanbodycouldnotsurviveatspeedsashighastwentymilesperhour.Atonetimebirthcontrolpillsinvitrofertilizationandhearttransplantswerecriticizedonthesamegrounds. Geneticengineeringisanextremelynewaspectofourtechnologicalresearchandshouldatallcostsbeallowedtodevelopfurther.Theimmensepossiblebenefitsfromgeneticengineeringareendlessandshouldnotbeoverlooked.Geneticengineeringthenisatoolthathumanscanusetocuremanyoftheirproblems. [A]Eventhoughtherisksaregreatthebeneficialpossibilitiesareendless.Geneticengineeringshouldbeallowedtoprogressbecauseofthepotentialbenefitsforthehumanspeciesoutweightheconsequences. [B]Scientistsareonlybeginningtoexplorethedangersandbenefitsofgeneticengineering.YetinsteadofseeingtheimmensepotentialbenefitsmuchoftheAmericanpublicisautomaticallyrejectingthisfieldofresearch. [C]Geneticengineeringalsohasthepowertocureinfertilitywhichapainfulrealitythatmanycouplesthroughouttheworldface. [D]Evenwithallthesemiraculousbenefitsmanypeoplethroughouttheworldfeelthattheissueofgeneticengineeringisabsolutelypreposterousandextremelyunethical.Suchopinionsareunderstandableconsideringthatthemajorityofpeoplearealwaysgoingtobeafraidoftheunknown. [E]Malnutritionacommonprobleminmanythirdworldcountrieswhereimpoverishedpeoplesrelyonasinglecropsuchasriceforthemainstapleoftheirdietcouldalsopossiblybecuredwithgeneticengineering. [F]Butperhapstheareathatstandstobenefitthemostfromgeneticengineeringismedicine. [G]Geneticengineeringislikeperformingheartsurgerywithashovel.ScientistsdonotyetunderstandlivingsystemscompletelyenoughtoperformDNAsurgerywithoutcreatingmutationswhichcouldbeharmfultotheenvironmentandourhealth. 44
StartingwithhisreviewofSkinner’sVerbalBehaviorNoamChomskyhadledthepsycholinguistswhoarguethatmanhasdevelopedaninnate天生的capacityfordealingwiththelinguisticuniversalscommontoalllanguages.Experienceandlearningthenprovideonlyinformationaboutthe1instancesofthoseuniversalaspectsoflanguagewhichareneededtocommunicatewithotherpeoplewithinaparticularlanguage2. Thislinguisticapproach3theviewthatlanguageisbuiltuponlearnedassociationsbetweenwords.Whatislearnedisnotstringsofwordsperse本身but4rulesthatenableaspeakerto5aninfinitevarietyofnovelsentences.6singlewordsarelearnedasconcepts:theydonotstandinaone-to-one7withtheparticularthingsignifiedbut8allmembersofageneralclass. Thisviewoftheinnateaspectoflanguagelearningisatfirstnotreadily9intoexistingpsychologicalframeworksand10achallengethathasstimulatedmuchthoughtandnewresearchdirections.Chomskyarguesthatapreconditionforlanguagedevelopmentistheexistenceofcertainprinciples"intrinsic原有的tothemind"thatprovideinvariantstructures11perceivinglearningandthinking.Language12alloftheseprocesses;thusitsstudy13ourtheoriesofknowledgeingeneral. Basictothismodeloflanguageisthenotionthatachild’slearningoflanguageisakindoftheory14.It’sthoughttobeaccomplished15explicitinstruction16ofintelligencelevelatanearlyagewhenheisnotcapableofothercomplex17ormotorachievementsandwithrelativelylittlereliabledatatogoon.18thechildconstructsatheoryofanideallanguagewhichhasbroad19power.Chomskyarguesthatallchildrencouldnotdevelopthesamebasictheory20itnotfortheinnateexistenceofpropertiesofmentalorganizationwhichlimitthepossiblepropertiesoflanguages. 4
Psychologistsoncebelievedthatthemotivethatcausedmentostrivetoattainhigh-levelmanagerialpositionswasthe"needforachievement".Butnowtheybelieveitisthe"needforpower". Powerseekersstrivehardtoreachpositionswheretheycanexerciseauthorityoverlargenumbersofpeople.46Individualperformerswholackthisdrivearenotlikelytoadvancefarupthemanagerialladder.Theyusuallyscorncompanypoliticsanddevotetheirenergiestoothertypesofactivities.Thepowergameispartofmanagementanditisplayedbestbythosewhoenjoyitmost. 47Oneoftheleastrationalactsofbusinessorganizationsisthatofhiringmanagerswhohaveahighneedtoexerciseauthorityandthenteachingthemthatauthoritativemethodsarewrongandthattheyshouldbeconsultativeorparticipative.48Itisaseriousmistaketoteachmanagersthattheyshouldadoptstylesthatareinconsistentwiththeiruniquepersonalities.Yetthisispreciselywhatalargenumberofbusinessorganizationsaredoing;anditexplainsinpartwhytheirmanagementdevelopmentprogramsarenoteffective. 49Whatmanagerialaspirantsshouldbetaughtishowtoexercisetheirauthorityinawaythatisappropriatetothesituationandthepeopleinvolved.Theyneedtolearnthattherealsourceoftheirpoweristheirownknowledgeandskillandthestrengthoftheirownpersonalitiesnottheauthorityconferredonthembytheirpositions.Whentheylacktheknowledgeorskillrequiredtoperformtheworktheyneedtoknowhowtosharetheirauthority.50Butwhentheyknowwhathastobedoneandhavetheskillandpersonalitytogetitdonetheymustexercisetheirtraditionalauthorityinwhateverwayisnecessary. 46Individualperformerswholackthisdrivearenotlikelytoadvancefarupthemanagerialladder.
Arsenicanaturallyoccurringpoisonandcarcinogenfoundingroundwaterisstronglylinkedtoadult-onsetdiabetesU.S.researcherssaidonTuesday.Odorlesstastelesscolorlessandeasilysolubleinwaterorwinearsenichaslongbeenafearedpoison.Aheavydoseisdetectableinacorpsebutresearcherssaysmallamountsofarsenicmaysickenpeoplegradually. Dr.AnaNavas-AeienandcolleaguesatJohnsHopkinsUniversityinBaltimorefounda"relativelystrong"associationbetweencommonlyfoundlevelsofarsenicinurineandtype2diabetesinastudyofAmericanadults."Itseemsthereismaybenosafelevelofarsenic."Navas-Aciensaidinatelephoneinterview."Worldwideit’sahugeproblem"shesaid."Aswaterbecomesascarceresource.thesituationbecomesevenmoreserious." ArsenicraisestheriskforcancersofthebladderlungkidneyskinandpossiblytheprostateNavas-Aciensaid.The20percentofnearly800studyparticipantswhohadthemostarsenicintheirbodiesatolerable16.5microgramsperliterofurinehad3.6timestheriskofdevelopinglate-onsetdiabetesthanthoseinthebottom20percentwhohad3microgramsperliter.Levelsofarsenicwere26percenthigherinpeoplewithlate-onsetortype2diabetesthanthosewithoutthediseasethestudyfound. TheU.S.governmentsetsalimitfordrinkingwaterat10microgramsofarsenicperliterwhichisexceededinthewaterconsumedby13millionAmericanswhomostlyliveinruralareasthatrelyonwellstobringupgroundwatertheresearcherswroteintheJournaloftheAmericanMedicalAssociation.ArseniccontaminatesdrinkingwaterformillionsofpeopleinBangladeshpartsofCentralEuropeChileArgentinaandthewesternUnitedStateswheregroundwateristhesourceofdrinkingwaterandthelandhashigherconcentrationsofarsenic. Overall7.8percentofAmericansarebelievedtohavediabetesalthoughsomedonotknowit.Atleast90percentofcasesarethetype2varietyinwhichthebodylosesitsabilitytouseinsulinproperly.Navas-Aciensaidarsenicmayplayasignificantroleindiabetesincidencebutitisdifficulttosayhowmuch.Arseniccanaccumulateinthebodyandcanruinthebody’sabilitytouseinsulinandperformthevitaltaskofconvertingbloodsugarintoenergy.Normallyinsulinfitsintocellsviamoleculardoorwayscalledreceptorswhichinturnsignalthecelltomoveglucoseinsidebutarsenicentersthecellandsomehowblockstheactivity.Seafoodisanothersourceofarsenicbuttheorganicformfoundinshellfishandsomefishhasacarbonmoleculeattachedandposesnorisktohealthshesaid. Fromthepassageweknowthatarsenicisabiggerthreatforpeoplewho
StartingwithhisreviewofSkinner’sVerbalBehaviorNoamChomskyhadledthepsycholinguistswhoarguethatmanhasdevelopedaninnate天生的capacityfordealingwiththelinguisticuniversalscommontoalllanguages.Experienceandlearningthenprovideonlyinformationaboutthe1instancesofthoseuniversalaspectsoflanguagewhichareneededtocommunicatewithotherpeoplewithinaparticularlanguage2. Thislinguisticapproach3theviewthatlanguageisbuiltuponlearnedassociationsbetweenwords.Whatislearnedisnotstringsofwordsperse本身but4rulesthatenableaspeakerto5aninfinitevarietyofnovelsentences.6singlewordsarelearnedasconcepts:theydonotstandinaone-to-one7withtheparticularthingsignifiedbut8allmembersofageneralclass. Thisviewoftheinnateaspectoflanguagelearningisatfirstnotreadily9intoexistingpsychologicalframeworksand10achallengethathasstimulatedmuchthoughtandnewresearchdirections.Chomskyarguesthatapreconditionforlanguagedevelopmentistheexistenceofcertainprinciples"intrinsic原有的tothemind"thatprovideinvariantstructures11perceivinglearningandthinking.Language12alloftheseprocesses;thusitsstudy13ourtheoriesofknowledgeingeneral. Basictothismodeloflanguageisthenotionthatachild’slearningoflanguageisakindoftheory14.It’sthoughttobeaccomplished15explicitinstruction16ofintelligencelevelatanearlyagewhenheisnotcapableofothercomplex17ormotorachievementsandwithrelativelylittlereliabledatatogoon.18thechildconstructsatheoryofanideallanguagewhichhasbroad19power.Chomskyarguesthatallchildrencouldnotdevelopthesamebasictheory20itnotfortheinnateexistenceofpropertiesofmentalorganizationwhichlimitthepossiblepropertiesoflanguages. 8
StartingwithhisreviewofSkinner’sVerbalBehaviorNoamChomskyhadledthepsycholinguistswhoarguethatmanhasdevelopedaninnate天生的capacityfordealingwiththelinguisticuniversalscommontoalllanguages.Experienceandlearningthenprovideonlyinformationaboutthe1instancesofthoseuniversalaspectsoflanguagewhichareneededtocommunicatewithotherpeoplewithinaparticularlanguage2. Thislinguisticapproach3theviewthatlanguageisbuiltuponlearnedassociationsbetweenwords.Whatislearnedisnotstringsofwordsperse本身but4rulesthatenableaspeakerto5aninfinitevarietyofnovelsentences.6singlewordsarelearnedasconcepts:theydonotstandinaone-to-one7withtheparticularthingsignifiedbut8allmembersofageneralclass. Thisviewoftheinnateaspectoflanguagelearningisatfirstnotreadily9intoexistingpsychologicalframeworksand10achallengethathasstimulatedmuchthoughtandnewresearchdirections.Chomskyarguesthatapreconditionforlanguagedevelopmentistheexistenceofcertainprinciples"intrinsic原有的tothemind"thatprovideinvariantstructures11perceivinglearningandthinking.Language12alloftheseprocesses;thusitsstudy13ourtheoriesofknowledgeingeneral. Basictothismodeloflanguageisthenotionthatachild’slearningoflanguageisakindoftheory14.It’sthoughttobeaccomplished15explicitinstruction16ofintelligencelevelatanearlyagewhenheisnotcapableofothercomplex17ormotorachievementsandwithrelativelylittlereliabledatatogoon.18thechildconstructsatheoryofanideallanguagewhichhasbroad19power.Chomskyarguesthatallchildrencouldnotdevelopthesamebasictheory20itnotfortheinnateexistenceofpropertiesofmentalorganizationwhichlimitthepossiblepropertiesoflanguages. 14
Akeyreasonthenewsmediaexistswithspecialprivilegesistobeourwatchdogs.Reporters’chargeistoalertuswhensomethingiswrongwhenhumanornaturaldisastersareabouttothreatenourwelfare.Whenitcomestonaturaldisastersthenewsmediadoapraisablejobofreportingtheobviousbutnotaverygoodoneofpreparingthepublicforwhatmighthappenforalertingustopotentialdifficulties.Whenitcomestohumandisastersespeciallyproblemsingovernmentandeconomicmattersthepresshasfailedmiserably.ForexampleTimemagazinefinallytoldthepublicinarecentcoverstorywhatonlythemostquickobserversalreadyknew:"TheGreatRetirementRipoff偷窃:MillionsofAmericanswhothinktheywillretirewithbenefitsaregoingbeshocked.Howcorporationsarepickingpeople’spockets—withthehelpofCongress...Howcanthislegal" Wherewasthemediawheneachpieceofcorporate-biasedlegislationwasbeingpassedWhywasn’tCongressafraidtopasssuchlegislationBecausethemediahasdecidedthatnewsconcerningCongressisoflittleinteresttoitsaudience. TVnewsmanagershavebelievedthateconomicandsocialissuesaretoocomplicatedforthepublictograsp.Newspapereditorsoccasionallyprintsuchstoriesbutmostlytheyconcentrateonhuman-interestfeaturesconsumerhealthsectionsandentertainment.Hardnewsholesareshrinkingandinvestigativejournalismiscarriedoutonlyonoccasion.Itistoodifficultandcostly.Besidesitantagonizesadvertiserswhileseldomincreasingcirculation.Magazinesthatwouldlookintosuchsubjectsseemtobedyingout. Theresultisthatnooneiswatchingtherichandpowerfulsotheycandoalmostanythingwithimpunity不受惩罚.MillionsofAmericanshavebeenrobbedinbroaddaylightwhilethenewsmediahasbusieditselfwithcelebritytrialsandsensationalcrimestories.Corporationsstealthepublicblindunderlegislationauthorizedbygovernmentofficials.Companiesfileforbankruptcyprotectioncuttingoffmedicalandlife-insurancebenefitsforretirees.Itisn’tanewphenomenon.Forthemostparttoday’spresshasletdowntheAmericanpublictimeandtimeagain. Ifitseemstobegettingworseit’sbecausetherearesomanysegmentsofthemediathatshouldbetellingusinanaccurateandfairmannerwhatourelectedofficialsaredoingbeforeit’stoolatetotakeaction.It’shardertoblamecorporationsbecausetheymakenobonesabouttheirmission:makeasmuchmoneyaspossibleatallcosts.ThoseinCongressaresupposedtoprotectusandlookoutforourinterests.Yetitappearstheyconstantlyhelptheirpowerfulsupporterswhooftenbuytheirofficesforthem.Nooneisdoingtherightthing.Thejokeapparentlyisonallofus—theoldandthesickwhowillhavenohelpinthefutureandtheyoungburdenedwiththedebtofcaringfortheirimpoverishedeldersfortherestoftheirlives. Itcanbeinferredfromthelasttwoparagraphthat
StartingwithhisreviewofSkinner’sVerbalBehaviorNoamChomskyhadledthepsycholinguistswhoarguethatmanhasdevelopedaninnate天生的capacityfordealingwiththelinguisticuniversalscommontoalllanguages.Experienceandlearningthenprovideonlyinformationaboutthe1instancesofthoseuniversalaspectsoflanguagewhichareneededtocommunicatewithotherpeoplewithinaparticularlanguage2. Thislinguisticapproach3theviewthatlanguageisbuiltuponlearnedassociationsbetweenwords.Whatislearnedisnotstringsofwordsperse本身but4rulesthatenableaspeakerto5aninfinitevarietyofnovelsentences.6singlewordsarelearnedasconcepts:theydonotstandinaone-to-one7withtheparticularthingsignifiedbut8allmembersofageneralclass. Thisviewoftheinnateaspectoflanguagelearningisatfirstnotreadily9intoexistingpsychologicalframeworksand10achallengethathasstimulatedmuchthoughtandnewresearchdirections.Chomskyarguesthatapreconditionforlanguagedevelopmentistheexistenceofcertainprinciples"intrinsic原有的tothemind"thatprovideinvariantstructures11perceivinglearningandthinking.Language12alloftheseprocesses;thusitsstudy13ourtheoriesofknowledgeingeneral. Basictothismodeloflanguageisthenotionthatachild’slearningoflanguageisakindoftheory14.It’sthoughttobeaccomplished15explicitinstruction16ofintelligencelevelatanearlyagewhenheisnotcapableofothercomplex17ormotorachievementsandwithrelativelylittlereliabledatatogoon.18thechildconstructsatheoryofanideallanguagewhichhasbroad19power.Chomskyarguesthatallchildrencouldnotdevelopthesamebasictheory20itnotfortheinnateexistenceofpropertiesofmentalorganizationwhichlimitthepossiblepropertiesoflanguages. 6
Law-and-orderisthelongest-runningandprobablythebest-lovedpoliticalissueintheU.S.history. 46YetitispainfullyapparentthatmillionsofAmericanswhowouldneverthinkofthemselvesaslawbreakersletalonecriminalsaretakingincreasinglibertieswiththelegalcodesthataredesignedtoprotectandnourishtheirsociety.Indeedtherearemomentstodaywhenitseemsasthoughthescofflawrepresentsthewaveothefuture.47HarvardSociologistDavidRiesmansuspectsthatamajorityofAmericanshaveblithelytakentocommittingsupposedlyminorderelictionsasamatterofcourse.AlreadyRiesmansaystheethicofU.S.societyisindangerofbecomingthis."you’reafoolifyouobeytherules." NothingcouldbemoreobviousthantheevidencesupportingRiesman.Scofflawsaboundinamazingvariety.Thegraffiti-proneturnpublicsurfacesintovisualrubbish.Bicyclistsoftenrideasthoughtwo-wheeledvehiclesareexemptfromalltrafficlaws.Litterbugsconverttheircommunitiesintotrashdumps.48Widespreadflurriesofordinanceshavefailedtoclearpublicplacesofhigh-decibelportableradiosjustasearlierlawsfailedtowipeoutthebeer-soakedhooliganismthatplaguesmanyparks.TobaccoaddictsremainhopelesslyblindtosignsthatsayNOSMOKING.Respectablydressedpotsmokersnolongerbothertoduckoutofpublicsighttopassaroundajoint.Theflagrantuseofcocaineisafesteringscandalinmiddle-and-upper-classlife.AndthentherearehelloEverybody!thejaywalkers. Thedangersofscofflawryvarywidely.49Thepersonwhoillegallyspitsonthesidewalkremainsdisgustingbutclearlyposeslessrisktoothersthanthecompanythatillegallyburieshazardouschemicalwasteinanunauthorizedlocation.Thefarebeateronthesubwaypresentslessthreattolifethanthelandlordwhoignoresfiresafetystatutes.Themostimmediatelyandmeasurablydangerousscofflawryhoweveralsohappenstobethemostvisible.TheculpritistheAmericandriverwhoselawlessactivitiestodayadduptoacolossalpublicnuisance.50Thehazardsrangefromroutinedoubleparkingthatjamscitystreetstothedrunkdrivingthatkillssome25000peopleandinjuresatleast650000othersyearly.IllegalspeedingonopenhighwaysNewsurveysshowthatonsomeinterstatehighways83%ofalldriversarecurrentlyignoringthefederal55mphspeedlimit. 50Thehazardsrangefromroutinedoubleparkingthatjamscitystreetstothedrunkdrivingthatkillssome25000peopleandinjuresatleast650000othersyearly.
StartingwithhisreviewofSkinner’sVerbalBehaviorNoamChomskyhadledthepsycholinguistswhoarguethatmanhasdevelopedaninnate天生的capacityfordealingwiththelinguisticuniversalscommontoalllanguages.Experienceandlearningthenprovideonlyinformationaboutthe1instancesofthoseuniversalaspectsoflanguagewhichareneededtocommunicatewithotherpeoplewithinaparticularlanguage2. Thislinguisticapproach3theviewthatlanguageisbuiltuponlearnedassociationsbetweenwords.Whatislearnedisnotstringsofwordsperse本身but4rulesthatenableaspeakerto5aninfinitevarietyofnovelsentences.6singlewordsarelearnedasconcepts:theydonotstandinaone-to-one7withtheparticularthingsignifiedbut8allmembersofageneralclass. Thisviewoftheinnateaspectoflanguagelearningisatfirstnotreadily9intoexistingpsychologicalframeworksand10achallengethathasstimulatedmuchthoughtandnewresearchdirections.Chomskyarguesthatapreconditionforlanguagedevelopmentistheexistenceofcertainprinciples"intrinsic原有的tothemind"thatprovideinvariantstructures11perceivinglearningandthinking.Language12alloftheseprocesses;thusitsstudy13ourtheoriesofknowledgeingeneral. Basictothismodeloflanguageisthenotionthatachild’slearningoflanguageisakindoftheory14.It’sthoughttobeaccomplished15explicitinstruction16ofintelligencelevelatanearlyagewhenheisnotcapableofothercomplex17ormotorachievementsandwithrelativelylittlereliabledatatogoon.18thechildconstructsatheoryofanideallanguagewhichhasbroad19power.Chomskyarguesthatallchildrencouldnotdevelopthesamebasictheory20itnotfortheinnateexistenceofpropertiesofmentalorganizationwhichlimitthepossiblepropertiesoflanguages. 16
Law-and-orderisthelongest-runningandprobablythebest-lovedpoliticalissueintheU.S.history. 46YetitispainfullyapparentthatmillionsofAmericanswhowouldneverthinkofthemselvesaslawbreakersletalonecriminalsaretakingincreasinglibertieswiththelegalcodesthataredesignedtoprotectandnourishtheirsociety.Indeedtherearemomentstodaywhenitseemsasthoughthescofflawrepresentsthewaveothefuture.47HarvardSociologistDavidRiesmansuspectsthatamajorityofAmericanshaveblithelytakentocommittingsupposedlyminorderelictionsasamatterofcourse.AlreadyRiesmansaystheethicofU.S.societyisindangerofbecomingthis."you’reafoolifyouobeytherules." NothingcouldbemoreobviousthantheevidencesupportingRiesman.Scofflawsaboundinamazingvariety.Thegraffiti-proneturnpublicsurfacesintovisualrubbish.Bicyclistsoftenrideasthoughtwo-wheeledvehiclesareexemptfromalltrafficlaws.Litterbugsconverttheircommunitiesintotrashdumps.48Widespreadflurriesofordinanceshavefailedtoclearpublicplacesofhigh-decibelportableradiosjustasearlierlawsfailedtowipeoutthebeer-soakedhooliganismthatplaguesmanyparks.TobaccoaddictsremainhopelesslyblindtosignsthatsayNOSMOKING.Respectablydressedpotsmokersnolongerbothertoduckoutofpublicsighttopassaroundajoint.Theflagrantuseofcocaineisafesteringscandalinmiddle-and-upper-classlife.AndthentherearehelloEverybody!thejaywalkers. Thedangersofscofflawryvarywidely.49Thepersonwhoillegallyspitsonthesidewalkremainsdisgustingbutclearlyposeslessrisktoothersthanthecompanythatillegallyburieshazardouschemicalwasteinanunauthorizedlocation.Thefarebeateronthesubwaypresentslessthreattolifethanthelandlordwhoignoresfiresafetystatutes.Themostimmediatelyandmeasurablydangerousscofflawryhoweveralsohappenstobethemostvisible.TheculpritistheAmericandriverwhoselawlessactivitiestodayadduptoacolossalpublicnuisance.50Thehazardsrangefromroutinedoubleparkingthatjamscitystreetstothedrunkdrivingthatkillssome25000peopleandinjuresatleast650000othersyearly.IllegalspeedingonopenhighwaysNewsurveysshowthatonsomeinterstatehighways83%ofalldriversarecurrentlyignoringthefederal55mphspeedlimit. 46YetitispainfullyapparentthatmillionsofAmericanswhowouldneverthinkofthemselvesaslawbreakersletalonecriminalsaretakingincreasinglibertieswiththelegalcodesthataredesignedtoprotectandnourishtheirsociety.
ForyearsInternetmerchantshavepouredmillionsofdollarsintonewtechnologiestomaketheirsiteseasiertouse.Sowhyaren’tonlinecustomershappier Customersatisfactionlevelshaveremainedalmostflatthroughthelastseveralyears.TheproblemaccordingtoLarryFreedchiefexecutiveofaconsultingandresearchfirmcalledForeSeeResultsisnotsomuchthatconsumershaveignoredthemanyimprovementsmadeinrecentyears.RatherhesaidtheystillexpectmorefromInternetshoppingthanithasdelivered. "Ifwewalkintoalocalstorewedon’texpectthatexperiencetobebetterthanitwasacoupleyearsago"Mr.Freedsaid."Butweexpectsitestobebetter.Thebargoesupeveryyear."InForeSee’slatestsurveyreleasedlastmonthjustfivee-commercesitesregisteredscoreshigherthan80outof100andnositescoredhigherthan85.Itwasmuchthesamestoryayearagowhenjustfivescoredhigherthan80withnositesurpassing85."Scoreshaveinchedupovertimeforthebeste-commercecompaniesbuttheoverallnumbershaven’tmoveddrastically"Mr.Freedsaid."Atthesametimethoughifyoudon’tdoanythingyouseeyourscoresdropsteadily." ThatdynamichasbeenachallengeforonlinemerchantsandinvestorswhoadecadeagoenvisionedInternetstoresasrelativelyinexpensiveandthereforeextremelyprofitableoperations.NowsomeobserverspredictafuturewhereonlineretailerswillessentiallyadoptsomethingliketheQVCmodelwithsalesstaffpitchingthesite’smerchandisewithpolishedvideopresentationsproducedinahigh-techtelevisionstudio. QVC.comisevolvinginthatdirection.TheWebsitewhichsoldmorethan$1billioninmerchandisein2006hasforthelastfiveyearsletvisitorswatchalivefeedofthenetwork’sbroadcast.ButinrecentmonthsQVC.comhasalsogivenvisitorsthechancetowatcharchivesofentireshowsandinthecomingmonthsvisitorswillbeabletofindmorevideosegmentsfromrecentshowsfeaturingindividualproductsthatremaininstock.BobMyersseniorvicepresidentofQVC.comsaidtheWebsite’svideosalesmanshipisespeciallyeffectivewhencombinedwithdetailedproductinformationcustomerreviewsandmultiplephotographs. Abouteightmonthsagoforinstanceacustomersaidthatshecouldnotdeterminethesizeofahandbagfromthephotographsonthesitebecauseshecouldnottelltheheightofthemodelwhowasholdingit.Withintwoweeksthesitetestedandintroducedanewsystemshowingthebagswithwomenofthreedifferentheights.Theresultswereimmediate:womenwhosawthenewphotographsboughtthebagsatleast10percentmorefrequentlythanthosewhohadnot. StillMr.Myerssaidvideoisacriticallyimportantelementtosales."E-commercestartedwithtelevisioncommerce"hesaid."Thesiteswhoengageandentertaincustomerswillbewinninghereinthenearfuture."Suchaprospectisnotnecessarilydauntingtoothere-commerceexecutives.GordonMageeheadofInternetmarketingforDrs.Foster&SmithbasedinaRhinelanderWis.saidatransitiontovideo"willbeseamlessforus."ThecompanyMr.Mageesaidhasinrecentweeksdiscussedputtingsomeofitsproductonvideo"socustomerscouldseea360-degreeviewtheydon’thavetomanipulatethemselves. Theexampleofacustomerbuyingahandbagisusedtoshowthat
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