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Directions: Study the following picture carefully and write an essay to 1) describe the picture bri...
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PartB Directions: Studythefollowingdrawingcareful
Directions: Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwrite
Directions:Studythefollowingpicturecarefullyandwri
Directions:Studythefollowingpicturecarefullyandwri
Directions: Studythefollowingdrawingcarefullyandw
PartB Directions: Studythefollowingdrawingcareful
Directions: Studythefollowingpicturecarefullyandw
Directions: Studythefollowingpicturecarefullyandw
Directions: Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwrite
Directions: Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwrite
Directions: Studythefollowingpicturecarefullyandw
PartB Directions: Studythefollowingdrawingcareful
Directions: Studythefollowingpicturecarefullyandw
Directions: Studythefollowingchartcarefullyandwri
Directions: Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwrite
Directions: Studythefollowingdrawingcarefullyandw
Directions:Youareplanningtostudyinaforeignuniversi
Directions:Studythepictureabovecarefullyandwritean
Directions:Studythefollowingchartcarefullyandwrite
PartB Directions: Studythefollowingdrawingcareful
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Mostplantscanmaketheirownfoodfromsunlight1somehavediscoveredthatstealingisaneasierwaytolive.Thousandsofplantspeciesgetby2photosynthesizingandover400ofthesespeciesseemtolivebypilferingsugarsfromanunderground3offungi真菌.Butin4ahandfuloftheseplantshasthismodusoperandibeentracedtoarelativelyobscurefungus.Tofindouthow5are6mycologistMartinBidartondooftheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyandhisteamlookedintheirroots.Whattheyfoundwere7ofacommontypeoffungusso8thatitisfoundinnearly70percentofallplants.Thepresenceofthiscommonfungusintheseplantsnotonly9athowtheysurvivesaysBidartondobutalsosuggeststhatmanyordinaryplantsmightprosperfromalittlelootingtoo. Plantshave10relationstogetwhattheyneedtosurvive.Normal11plantscanmaketheirowncarbohydratesthroughphotosynthesisbuttheystillneedminerals.Mostplantshave12asymbioticrelationshipwitha13networkofwhatarecalledmycorrhizalfungiwhichliesbeneaththeforest14.Thefungihelpgreenplantsabsorbmineralsthroughtheirrootsand15theplantsnormally16thefungiwithsugarsorcarbonwithanumberofplantssharingthesamefungalwebitwasperhaps17thatafewcheaters—dubbedepiparasites—wouldevolvetobeatthesystem.18theseplantsreversedtheflowofcarbon19itintotheirrootsfromthefungi20releasingitas"payment./ 16
[A]ForexampletheUnitedStatesisamajorconsumerofcoffeeyetitdoesnothavetheclimatetogrowanyofitsown.ConsequentlytheUnitedStatesmustimportcoffeefromcountriessuchasBrazilColombiaandGuatemalathatgrowcoffeeefficiently.OntheotherhandtheUnitedStateshaslargeindustrialplantscapableofproducingavarietyofgoodssuchaschemicalsandairplaneswhichcanbesoldtonationsthatneedthem.Ifnationstradeditemforitemsuchasoneautomobilefor10000bagsofcoffeeforeigntradewouldbeextremelycumbersomeandrestrictive.SoinsteadofbarterwhichisthetradeofgoodswithoutanexchangeofmoneytheUnitedStatesreceivesmoneyinpaymentforwhatitsells.ItpaysforBraziliancoffeewithdollarswhichBrazilcanthenusetobuywoolfromAustraliawhichinturncanbuytextilesfromGreatBritainwhichcanthenbuytobaccofromtheUnitedStates. [B]Foreigntradealsooccursbecauseacountryoftendoesnothaveenoughofaparticularitemtomeetitsneeds.AlthoughtheUnitedStatesisamajorproducerofsugaritconsumesmorethanitcanproduceinternallyandthusmustimportsugar. [C]Foreigntradetheexchangeofgoodsbetweennationstakesplaceformanyreasons.Thefirstasmentionedaboveisthatnonationhasallofthecommoditiesthatitneeds.Rawmaterialsarescatteredaroundtheworld.LargedepositsofcopperareminedinPeruandZairediamondsareminedinSouthAfricaandpetroleumisrecoveredintheMiddleEast.Countriesthatdonothavetheseresourceswithintheirownboundariesmustbuyfromcountriesthatexportthem. [D]Intoday’scomplexeconomicworldneitherindividualsnornationsareself-suffi-cient.Nationshaveutilizeddifferenteconomicresources;peoplehavedevelopeddifferentskills.Thisisthefoundationofworldtradeandeconomicactivity.Asaresultofthistradeandactivityinternationalfinanceandbankinghaveevolved. [E]Finallyforeigntradetakesplacebecauseofinnovationorstyle.EventhoughtheUnitedStatesproducesmoreautomobilesthananyothercountryitstillimportslargenumbersofautosfromGermanyJapanandSwedenprimarilybecausethereisamarketforthemintheUnitedStates. [F]Formostnationsexportsandimportsarethemostimportantinternationalactivity.Whennationsexportmorethantheyimporttheyaresaidtohaveafavorablebalanceoftrade.Whentheyimportmorethantheyexportanunfavorablebalanceoftradeexists.Nationstrytomaintainafavorablebalanceoftradewhichassuresthemofthemeanstobuynecessaryimports. [G]Thirdonenationcansellsomeitemsatalowercostthanothercountries.Japanhasbeenabletoexportlargequantitiesofradiosandtelevisionsetsbecauseitcanproducethemmoreefficientlythanothercountries.ItischeaperfortheUnitedStatestobuythesefromJapanthantoproducethemdomestically.AccordingtoeconomictheoryJapanshouldproduceandexportthoseitemsfromwhichitderivesacomparativeadvantage.Itshouldalsobuyandimportwhatitneedsfromthosecountriesthathaveacomparativeadvantageinthedesireditems. Order: 42
InPlato’sUtopiaherearethreeclasses:thecommonpeoplethesoldiersandtheguardianschosenbythelegislator.ThemainproblemasPlatoperceivesistoinsurethattheguardiansshallcarryouttheintentionofthelegislator.Forthispurposethefirstthingheproposesiseducation.Educationisdividedintotwopartsmusicandgymnastics.46Eachhasawidermeaningthanatpresent:musicmeanseverythingthatisintheprovinceofthemusesandgymnasticsmeanseverythingconcernedwithphysicaltrainingfitness.Musicisalmostaswideaswhatisnowcalledcultureandgymnasticsissomewhatwiderthanwhatathleticsmeaninthemodernsense.CultureistobedevotedtomakingmengentlemeninthesensewhichlargelyowingtoPlatoisfamiliarinEngland.TheAthensofhisdaywasinonerespectanalogoustoEnglandinthenineteenthcentury:47therewasineachanaristocracyenjoyingwealthandsocialprestigebuthavingnomonopolyofpoliticalpower;andineachthearistocracyhadtosecureasmuchpowerasitcouldbymeansofimpressivebehavior.InPlato’sUtopiahoweverthearistocracyrulesunchecked.Gravitydecorumandcourageseemtobethequalitiesmainlytobecultivatedineducation.48Thereistobearigidcensorshipfromveryearlyyearsovertheliteraturetowhichtheyounghaveaccessandthemusictheyareallowedtohear.Mothersandnursesaretotelltheirchildrenonlyauthorizedstories.Alsothereisacensorshipofmusic.TheLydianandIonianharmoniesaretobeforbiddenthefirstbecauseitexpressessorrowthesecondbecauseitisrelaxed.49OnlytheDorianforcourageandthePhrygianfortemperancearetobeallowedandpermissiblerhythmsmustbesimpleandsuchasareexpressiveofacourageousandharmoniouslife.Asforgymnasticsthetrainingofthebodyistobeveryaustere.Nooneistoeatfishormeatcookedotherwisethanroastedandtheremustbenosaucesorcandies.Peoplebroughtuponhisregimenhesayswillhavenoneedofdoctors.Gymnasticsappliestothetrainingofmindaswell.Uptoacertainagetheyoungaretoseenouglinessorvice.50Butatasuitablemomenttheymustbeexposedtoenchantmentsbothintheshapeofterrorsthatmustnotterrifyandofbadpleasuresthatmustnotseducethewill.Onlyaftertheyhavewithstoodthesetestswilltheybejudgedfittobeguardians.
Itseemsimpossibletohaveanhonestconversationaboutglobalwarming.IsaythisafterdiligentlyperusingtheBritishgovernment’shugereportreleasedlastweekbySirNicholasSternformerchiefeconomistoftheWorldBankandnowahighcivilservant.Thereportisamasterpieceofmisleadingpublicrelations.Itforeseesdireconsequencesifglobalwarmingisn’tcurbed:aworldwidedepressionandfloodingofmanycoastalcities.Meanwhilethecostsofminimizingtheseawfuloutcomesaresmall:only1percentofworldeconomicoutputin2050. Nosanepersoncouldfailtoconcludethatweshouldconquerglobalwarminginstantlyifnotsooner.WhocoulddisagreeWellme.Stem’sheadlinedconclusionsareintellectualfictions.They’reessentiallyfabricationstojustifyanaggressiveanti-global-warmingagenda.Thedangerofthatisthatwe’dendupwiththeworstofbothworlds:aprogramthatharmstheeconomywithoutmuchcuttingofgreenhousegases. LetmethrowsomemessyrealitiesontoStern’stidypicture.Intheglobal-warmingdebatethere’sabiggapbetweenpublicrhetoricandpublicbehavior.Greenhouseemissionscontinuetorisedespitemanyearnestpledgestocontrolthem.JustlastweektheUnitedNationsreportedthatofthe41countriesitmonitorsnotincludingmostdevelopingnations34hadincreasedgreenhouseemissionsfrom2000to2004.TheseincludemostcountriescommittedtoreducingemissionsundertheKyotoProtocol. WhyisthisInrichdemocraciespoliciesthatmightcurbgreenhousegasesrequirepoliticiansandthepublictoactinexceptionally"enlightened"ways.Theyhavetoaccept"pain"nowforbenefitsthatwon’tmaterializefordecadesprobablyafterthey’redead.Andevenifrichcountriescutemissionsitwon’tmakemuchdifferenceunlesspoorcountriesdolikewiseandsofarthey’verefusedbecausethatmightjeopardizetheireconomicgrowthandpoverty-reductionefforts. Thenotionthatthere’sonlyamodesttensionbetweensuppressinggreenhousegasesandsustainingeconomicgrowthishighlydubious.Sternarrivesathistrivialcosts—that1percentofworldGDPin2050—byessentiallyassumingthem.Hisestimatespresumethatwithproperpoliciestechnologicalimprovementswillautomaticallyreconciledecliningemissionswithadequateeconomicgrowth.Thisisaheroicleap.TocheckwarmingSternwantsannualemissions25percentbelowcurrentlevelsby2050.TheIEAprojectsthateconomicgrowthby2050wouldmorethandoubleemissions.Atpresentwecan’tbridgethatgap. TheothergreatdistortioninStern’sreportinvolvesglobalwarming’seffects.Nooneknowswhatthesemightbebecausewedon’tknowhowmuchwarmingmightoccurwhenwhereorhoweasilypeoplemightadapt.Stern’shorrificspecterdistillsmanyofthemostterrifyingguessesincludingsomeimaginedforthe22ndcenturyandimpliesthey’reimminent.Theideaistoscarepeoplewhilereassuringthemthatpoliciestoavertcalamityifstartednowwouldbefairlyeasyandinexpensive. TheauthorassertsthatStem’spictureaboutthepossibilityofconqueringglobalwarming
Mostplantscanmaketheirownfoodfromsunlight1somehavediscoveredthatstealingisaneasierwaytolive.Thousandsofplantspeciesgetby2photosynthesizingandover400ofthesespeciesseemtolivebypilferingsugarsfromanunderground3offungi真菌.Butin4ahandfuloftheseplantshasthismodusoperandibeentracedtoarelativelyobscurefungus.Tofindouthow5are6mycologistMartinBidartondooftheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyandhisteamlookedintheirroots.Whattheyfoundwere7ofacommontypeoffungusso8thatitisfoundinnearly70percentofallplants.Thepresenceofthiscommonfungusintheseplantsnotonly9athowtheysurvivesaysBidartondobutalsosuggeststhatmanyordinaryplantsmightprosperfromalittlelootingtoo. Plantshave10relationstogetwhattheyneedtosurvive.Normal11plantscanmaketheirowncarbohydratesthroughphotosynthesisbuttheystillneedminerals.Mostplantshave12asymbioticrelationshipwitha13networkofwhatarecalledmycorrhizalfungiwhichliesbeneaththeforest14.Thefungihelpgreenplantsabsorbmineralsthroughtheirrootsand15theplantsnormally16thefungiwithsugarsorcarbonwithanumberofplantssharingthesamefungalwebitwasperhaps17thatafewcheaters—dubbedepiparasites—wouldevolvetobeatthesystem.18theseplantsreversedtheflowofcarbon19itintotheirrootsfromthefungi20releasingitas"payment./ 8
Mostplantscanmaketheirownfoodfromsunlight1somehavediscoveredthatstealingisaneasierwaytolive.Thousandsofplantspeciesgetby2photosynthesizingandover400ofthesespeciesseemtolivebypilferingsugarsfromanunderground3offungi真菌.Butin4ahandfuloftheseplantshasthismodusoperandibeentracedtoarelativelyobscurefungus.Tofindouthow5are6mycologistMartinBidartondooftheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyandhisteamlookedintheirroots.Whattheyfoundwere7ofacommontypeoffungusso8thatitisfoundinnearly70percentofallplants.Thepresenceofthiscommonfungusintheseplantsnotonly9athowtheysurvivesaysBidartondobutalsosuggeststhatmanyordinaryplantsmightprosperfromalittlelootingtoo. Plantshave10relationstogetwhattheyneedtosurvive.Normal11plantscanmaketheirowncarbohydratesthroughphotosynthesisbuttheystillneedminerals.Mostplantshave12asymbioticrelationshipwitha13networkofwhatarecalledmycorrhizalfungiwhichliesbeneaththeforest14.Thefungihelpgreenplantsabsorbmineralsthroughtheirrootsand15theplantsnormally16thefungiwithsugarsorcarbonwithanumberofplantssharingthesamefungalwebitwasperhaps17thatafewcheaters—dubbedepiparasites—wouldevolvetobeatthesystem.18theseplantsreversedtheflowofcarbon19itintotheirrootsfromthefungi20releasingitas"payment./ 4
Mostplantscanmaketheirownfoodfromsunlight1somehavediscoveredthatstealingisaneasierwaytolive.Thousandsofplantspeciesgetby2photosynthesizingandover400ofthesespeciesseemtolivebypilferingsugarsfromanunderground3offungi真菌.Butin4ahandfuloftheseplantshasthismodusoperandibeentracedtoarelativelyobscurefungus.Tofindouthow5are6mycologistMartinBidartondooftheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyandhisteamlookedintheirroots.Whattheyfoundwere7ofacommontypeoffungusso8thatitisfoundinnearly70percentofallplants.Thepresenceofthiscommonfungusintheseplantsnotonly9athowtheysurvivesaysBidartondobutalsosuggeststhatmanyordinaryplantsmightprosperfromalittlelootingtoo. Plantshave10relationstogetwhattheyneedtosurvive.Normal11plantscanmaketheirowncarbohydratesthroughphotosynthesisbuttheystillneedminerals.Mostplantshave12asymbioticrelationshipwitha13networkofwhatarecalledmycorrhizalfungiwhichliesbeneaththeforest14.Thefungihelpgreenplantsabsorbmineralsthroughtheirrootsand15theplantsnormally16thefungiwithsugarsorcarbonwithanumberofplantssharingthesamefungalwebitwasperhaps17thatafewcheaters—dubbedepiparasites—wouldevolvetobeatthesystem.18theseplantsreversedtheflowofcarbon19itintotheirrootsfromthefungi20releasingitas"payment./ 12
Cultureisactivityofthoughtandreceptivenesstobeautyandhumanfeeling.1ofinformationhavenothingtodowithit.Amerelywell-informedmanisthemostuseless2onGod’searth.Whatweshould3atproducingismenwho4bothcultureandexpertknowledgeinsomespecialdirection.Theirexpertknowledgewillgivethemthegroundtostart5andtheirculturewillleadthemas6asphilosophyandashighas7Wehavetorememberthatthevaluable8developmentisself-developmentandthatit9takesplacebetweentheagesofsixteenandthirty.Astotrainingthemostimportantpartisgivenbymothersbeforetheageoftwelve. Intrainingachildtoactivityofthoughtaboveallthingswemust10ofwhatIwillcall"inertideas"——thatistosayideasthataremerely11intothemindwithoutbeing12ortestedorthrownintofreshcombinations. Inthehistoryofeducationthemost13phenomenonisthatschoolsoflearningwhichatoneepocharealivewithacrazeforgeniusina14generationexhibitmerelypedantryandroutine.Thereasonisthattheyareoverladewithinertideas.Exceptat15intervalsofintellectualmotivationeducationinthepasthasbeenradically16withinertideas.Thatisthereasonwhy17cleverwomenwhohaveseenmuchoftheworldareinmiddlelifesomuchthemostculturedpartofthecommunity.Theyhavebeensavedfromthishorrible18ofinertideas.Everyintellectualrevolutionwhichhaseverstirredhumanity19greatnesshasbeena20protestagainstinertideas. 2
Onethingthatdistinguishestheonlineworldfromtherealoneisthatitisveryeasytofindthings.TofindacopyofTheEconomistinprintonehastogotoanewsstandwhichmayormaynotcarryit.Findingitonlinethoughisadifferentproposition.JustgotoGoogletypeitin"economist"andyouwillbeinstantlydirectedtoeconomist.com.46IndeeduntilGooglenowtheworld’smostpopularsearchenginecameontothesceneinSeptember1998searchingonlinewasahit-or-missaffair. Googlewasvastlybetterthananythingthathadcomebefore:somuchbetterinfactthatitchangedthewaymanypeopleusetheweb.47Almostovernightitmadethewebfarmoreusefulparticularlyfornon-specialistusersmanyofwhomregardGoogleastheInternet’sfrontdoor.It’snowaworldwidephenomenon.NotonlyhasitmadetheInternetintoanextremelyfastandvaluableresearchtoolit’sbecomeacommonwordandhasevencreatedanewverb"togoogle."48TherecentfussoverGoogle’sstockmarketflotationobscuresitsfarwidersocialsignificance:fewtechnologiesafterallaresoinfluentialthattheirnameshavebecomeahouseholdverbsuchasthecloningtechnologycreatestheverb"toclone". Googlebeganin1998asanacademicresearchprojectbySergeyBrinandLawrencePagewhowerethengraduatestudentsatStanfordUniversityinPaloAltoCalifornia.Itwasnotthefirstsearchengineofcourse.49Existingsearchengineswereabletoscanalargeportionofthewebbuildanindexandthenfindpagesthatmatchedparticularwordsbutwerelessgoodatpresentingthosepageswhichmightnumberinthehundredsofthousandsinausefulway. Mr.Brin’sandMr.Page’saccomplishmentwastodeviseawaytosorttheresultsbydeterminingwhichpageswerelikelytobemostrelevant.TheydidsobyusingamathematicalprogramcalledPageRank.50ThisprogramisattheheartofGoogle’ssuccessdistinguishingitfromallsearchenginesandaccountingforitsapparentlymagicalabilitytofindthemostusefulwebpages.Withthispowerfulability.Googledistinguisheditselffromamongallthesearchenginesandbecameanestablishedstandingresearchtoolintheonlineworld. 46IndeeduntilGooglenowtheworld’smostpopularsearchenginecameontothesceneinSeptember1998searchingonlinewasahit-or-missaffair.
InPlato’sUtopiaherearethreeclasses:thecommonpeoplethesoldiersandtheguardianschosenbythelegislator.ThemainproblemasPlatoperceivesistoinsurethattheguardiansshallcarryouttheintentionofthelegislator.Forthispurposethefirstthingheproposesiseducation.Educationisdividedintotwopartsmusicandgymnastics.46Eachhasawidermeaningthanatpresent:musicmeanseverythingthatisintheprovinceofthemusesandgymnasticsmeanseverythingconcernedwithphysicaltrainingfitness.Musicisalmostaswideaswhatisnowcalledcultureandgymnasticsissomewhatwiderthanwhatathleticsmeaninthemodernsense.CultureistobedevotedtomakingmengentlemeninthesensewhichlargelyowingtoPlatoisfamiliarinEngland.TheAthensofhisdaywasinonerespectanalogoustoEnglandinthenineteenthcentury:47therewasineachanaristocracyenjoyingwealthandsocialprestigebuthavingnomonopolyofpoliticalpower;andineachthearistocracyhadtosecureasmuchpowerasitcouldbymeansofimpressivebehavior.InPlato’sUtopiahoweverthearistocracyrulesunchecked.Gravitydecorumandcourageseemtobethequalitiesmainlytobecultivatedineducation.48Thereistobearigidcensorshipfromveryearlyyearsovertheliteraturetowhichtheyounghaveaccessandthemusictheyareallowedtohear.Mothersandnursesaretotelltheirchildrenonlyauthorizedstories.Alsothereisacensorshipofmusic.TheLydianandIonianharmoniesaretobeforbiddenthefirstbecauseitexpressessorrowthesecondbecauseitisrelaxed.49OnlytheDorianforcourageandthePhrygianfortemperancearetobeallowedandpermissiblerhythmsmustbesimpleandsuchasareexpressiveofacourageousandharmoniouslife.Asforgymnasticsthetrainingofthebodyistobeveryaustere.Nooneistoeatfishormeatcookedotherwisethanroastedandtheremustbenosaucesorcandies.Peoplebroughtuponhisregimenhesayswillhavenoneedofdoctors.Gymnasticsappliestothetrainingofmindaswell.Uptoacertainagetheyoungaretoseenouglinessorvice.50Butatasuitablemomenttheymustbeexposedtoenchantmentsbothintheshapeofterrorsthatmustnotterrifyandofbadpleasuresthatmustnotseducethewill.Onlyaftertheyhavewithstoodthesetestswilltheybejudgedfittobeguardians.
Itseemsimpossibletohaveanhonestconversationaboutglobalwarming.IsaythisafterdiligentlyperusingtheBritishgovernment’shugereportreleasedlastweekbySirNicholasSternformerchiefeconomistoftheWorldBankandnowahighcivilservant.Thereportisamasterpieceofmisleadingpublicrelations.Itforeseesdireconsequencesifglobalwarmingisn’tcurbed:aworldwidedepressionandfloodingofmanycoastalcities.Meanwhilethecostsofminimizingtheseawfuloutcomesaresmall:only1percentofworldeconomicoutputin2050. Nosanepersoncouldfailtoconcludethatweshouldconquerglobalwarminginstantlyifnotsooner.WhocoulddisagreeWellme.Stem’sheadlinedconclusionsareintellectualfictions.They’reessentiallyfabricationstojustifyanaggressiveanti-global-warmingagenda.Thedangerofthatisthatwe’dendupwiththeworstofbothworlds:aprogramthatharmstheeconomywithoutmuchcuttingofgreenhousegases. LetmethrowsomemessyrealitiesontoStern’stidypicture.Intheglobal-warmingdebatethere’sabiggapbetweenpublicrhetoricandpublicbehavior.Greenhouseemissionscontinuetorisedespitemanyearnestpledgestocontrolthem.JustlastweektheUnitedNationsreportedthatofthe41countriesitmonitorsnotincludingmostdevelopingnations34hadincreasedgreenhouseemissionsfrom2000to2004.TheseincludemostcountriescommittedtoreducingemissionsundertheKyotoProtocol. WhyisthisInrichdemocraciespoliciesthatmightcurbgreenhousegasesrequirepoliticiansandthepublictoactinexceptionally"enlightened"ways.Theyhavetoaccept"pain"nowforbenefitsthatwon’tmaterializefordecadesprobablyafterthey’redead.Andevenifrichcountriescutemissionsitwon’tmakemuchdifferenceunlesspoorcountriesdolikewiseandsofarthey’verefusedbecausethatmightjeopardizetheireconomicgrowthandpoverty-reductionefforts. Thenotionthatthere’sonlyamodesttensionbetweensuppressinggreenhousegasesandsustainingeconomicgrowthishighlydubious.Sternarrivesathistrivialcosts—that1percentofworldGDPin2050—byessentiallyassumingthem.Hisestimatespresumethatwithproperpoliciestechnologicalimprovementswillautomaticallyreconciledecliningemissionswithadequateeconomicgrowth.Thisisaheroicleap.TocheckwarmingSternwantsannualemissions25percentbelowcurrentlevelsby2050.TheIEAprojectsthateconomicgrowthby2050wouldmorethandoubleemissions.Atpresentwecan’tbridgethatgap. TheothergreatdistortioninStern’sreportinvolvesglobalwarming’seffects.Nooneknowswhatthesemightbebecausewedon’tknowhowmuchwarmingmightoccurwhenwhereorhoweasilypeoplemightadapt.Stern’shorrificspecterdistillsmanyofthemostterrifyingguessesincludingsomeimaginedforthe22ndcenturyandimpliesthey’reimminent.Theideaistoscarepeoplewhilereassuringthemthatpoliciestoavertcalamityifstartednowwouldbefairlyeasyandinexpensive. InhisreportSternoverstates
Mostplantscanmaketheirownfoodfromsunlight1somehavediscoveredthatstealingisaneasierwaytolive.Thousandsofplantspeciesgetby2photosynthesizingandover400ofthesespeciesseemtolivebypilferingsugarsfromanunderground3offungi真菌.Butin4ahandfuloftheseplantshasthismodusoperandibeentracedtoarelativelyobscurefungus.Tofindouthow5are6mycologistMartinBidartondooftheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyandhisteamlookedintheirroots.Whattheyfoundwere7ofacommontypeoffungusso8thatitisfoundinnearly70percentofallplants.Thepresenceofthiscommonfungusintheseplantsnotonly9athowtheysurvivesaysBidartondobutalsosuggeststhatmanyordinaryplantsmightprosperfromalittlelootingtoo. Plantshave10relationstogetwhattheyneedtosurvive.Normal11plantscanmaketheirowncarbohydratesthroughphotosynthesisbuttheystillneedminerals.Mostplantshave12asymbioticrelationshipwitha13networkofwhatarecalledmycorrhizalfungiwhichliesbeneaththeforest14.Thefungihelpgreenplantsabsorbmineralsthroughtheirrootsand15theplantsnormally16thefungiwithsugarsorcarbonwithanumberofplantssharingthesamefungalwebitwasperhaps17thatafewcheaters—dubbedepiparasites—wouldevolvetobeatthesystem.18theseplantsreversedtheflowofcarbon19itintotheirrootsfromthefungi20releasingitas"payment./ 14
Itseemsimpossibletohaveanhonestconversationaboutglobalwarming.IsaythisafterdiligentlyperusingtheBritishgovernment’shugereportreleasedlastweekbySirNicholasSternformerchiefeconomistoftheWorldBankandnowahighcivilservant.Thereportisamasterpieceofmisleadingpublicrelations.Itforeseesdireconsequencesifglobalwarmingisn’tcurbed:aworldwidedepressionandfloodingofmanycoastalcities.Meanwhilethecostsofminimizingtheseawfuloutcomesaresmall:only1percentofworldeconomicoutputin2050. Nosanepersoncouldfailtoconcludethatweshouldconquerglobalwarminginstantlyifnotsooner.WhocoulddisagreeWellme.Stem’sheadlinedconclusionsareintellectualfictions.They’reessentiallyfabricationstojustifyanaggressiveanti-global-warmingagenda.Thedangerofthatisthatwe’dendupwiththeworstofbothworlds:aprogramthatharmstheeconomywithoutmuchcuttingofgreenhousegases. LetmethrowsomemessyrealitiesontoStern’stidypicture.Intheglobal-warmingdebatethere’sabiggapbetweenpublicrhetoricandpublicbehavior.Greenhouseemissionscontinuetorisedespitemanyearnestpledgestocontrolthem.JustlastweektheUnitedNationsreportedthatofthe41countriesitmonitorsnotincludingmostdevelopingnations34hadincreasedgreenhouseemissionsfrom2000to2004.TheseincludemostcountriescommittedtoreducingemissionsundertheKyotoProtocol. WhyisthisInrichdemocraciespoliciesthatmightcurbgreenhousegasesrequirepoliticiansandthepublictoactinexceptionally"enlightened"ways.Theyhavetoaccept"pain"nowforbenefitsthatwon’tmaterializefordecadesprobablyafterthey’redead.Andevenifrichcountriescutemissionsitwon’tmakemuchdifferenceunlesspoorcountriesdolikewiseandsofarthey’verefusedbecausethatmightjeopardizetheireconomicgrowthandpoverty-reductionefforts. Thenotionthatthere’sonlyamodesttensionbetweensuppressinggreenhousegasesandsustainingeconomicgrowthishighlydubious.Sternarrivesathistrivialcosts—that1percentofworldGDPin2050—byessentiallyassumingthem.Hisestimatespresumethatwithproperpoliciestechnologicalimprovementswillautomaticallyreconciledecliningemissionswithadequateeconomicgrowth.Thisisaheroicleap.TocheckwarmingSternwantsannualemissions25percentbelowcurrentlevelsby2050.TheIEAprojectsthateconomicgrowthby2050wouldmorethandoubleemissions.Atpresentwecan’tbridgethatgap. TheothergreatdistortioninStern’sreportinvolvesglobalwarming’seffects.Nooneknowswhatthesemightbebecausewedon’tknowhowmuchwarmingmightoccurwhenwhereorhoweasilypeoplemightadapt.Stern’shorrificspecterdistillsmanyofthemostterrifyingguessesincludingsomeimaginedforthe22ndcenturyandimpliesthey’reimminent.Theideaistoscarepeoplewhilereassuringthemthatpoliciestoavertcalamityifstartednowwouldbefairlyeasyandinexpensive. AccordingtotheauthorStern’sprogram
[A]ForexampletheUnitedStatesisamajorconsumerofcoffeeyetitdoesnothavetheclimatetogrowanyofitsown.ConsequentlytheUnitedStatesmustimportcoffeefromcountriessuchasBrazilColombiaandGuatemalathatgrowcoffeeefficiently.OntheotherhandtheUnitedStateshaslargeindustrialplantscapableofproducingavarietyofgoodssuchaschemicalsandairplaneswhichcanbesoldtonationsthatneedthem.Ifnationstradeditemforitemsuchasoneautomobilefor10000bagsofcoffeeforeigntradewouldbeextremelycumbersomeandrestrictive.SoinsteadofbarterwhichisthetradeofgoodswithoutanexchangeofmoneytheUnitedStatesreceivesmoneyinpaymentforwhatitsells.ItpaysforBraziliancoffeewithdollarswhichBrazilcanthenusetobuywoolfromAustraliawhichinturncanbuytextilesfromGreatBritainwhichcanthenbuytobaccofromtheUnitedStates. [B]Foreigntradealsooccursbecauseacountryoftendoesnothaveenoughofaparticularitemtomeetitsneeds.AlthoughtheUnitedStatesisamajorproducerofsugaritconsumesmorethanitcanproduceinternallyandthusmustimportsugar. [C]Foreigntradetheexchangeofgoodsbetweennationstakesplaceformanyreasons.Thefirstasmentionedaboveisthatnonationhasallofthecommoditiesthatitneeds.Rawmaterialsarescatteredaroundtheworld.LargedepositsofcopperareminedinPeruandZairediamondsareminedinSouthAfricaandpetroleumisrecoveredintheMiddleEast.Countriesthatdonothavetheseresourceswithintheirownboundariesmustbuyfromcountriesthatexportthem. [D]Intoday’scomplexeconomicworldneitherindividualsnornationsareself-suffi-cient.Nationshaveutilizeddifferenteconomicresources;peoplehavedevelopeddifferentskills.Thisisthefoundationofworldtradeandeconomicactivity.Asaresultofthistradeandactivityinternationalfinanceandbankinghaveevolved. [E]Finallyforeigntradetakesplacebecauseofinnovationorstyle.EventhoughtheUnitedStatesproducesmoreautomobilesthananyothercountryitstillimportslargenumbersofautosfromGermanyJapanandSwedenprimarilybecausethereisamarketforthemintheUnitedStates. [F]Formostnationsexportsandimportsarethemostimportantinternationalactivity.Whennationsexportmorethantheyimporttheyaresaidtohaveafavorablebalanceoftrade.Whentheyimportmorethantheyexportanunfavorablebalanceoftradeexists.Nationstrytomaintainafavorablebalanceoftradewhichassuresthemofthemeanstobuynecessaryimports. [G]Thirdonenationcansellsomeitemsatalowercostthanothercountries.Japanhasbeenabletoexportlargequantitiesofradiosandtelevisionsetsbecauseitcanproducethemmoreefficientlythanothercountries.ItischeaperfortheUnitedStatestobuythesefromJapanthantoproducethemdomestically.AccordingtoeconomictheoryJapanshouldproduceandexportthoseitemsfromwhichitderivesacomparativeadvantage.Itshouldalsobuyandimportwhatitneedsfromthosecountriesthathaveacomparativeadvantageinthedesireditems. Order: 44
Mostplantscanmaketheirownfoodfromsunlight1somehavediscoveredthatstealingisaneasierwaytolive.Thousandsofplantspeciesgetby2photosynthesizingandover400ofthesespeciesseemtolivebypilferingsugarsfromanunderground3offungi真菌.Butin4ahandfuloftheseplantshasthismodusoperandibeentracedtoarelativelyobscurefungus.Tofindouthow5are6mycologistMartinBidartondooftheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyandhisteamlookedintheirroots.Whattheyfoundwere7ofacommontypeoffungusso8thatitisfoundinnearly70percentofallplants.Thepresenceofthiscommonfungusintheseplantsnotonly9athowtheysurvivesaysBidartondobutalsosuggeststhatmanyordinaryplantsmightprosperfromalittlelootingtoo. Plantshave10relationstogetwhattheyneedtosurvive.Normal11plantscanmaketheirowncarbohydratesthroughphotosynthesisbuttheystillneedminerals.Mostplantshave12asymbioticrelationshipwitha13networkofwhatarecalledmycorrhizalfungiwhichliesbeneaththeforest14.Thefungihelpgreenplantsabsorbmineralsthroughtheirrootsand15theplantsnormally16thefungiwithsugarsorcarbonwithanumberofplantssharingthesamefungalwebitwasperhaps17thatafewcheaters—dubbedepiparasites—wouldevolvetobeatthesystem.18theseplantsreversedtheflowofcarbon19itintotheirrootsfromthefungi20releasingitas"payment./ 10
ResearchersattheUniversityofArizonaledbyTeresaCumminsconductedanexploratorystudyontheonlinelearningmodulesdesignedtosupplementhands-onclassestaughtbylocalexpertsandsupportedbyanoverviewtexttohelpusersincreasetheirunderstandingofkeyconceptsintheArizonaMasterWatershedStewardprogram.Theyalsosoughttodeterminewhetherprogramparticipantswouldusethenon-compulsorymodules. Theirevaluationrevealedthatmoduleusersincreasedtheirunderstandingofkeywatershedconcepts;participantsintheevaluationdemonstrateda30percentincreaseincontentknowledgefollowingmoduleuse.Additionally70percentofparticipantsretainedthisknowledgethroughatwo-monthfollow-uptest. Afollow-upsurveyshowedthatapproximatelyhalfoftheparticipantsreturnedtotheonlinemodulesontheirown;severaloftheseusersreturnedseveraltimesandspentmultiplehourspersession.Commentsfromthefollow-upsurveysuggestedthattheusersaccessedthesiteeitherastheyhadthetimeorastheyneededtheinformation. Onlineusagestatisticsindicatedparticipantscontinuedtovisitthesiteformanymonthsfollowingthemodules’releaseandadvertisement.Thoughmanyvisitswereverybriefasinglepageview;onlyacoupleofsecondsvisitorswithmanyreturnstothesiteand/orlongvisitsappearedtobeworkingthroughthemodules. Oneparticipantstated"Mybraincanonlyholdsomuchinformation;themoduleskeepinformationon-hand."Otherparticipantscommentedthatthemoduleswere"moreinterestingandinteractive"thanthetextmaterialanda"veryeffectivetool"and"agreatresourcetotheMasterWatershedStewardcommunity." TheArizonaMasterWatershedStewardprogramsponsoredbyUniversityofArizonapreparesadultstoserveasvolunteersintheconservationofwaterresourcesandtheprotectionrestorationandmonitoringoftheirwatersheds.Themoduleswereintendedtoreinforceconceptscoveredinclassesandfurtherengageparticipantsinthelearningprocess. Onekeyfindingwasthatthemoduleswerenotclearlypreferredbyusersoverin-personinstruction.Oneparticipantstated"Formetheyarejustanotheravenueforlearningasupplementoradditionalreference.Ipreferinpersonandrealhands-onlearning."Otherparticipantssimilarlyexpressedtheirdesireforhands-onandface-to-faceinteraction.Severalparticipantsnotedthattheusefulnessofin-personlectures—wasafunctionofthepresenter. Overalltheexploratoryevaluationindicatedthatthemoduleswereawelcomesupplementtothecourseandwereeffectiveinreinforcingkeyconcepts.Participantsretainedknowledgeforseveralweeksalthoughsincesubjectswereself-selectedtheymayhavebeenself-motivatedtopayattentionandmastertheonlinemodulematerials. "Iamconstantlysearchingfornewwaystoeducateourprogram’sdiverseaudiencesandreinforcewatershedscienceconcepts"saysCandiceRupprechtstatecoordinatorfortheMasterWatershedStewardprogram."Iamexcitedtoknowthatonlinelearningmodulescanenhanceourprogrambyofferingadditionalindependentlearningopportunitiesforourvolunteers. Thefirstparagraphsuggeststhattheonlinelearningmodules
Directions: Writeacompositionaccordingtothefollowingpictureandrequirements. A.Title:GoodManners B.Wordlimit:160～200words. Outline: 1Describethepicture. 2Similarsituationsinotheraspectsofdailylife. 3Yourcomments.
It’seasytogetthesensethesedaysthatyou’vestumbledintoapartywithsomepowerfuldrugthatdramaticallyaltersidentity.Thefacesarefamiliarbutthewordscomingoutofthemaren’t.Somethinghashappenedtoalotofpeopleyouusedtothinkyouknew.They’vechangedintosomethingliketheirownopposite. There’sBillGateswhothesedaysisspendinglesstimeearningmoneythangivingitaway--andpullingotherbillionairesintothedeependofglobalphilanthropy慈善事业withhim.There’shistorianFrancisFukuyamaleadingawholegangofdisaffectedfellowtravelersawayfromneoconservatism.Toflip-flopishuman.Itcanstillsometimesbeapoliticalliabilityevidenceofaflakydispositionorrankopportunism.Buttherearecircumstancesinwhichnottoreversecourseseemsalmostpathological病态的.He’samodelofconsistencyStephenColbertsaidlastyearofGeorgeW.Bush:"HebelievesthesamethingWednesdaythathebelievedonMonday--nomatterwhathappenedonTuesday." OverthepastthreeyearsIfoundpeoplewhohadpulledabigU-turnintheirlives.Oftentheinsightcameinaforehead-smitingmomentinthemiddleofthenight:I’vegotitallwrong. Itlookedatfirstlikeasprinklingofoutliersbeyondthecurveofnormalhumanexperience.Butwhenyousteppedbackapatternemerged.Whatthesepersonalturnshadincommonwastheapprehensionthatwe’reallconnected.Everythingleansonsomethingisbothdependentanddependedon. "Thedifferencebetweenyouandme"avisitingChinesestudenttoldUniversityofMichiganpsychologistRichardNisbettnotlongago"isthatIthinktheworldisacircleandyouthinkit’saline."TheremarkpromptedtheprofessortowriteabookTheGeographyofThoughtaboutthedifferencesbetweentheWesternandtheAsianmind. ToWesternthinkingtheworldislinear;youcanchopitupandanalyzeitandwecanallworkonourlittlepartoftheprojectindependentlyuntilit’ssolved.TheclassicallyEasternmindaccordingtoNisbettseesthingsdifferently:theworldisn’talengthofropebutavastclosedchainincomprehensiblycomplexandeverchanging.Whenyoulookatlifefromthissecondperspectivesomeunlikelyconnectionsrevealthemselves. IrealizedthiswaswhatalmostalltheU-turnshadincommon:peoplehadswungaroundtofaceEast.Theyhadstoppedthinkinginalineandstartedthinkinginacircle.Moralitywaslookinglesslikeasetofrulesandmorelikeastoryoneinwhichtheywerepartofanensemblecastnolongerthestar. Intheauthor’sopinionthemajorcauseofmanypeopletomakeU-turnsisthat
ResearchersattheUniversityofArizonaledbyTeresaCumminsconductedanexploratorystudyontheonlinelearningmodulesdesignedtosupplementhands-onclassestaughtbylocalexpertsandsupportedbyanoverviewtexttohelpusersincreasetheirunderstandingofkeyconceptsintheArizonaMasterWatershedStewardprogram.Theyalsosoughttodeterminewhetherprogramparticipantswouldusethenon-compulsorymodules. Theirevaluationrevealedthatmoduleusersincreasedtheirunderstandingofkeywatershedconcepts;participantsintheevaluationdemonstrateda30percentincreaseincontentknowledgefollowingmoduleuse.Additionally70percentofparticipantsretainedthisknowledgethroughatwo-monthfollow-uptest. Afollow-upsurveyshowedthatapproximatelyhalfoftheparticipantsreturnedtotheonlinemodulesontheirown;severaloftheseusersreturnedseveraltimesandspentmultiplehourspersession.Commentsfromthefollow-upsurveysuggestedthattheusersaccessedthesiteeitherastheyhadthetimeorastheyneededtheinformation. Onlineusagestatisticsindicatedparticipantscontinuedtovisitthesiteformanymonthsfollowingthemodules’releaseandadvertisement.Thoughmanyvisitswereverybriefasinglepageview;onlyacoupleofsecondsvisitorswithmanyreturnstothesiteand/orlongvisitsappearedtobeworkingthroughthemodules. Oneparticipantstated"Mybraincanonlyholdsomuchinformation;themoduleskeepinformationon-hand."Otherparticipantscommentedthatthemoduleswere"moreinterestingandinteractive"thanthetextmaterialanda"veryeffectivetool"and"agreatresourcetotheMasterWatershedStewardcommunity." TheArizonaMasterWatershedStewardprogramsponsoredbyUniversityofArizonapreparesadultstoserveasvolunteersintheconservationofwaterresourcesandtheprotectionrestorationandmonitoringoftheirwatersheds.Themoduleswereintendedtoreinforceconceptscoveredinclassesandfurtherengageparticipantsinthelearningprocess. Onekeyfindingwasthatthemoduleswerenotclearlypreferredbyusersoverin-personinstruction.Oneparticipantstated"Formetheyarejustanotheravenueforlearningasupplementoradditionalreference.Ipreferinpersonandrealhands-onlearning."Otherparticipantssimilarlyexpressedtheirdesireforhands-onandface-to-faceinteraction.Severalparticipantsnotedthattheusefulnessofin-personlectures—wasafunctionofthepresenter. Overalltheexploratoryevaluationindicatedthatthemoduleswereawelcomesupplementtothecourseandwereeffectiveinreinforcingkeyconcepts.Participantsretainedknowledgeforseveralweeksalthoughsincesubjectswereself-selectedtheymayhavebeenself-motivatedtopayattentionandmastertheonlinemodulematerials. "Iamconstantlysearchingfornewwaystoeducateourprogram’sdiverseaudiencesandreinforcewatershedscienceconcepts"saysCandiceRupprechtstatecoordinatorfortheMasterWatershedStewardprogram."Iamexcitedtoknowthatonlinelearningmodulescanenhanceourprogrambyofferingadditionalindependentlearningopportunitiesforourvolunteers. Whichofthefollowingistrueoftheonlinelearning
ResearchersattheUniversityofArizonaledbyTeresaCumminsconductedanexploratorystudyontheonlinelearningmodulesdesignedtosupplementhands-onclassestaughtbylocalexpertsandsupportedbyanoverviewtexttohelpusersincreasetheirunderstandingofkeyconceptsintheArizonaMasterWatershedStewardprogram.Theyalsosoughttodeterminewhetherprogramparticipantswouldusethenon-compulsorymodules. Theirevaluationrevealedthatmoduleusersincreasedtheirunderstandingofkeywatershedconcepts;participantsintheevaluationdemonstrateda30percentincreaseincontentknowledgefollowingmoduleuse.Additionally70percentofparticipantsretainedthisknowledgethroughatwo-monthfollow-uptest. Afollow-upsurveyshowedthatapproximatelyhalfoftheparticipantsreturnedtotheonlinemodulesontheirown;severaloftheseusersreturnedseveraltimesandspentmultiplehourspersession.Commentsfromthefollow-upsurveysuggestedthattheusersaccessedthesiteeitherastheyhadthetimeorastheyneededtheinformation. Onlineusagestatisticsindicatedparticipantscontinuedtovisitthesiteformanymonthsfollowingthemodules’releaseandadvertisement.Thoughmanyvisitswereverybriefasinglepageview;onlyacoupleofsecondsvisitorswithmanyreturnstothesiteand/orlongvisitsappearedtobeworkingthroughthemodules. Oneparticipantstated"Mybraincanonlyholdsomuchinformation;themoduleskeepinformationon-hand."Otherparticipantscommentedthatthemoduleswere"moreinterestingandinteractive"thanthetextmaterialanda"veryeffectivetool"and"agreatresourcetotheMasterWatershedStewardcommunity." TheArizonaMasterWatershedStewardprogramsponsoredbyUniversityofArizonapreparesadultstoserveasvolunteersintheconservationofwaterresourcesandtheprotectionrestorationandmonitoringoftheirwatersheds.Themoduleswereintendedtoreinforceconceptscoveredinclassesandfurtherengageparticipantsinthelearningprocess. Onekeyfindingwasthatthemoduleswerenotclearlypreferredbyusersoverin-personinstruction.Oneparticipantstated"Formetheyarejustanotheravenueforlearningasupplementoradditionalreference.Ipreferinpersonandrealhands-onlearning."Otherparticipantssimilarlyexpressedtheirdesireforhands-onandface-to-faceinteraction.Severalparticipantsnotedthattheusefulnessofin-personlectures—wasafunctionofthepresenter. Overalltheexploratoryevaluationindicatedthatthemoduleswereawelcomesupplementtothecourseandwereeffectiveinreinforcingkeyconcepts.Participantsretainedknowledgeforseveralweeksalthoughsincesubjectswereself-selectedtheymayhavebeenself-motivatedtopayattentionandmastertheonlinemodulematerials. "Iamconstantlysearchingfornewwaystoeducateourprogram’sdiverseaudiencesandreinforcewatershedscienceconcepts"saysCandiceRupprechtstatecoordinatorfortheMasterWatershedStewardprogram."Iamexcitedtoknowthatonlinelearningmodulescanenhanceourprogrambyofferingadditionalindependentlearningopportunitiesforourvolunteers. Whichofthefollowingisthetextmainlyabout
Humanrelationshavecommandedpeople’sattentionfromearlytimes.Thewaysofpeoplehavebeenrecordedininnumerablemythsfolktalesnovelspoemsplaysandpopularorphilosophicalessays.Althoughthefullsignificanceofahumanrelationshipmaynotbedirectlyevidentthecomplexityoffeelingsandactionsthatcanbeunderstoodataglanceissurprisinglygreat.Forthisreasonpsychologyholdsauniquepositionamongthesciences. "Intuitive"knowledgemayberemarkablypenetratingandcansignificantlyhelpusunderstandhumanbehaviorwhereasinthephysicalsciencessuchcommonsenseknowledgeisrelativelyprimitive.Ifweerasedallknowledgeofscientificphysicsfromourworldnotonlywouldwenothavecarsandtelevisionsetswemightevenfindthattheordinarypersonwasunabletocopewiththefundamentalmechanicalproblemsofpulleysandlevers.Ontheotherhandifweremovedallknowledgeofscientificpsychologyfromourworldproblemsininterpersonalrelationsmighteasilybecopedwithandsolvedmuchasbefore.Wewouldstill"know"howtoavoiddoingsomethingaskedofusandhowtogetsomeonetoagreewithus:wewouldstill"know"whensomeonewasangryandwhensomeonewaspleased.Onecouldevenoffersensibleexplanationsforthe"whys"ofmuchoftheself’sbehaviorandfeelings.Inotherwordstheordinarypersonhasagreatandprofoundunderstandingoftheselfandofotherpeoplewhichthoughunformulatedoronlyvaguelyconceivedenablesonetointeractwithothersinmoreorlessadaptiveways.Kohlerinreferringtothelackofgreatdiscoveriesinpsychologyascomparedwithphysicsaccountsforthisbysayingthat"peoplewereacquaintedwithpracticallyallterritoriesofmentallifealongtimebeforethefoundingofscientificpsychology." Paradoxicallywithallthisnaturalintuitivecommonsensecapacitytograsphumanrelationsthescienceofhumanrelationshadbeenoneofthelasttodevelop.Differentexplanationsofthisparadoxhavebeensuggested.Oneisthatsciencewoulddestroythevainandpleasingillusionspeoplehaveaboutthemselves;butwemightaskwhypeoplehavealwayslovedtoreadpessimisticdebunkingwritingsfromEcclesiastestoFreud.Ithasalsobeenproposedthatjustbecauseweknowsomuchaboutpeopleintuitivelytherehasbeenlessincentiveforstudyingthemscientifically:whyshouldonedevelopatheorycarryoutsystematicobservationsormakepredictionsabouttheobviousInanycasethefieldofhumanrelationswithitsvastliterarydocumentationbutmeagerscientifictreatmentisingreatcontrasttothefieldofphysicsinwhichtherearerelativelyfewnonscientificbooks. TheauthorusesEcclesiastesandFreudLine4Para.3asexamplesinorderto
Onethingthatdistinguishestheonlineworldfromtherealoneisthatitisveryeasytofindthings.TofindacopyofTheEconomistinprintonehastogotoanewsstandwhichmayormaynotcarryit.Findingitonlinethoughisadifferentproposition.JustgotoGoogletypeitin"economist"andyouwillbeinstantlydirectedtoeconomist.com.46IndeeduntilGooglenowtheworld’smostpopularsearchenginecameontothesceneinSeptember1998searchingonlinewasahit-or-missaffair. Googlewasvastlybetterthananythingthathadcomebefore:somuchbetterinfactthatitchangedthewaymanypeopleusetheweb.47Almostovernightitmadethewebfarmoreusefulparticularlyfornon-specialistusersmanyofwhomregardGoogleastheInternet’sfrontdoor.It’snowaworldwidephenomenon.NotonlyhasitmadetheInternetintoanextremelyfastandvaluableresearchtoolit’sbecomeacommonwordandhasevencreatedanewverb"togoogle."48TherecentfussoverGoogle’sstockmarketflotationobscuresitsfarwidersocialsignificance:fewtechnologiesafterallaresoinfluentialthattheirnameshavebecomeahouseholdverbsuchasthecloningtechnologycreatestheverb"toclone". Googlebeganin1998asanacademicresearchprojectbySergeyBrinandLawrencePagewhowerethengraduatestudentsatStanfordUniversityinPaloAltoCalifornia.Itwasnotthefirstsearchengineofcourse.49Existingsearchengineswereabletoscanalargeportionofthewebbuildanindexandthenfindpagesthatmatchedparticularwordsbutwerelessgoodatpresentingthosepageswhichmightnumberinthehundredsofthousandsinausefulway. Mr.Brin’sandMr.Page’saccomplishmentwastodeviseawaytosorttheresultsbydeterminingwhichpageswerelikelytobemostrelevant.TheydidsobyusingamathematicalprogramcalledPageRank.50ThisprogramisattheheartofGoogle’ssuccessdistinguishingitfromallsearchenginesandaccountingforitsapparentlymagicalabilitytofindthemostusefulwebpages.Withthispowerfulability.Googledistinguisheditselffromamongallthesearchenginesandbecameanestablishedstandingresearchtoolintheonlineworld. 48TherecentfussoverGoogle’sstockmarketflotationobscuresitsfarwidersocialsignificance:fewtechnologiesafterallaresoinfluentialthattheirnameshavebecomeahouseholdverbsuchasthecloningtechnologycreatestheverbtoclone.
It’seasytogetthesensethesedaysthatyou’vestumbledintoapartywithsomepowerfuldrugthatdramaticallyaltersidentity.Thefacesarefamiliarbutthewordscomingoutofthemaren’t.Somethinghashappenedtoalotofpeopleyouusedtothinkyouknew.They’vechangedintosomethingliketheirownopposite. There’sBillGateswhothesedaysisspendinglesstimeearningmoneythangivingitaway--andpullingotherbillionairesintothedeependofglobalphilanthropy慈善事业withhim.There’shistorianFrancisFukuyamaleadingawholegangofdisaffectedfellowtravelersawayfromneoconservatism.Toflip-flopishuman.Itcanstillsometimesbeapoliticalliabilityevidenceofaflakydispositionorrankopportunism.Buttherearecircumstancesinwhichnottoreversecourseseemsalmostpathological病态的.He’samodelofconsistencyStephenColbertsaidlastyearofGeorgeW.Bush:"HebelievesthesamethingWednesdaythathebelievedonMonday--nomatterwhathappenedonTuesday." OverthepastthreeyearsIfoundpeoplewhohadpulledabigU-turnintheirlives.Oftentheinsightcameinaforehead-smitingmomentinthemiddleofthenight:I’vegotitallwrong. Itlookedatfirstlikeasprinklingofoutliersbeyondthecurveofnormalhumanexperience.Butwhenyousteppedbackapatternemerged.Whatthesepersonalturnshadincommonwastheapprehensionthatwe’reallconnected.Everythingleansonsomethingisbothdependentanddependedon. "Thedifferencebetweenyouandme"avisitingChinesestudenttoldUniversityofMichiganpsychologistRichardNisbettnotlongago"isthatIthinktheworldisacircleandyouthinkit’saline."TheremarkpromptedtheprofessortowriteabookTheGeographyofThoughtaboutthedifferencesbetweentheWesternandtheAsianmind. ToWesternthinkingtheworldislinear;youcanchopitupandanalyzeitandwecanallworkonourlittlepartoftheprojectindependentlyuntilit’ssolved.TheclassicallyEasternmindaccordingtoNisbettseesthingsdifferently:theworldisn’talengthofropebutavastclosedchainincomprehensiblycomplexandeverchanging.Whenyoulookatlifefromthissecondperspectivesomeunlikelyconnectionsrevealthemselves. IrealizedthiswaswhatalmostalltheU-turnshadincommon:peoplehadswungaroundtofaceEast.Theyhadstoppedthinkinginalineandstartedthinkinginacircle.Moralitywaslookinglesslikeasetofrulesandmorelikeastoryoneinwhichtheywerepartofanensemblecastnolongerthestar. Theunderlinedwordflip-flopLine4Paragraph2mostprobablymeans
Mostplantscanmaketheirownfoodfromsunlight1somehavediscoveredthatstealingisaneasierwaytolive.Thousandsofplantspeciesgetby2photosynthesizingandover400ofthesespeciesseemtolivebypilferingsugarsfromanunderground3offungi真菌.Butin4ahandfuloftheseplantshasthismodusoperandibeentracedtoarelativelyobscurefungus.Tofindouthow5are6mycologistMartinBidartondooftheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyandhisteamlookedintheirroots.Whattheyfoundwere7ofacommontypeoffungusso8thatitisfoundinnearly70percentofallplants.Thepresenceofthiscommonfungusintheseplantsnotonly9athowtheysurvivesaysBidartondobutalsosuggeststhatmanyordinaryplantsmightprosperfromalittlelootingtoo. Plantshave10relationstogetwhattheyneedtosurvive.Normal11plantscanmaketheirowncarbohydratesthroughphotosynthesisbuttheystillneedminerals.Mostplantshave12asymbioticrelationshipwitha13networkofwhatarecalledmycorrhizalfungiwhichliesbeneaththeforest14.Thefungihelpgreenplantsabsorbmineralsthroughtheirrootsand15theplantsnormally16thefungiwithsugarsorcarbonwithanumberofplantssharingthesamefungalwebitwasperhaps17thatafewcheaters—dubbedepiparasites—wouldevolvetobeatthesystem.18theseplantsreversedtheflowofcarbon19itintotheirrootsfromthefungi20releasingitas"payment./ 20
Humanrelationshavecommandedpeople’sattentionfromearlytimes.Thewaysofpeoplehavebeenrecordedininnumerablemythsfolktalesnovelspoemsplaysandpopularorphilosophicalessays.Althoughthefullsignificanceofahumanrelationshipmaynotbedirectlyevidentthecomplexityoffeelingsandactionsthatcanbeunderstoodataglanceissurprisinglygreat.Forthisreasonpsychologyholdsauniquepositionamongthesciences. "Intuitive"knowledgemayberemarkablypenetratingandcansignificantlyhelpusunderstandhumanbehaviorwhereasinthephysicalsciencessuchcommonsenseknowledgeisrelativelyprimitive.Ifweerasedallknowledgeofscientificphysicsfromourworldnotonlywouldwenothavecarsandtelevisionsetswemightevenfindthattheordinarypersonwasunabletocopewiththefundamentalmechanicalproblemsofpulleysandlevers.Ontheotherhandifweremovedallknowledgeofscientificpsychologyfromourworldproblemsininterpersonalrelationsmighteasilybecopedwithandsolvedmuchasbefore.Wewouldstill"know"howtoavoiddoingsomethingaskedofusandhowtogetsomeonetoagreewithus:wewouldstill"know"whensomeonewasangryandwhensomeonewaspleased.Onecouldevenoffersensibleexplanationsforthe"whys"ofmuchoftheself’sbehaviorandfeelings.Inotherwordstheordinarypersonhasagreatandprofoundunderstandingoftheselfandofotherpeoplewhichthoughunformulatedoronlyvaguelyconceivedenablesonetointeractwithothersinmoreorlessadaptiveways.Kohlerinreferringtothelackofgreatdiscoveriesinpsychologyascomparedwithphysicsaccountsforthisbysayingthat"peoplewereacquaintedwithpracticallyallterritoriesofmentallifealongtimebeforethefoundingofscientificpsychology." Paradoxicallywithallthisnaturalintuitivecommonsensecapacitytograsphumanrelationsthescienceofhumanrelationshadbeenoneofthelasttodevelop.Differentexplanationsofthisparadoxhavebeensuggested.Oneisthatsciencewoulddestroythevainandpleasingillusionspeoplehaveaboutthemselves;butwemightaskwhypeoplehavealwayslovedtoreadpessimisticdebunkingwritingsfromEcclesiastestoFreud.Ithasalsobeenproposedthatjustbecauseweknowsomuchaboutpeopleintuitivelytherehasbeenlessincentiveforstudyingthemscientifically:whyshouldonedevelopatheorycarryoutsystematicobservationsormakepredictionsabouttheobviousInanycasethefieldofhumanrelationswithitsvastliterarydocumentationbutmeagerscientifictreatmentisingreatcontrasttothefieldofphysicsinwhichtherearerelativelyfewnonscientificbooks. Accordingtothepassagewhichofthefollowingcouldbesafelydrawnaboutthepeoplewholivedbeforethecomingofscientificpsychology
Mostplantscanmaketheirownfoodfromsunlight1somehavediscoveredthatstealingisaneasierwaytolive.Thousandsofplantspeciesgetby2photosynthesizingandover400ofthesespeciesseemtolivebypilferingsugarsfromanunderground3offungi真菌.Butin4ahandfuloftheseplantshasthismodusoperandibeentracedtoarelativelyobscurefungus.Tofindouthow5are6mycologistMartinBidartondooftheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyandhisteamlookedintheirroots.Whattheyfoundwere7ofacommontypeoffungusso8thatitisfoundinnearly70percentofallplants.Thepresenceofthiscommonfungusintheseplantsnotonly9athowtheysurvivesaysBidartondobutalsosuggeststhatmanyordinaryplantsmightprosperfromalittlelootingtoo. Plantshave10relationstogetwhattheyneedtosurvive.Normal11plantscanmaketheirowncarbohydratesthroughphotosynthesisbuttheystillneedminerals.Mostplantshave12asymbioticrelationshipwitha13networkofwhatarecalledmycorrhizalfungiwhichliesbeneaththeforest14.Thefungihelpgreenplantsabsorbmineralsthroughtheirrootsand15theplantsnormally16thefungiwithsugarsorcarbonwithanumberofplantssharingthesamefungalwebitwasperhaps17thatafewcheaters—dubbedepiparasites—wouldevolvetobeatthesystem.18theseplantsreversedtheflowofcarbon19itintotheirrootsfromthefungi20releasingitas"payment./ 18
Mostplantscanmaketheirownfoodfromsunlight1somehavediscoveredthatstealingisaneasierwaytolive.Thousandsofplantspeciesgetby2photosynthesizingandover400ofthesespeciesseemtolivebypilferingsugarsfromanunderground3offungi真菌.Butin4ahandfuloftheseplantshasthismodusoperandibeentracedtoarelativelyobscurefungus.Tofindouthow5are6mycologistMartinBidartondooftheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyandhisteamlookedintheirroots.Whattheyfoundwere7ofacommontypeoffungusso8thatitisfoundinnearly70percentofallplants.Thepresenceofthiscommonfungusintheseplantsnotonly9athowtheysurvivesaysBidartondobutalsosuggeststhatmanyordinaryplantsmightprosperfromalittlelootingtoo. Plantshave10relationstogetwhattheyneedtosurvive.Normal11plantscanmaketheirowncarbohydratesthroughphotosynthesisbuttheystillneedminerals.Mostplantshave12asymbioticrelationshipwitha13networkofwhatarecalledmycorrhizalfungiwhichliesbeneaththeforest14.Thefungihelpgreenplantsabsorbmineralsthroughtheirrootsand15theplantsnormally16thefungiwithsugarsorcarbonwithanumberofplantssharingthesamefungalwebitwasperhaps17thatafewcheaters—dubbedepiparasites—wouldevolvetobeatthesystem.18theseplantsreversedtheflowofcarbon19itintotheirrootsfromthefungi20releasingitas"payment./ 2
Onethingthatdistinguishestheonlineworldfromtherealoneisthatitisveryeasytofindthings.TofindacopyofTheEconomistinprintonehastogotoanewsstandwhichmayormaynotcarryit.Findingitonlinethoughisadifferentproposition.JustgotoGoogletypeitin"economist"andyouwillbeinstantlydirectedtoeconomist.com.46IndeeduntilGooglenowtheworld’smostpopularsearchenginecameontothesceneinSeptember1998searchingonlinewasahit-or-missaffair. Googlewasvastlybetterthananythingthathadcomebefore:somuchbetterinfactthatitchangedthewaymanypeopleusetheweb.47Almostovernightitmadethewebfarmoreusefulparticularlyfornon-specialistusersmanyofwhomregardGoogleastheInternet’sfrontdoor.It’snowaworldwidephenomenon.NotonlyhasitmadetheInternetintoanextremelyfastandvaluableresearchtoolit’sbecomeacommonwordandhasevencreatedanewverb"togoogle."48TherecentfussoverGoogle’sstockmarketflotationobscuresitsfarwidersocialsignificance:fewtechnologiesafterallaresoinfluentialthattheirnameshavebecomeahouseholdverbsuchasthecloningtechnologycreatestheverb"toclone". Googlebeganin1998asanacademicresearchprojectbySergeyBrinandLawrencePagewhowerethengraduatestudentsatStanfordUniversityinPaloAltoCalifornia.Itwasnotthefirstsearchengineofcourse.49Existingsearchengineswereabletoscanalargeportionofthewebbuildanindexandthenfindpagesthatmatchedparticularwordsbutwerelessgoodatpresentingthosepageswhichmightnumberinthehundredsofthousandsinausefulway. Mr.Brin’sandMr.Page’saccomplishmentwastodeviseawaytosorttheresultsbydeterminingwhichpageswerelikelytobemostrelevant.TheydidsobyusingamathematicalprogramcalledPageRank.50ThisprogramisattheheartofGoogle’ssuccessdistinguishingitfromallsearchenginesandaccountingforitsapparentlymagicalabilitytofindthemostusefulwebpages.Withthispowerfulability.Googledistinguisheditselffromamongallthesearchenginesandbecameanestablishedstandingresearchtoolintheonlineworld. 50ThisprogramisattheheartofGoogle’ssuccessdistinguishingitfromallsearchenginesandaccountingforitsapparentlymagicalabilitytofindthemostusefulwebpages.
Mostplantscanmaketheirownfoodfromsunlight1somehavediscoveredthatstealingisaneasierwaytolive.Thousandsofplantspeciesgetby2photosynthesizingandover400ofthesespeciesseemtolivebypilferingsugarsfromanunderground3offungi真菌.Butin4ahandfuloftheseplantshasthismodusoperandibeentracedtoarelativelyobscurefungus.Tofindouthow5are6mycologistMartinBidartondooftheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyandhisteamlookedintheirroots.Whattheyfoundwere7ofacommontypeoffungusso8thatitisfoundinnearly70percentofallplants.Thepresenceofthiscommonfungusintheseplantsnotonly9athowtheysurvivesaysBidartondobutalsosuggeststhatmanyordinaryplantsmightprosperfromalittlelootingtoo. Plantshave10relationstogetwhattheyneedtosurvive.Normal11plantscanmaketheirowncarbohydratesthroughphotosynthesisbuttheystillneedminerals.Mostplantshave12asymbioticrelationshipwitha13networkofwhatarecalledmycorrhizalfungiwhichliesbeneaththeforest14.Thefungihelpgreenplantsabsorbmineralsthroughtheirrootsand15theplantsnormally16thefungiwithsugarsorcarbonwithanumberofplantssharingthesamefungalwebitwasperhaps17thatafewcheaters—dubbedepiparasites—wouldevolvetobeatthesystem.18theseplantsreversedtheflowofcarbon19itintotheirrootsfromthefungi20releasingitas"payment./ 6
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