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UntilrecentlymosthistoriansspokeverycriticallyoftheIndustrialRevolution.They________thatinthelongrunindustrializationgreatlyraisedthestandardoflivingforthe________man.Buttheyinsistedthatits________resultsduringtheperiodfrom1750to1850werewidespreadpovertyandmiseryforthe________oftheEnglishpopulation.______contrasttheysawintheprecedinghundredyearsfrom1650to1750whenEnglandwasstilla______agriculturalcountryaperiodofgreatabundanceandprosperity. Thisview______isgenerallythoughttobewrong.Specialists________historyandeconomicshave________twothings:thattheperiodfrom1650to1750was________bygreatpovertyandthatindustrializationcertainlydidnotworsenandmayhaveactuallyimprovedtheconditionsforthemajorityofthepopulace.
LateVictorianandmodernideasofculturearealwaysinsomesenseattributedtoMatthewArnoldwholargelythroughhisCultureandAnarchy1869placedthewordatthecenterofdebatesaboutthegoalsofintellectuallifeandhumanisticsociety.Arnolddefinedcultureasthepursuitoftotalperfectionbymeansofgettingtoknowonallmatterswhichmostconcernusthebestwhichhasbeenthoughtandsaidintheworld.ItwasArnold’’shopethatthroughthisknowledgewecanturnafreshandfreethoughtuponourstocknotionsandhabits.AlthoughArnold’’sthinkingaboutculturehelpedtodefinethepurposesoftheliberalartscurriculuminthecenturyfollowingthepublicationofCulturethreeconcreteformsofdisagreementwithArnold’’sviewshavehadconsiderableimpactoftheirown. ThefirstcanbeseenasprotestingArnold’’sfearfuldestinationofanarchyasculture’’senemy.Thisdivisionseemstosetupsimplyonemoreversionoftheoldstrugglebetweenaprivilegedpowerstructureandradicalchallengestoitsauthority.Arnoldcertainlytriedtodefinethearch-thelawfulorderofvalue-againstwhathesawasthean-archexistentialistdemocracyyethehimselfwasannoyedinhissoulbytheblindprideofthereactionarypowersinhisworld. AnotherformofoppositionsawArnold’’scultureasanabsurdperpetuationofclassicalandliterarylearningoutlookandprivilegesinaworldwheresciencehadbecomethenewarchandfromwhichanyreallyneworderofthinkingmustdevelop.AtthecenterofthetwoculturesdebatewerethegoalsoftheformalcurriculumintheeducationalsystemwhichisalwaystakentobetheprincipalvehiclethroughwhichArnoldiancultureoperates.HoweverArnoldhimselfhadviewedcultureasenactingitslifeinamuchmorebroadlyconceivedsetofinstitutions. TodayhoweverArnoldiancultureissustainedifindirectlybymulticulturalismamovementaimedlargelyatgainingrecognitionforvoicesandvisionsthatArnoldianculturehasimplicitlysuppressed.Atthelevelofeducationalpracticethemulticulturalistsareinterestedinlesseningthearbitraryauthoritythathighcultureexercisesoverthecurriculumwhilebringingintoplaytheprinciplethatwemustlearnwhatisrepresentativeforwehaveoveremphasizedwhatisexceptional.Themulticulturalists’’conflictwithArnoldianculturehasclearsimilaritiestotheradicalcritique;yetmulticulturalismaffirmsArnoldbyreturningusmorespecificallytoatensioninherentintheideaofcultureratherthantotheculture-anarchydivision. ThesocialcriticsdefendersofscienceandmulticulturalistsinsistthatArnold’’scultureissimplyadevicefororderingusabout.Insteaditisdesignedtoregisterthegatheringofideologicalcloudsonthehorizon.ThereisnoutopianmotiveinArnold’’scelebrationofperfection.TheideaofperfectionmatteredtoArnoldastheonlybackgroundagainstwhichwecouldformajustimageofouractualcircumstancesjustaswecanconceivefinersunsetsandunheardmelodies.ThiscapacitywhichallhumanspossessArnoldmadethefoundationandauthorityofculture. InrefutingArnold’’sopponentstheauthoremploysallofthefollowingtechniquesEXCEPT
Directions: YouaregoingtoreadalistofheadingsandatextabouttheDeepImpactbyNASA;ChoosethemostsuitableheadingfromthelistA-Fforeachnumberedparagraph41--45.Thefirstparagraphandthelasttwoparagraphsofthetextarenotnumbered.Thereisoneextraheadingwhichyoudon’tneedtouse.MarkyouranswersonAnswerSheet1. A.Revelationofthenatureofcomets B.Aperfectrepresentativeofthecomets C.Hopingforthebest D.RighttimeandrightplacefortheImpact E.WhattoexpectofthisDeepImpact F.Mysteryintheheavens OnMondayat1:52a.m.ETaprobedeployedbyaNASAspacecraft83millionmilesfromhomewillsmashat23000mphintoanancientcometthesizeofManhattanblastingaholeperhaps14storiesdeep. 41. LaunchedinJanuaryNASA’s$333millionDeepImpactmissionisdesignedtoanswerquestionsthatscientistshavelonghadaboutcometstheominousicebergsofspace.Thisisthefirsttimeanyspaceagencyhasstagedsuchadeliberatecrash.ScientistshopeimagestransmittedbytheprobeanditsmothershipwilltellthemaboutconditionsintheearlysolarsystemwhencometsandplanetsincludingEarthwereformed.Theteamhopestoreleasephotosoftheimpactassoonastheyarereceivedfromthecraft.NASAandobservatoriesacrossthenationwillbereleasingwebcasts. 42. AttheveryleastNASAsaysknowinghowdeeptheprobedivesintothecometcouldsettlethedebateoverwhethercometsarecompacticecubesorporoussnowcones."Weneedtodigasdeepaholeaspossible"saysmissionsciencechiefMichaelA’HearnoftheUniversityofMaryland.UntilnowtheclosestscientistshavecometoacometwaswhenNASA’sStardustmissionpassedwithin167milesofthecometWild2lastyearcollectingcometdustthatisboundforareturntoEarthinJanuary.ThemostfamousdatewithacometoccurredwhenaninternationalspacecraftflotillagreetedHalley’scometin1986.Butthesequicklooksexaminedonlythecomets’dustandSurface; 43. Totheancientscometswereharbingersofdoomcelestialintrudersontheperfectionoftheheavensthatpresageddisaster.ModernastronomershavelookedonthemmorefavorablyatleastsinceEdmondHalley’scelebrated1705predictionofthereturnofHalley’scometin1758andevery75yearsthereafter.TodayscientistsbelieveTempel1namedforErnstWilhelmLeberechtTempelwhofirstspotteditin1867whilesearchingforcometsintheskyoverMarseillesFranceandothercometsarewindowstotheearliestdaysofthesolarsystem4.6billionyearsagowhenplanetsformedfromthedustdisksurroundingtheinfantsun. 44. DeepImpact’scopper-plated"impactor"--a39-inchlong820-poundbeer-barrel-shapedprobe--willbe"runoverlikeapennyonatraintrack"whenitcrashesA’Hearnsays.Theimpactorisequippedwithanavigationsystemtomakesureitsmacksintothecometintherightlocationfortheflybycraft’scameras.OnSundaytheflybyspacecraftwillreleasetheprobe.Twelveminuteslateritwillbeatahastyretreatwithamaneuveraimedatallowingacloseflybyfrom5348milesawaywithcameraspointed.Fourteenminutesaftertheimpacttheflybyspacecraftwillscoottowithinamere310milesforaclose-upofthedamage. 45. Ideallyeverythingwilllineupandtheflybyspacecraftwilltakeimagesofthecratercausedbytheimpact.Itwillgointoa"shielded"modeasiceanddustbatterthecraftthenemergetotakemorepictures."Therealisticworstcaseishittingthecometbutnothavingtheflybyintherightplace"A’Hearnsays."Basicallywehaveabullettryingtohitasecondbulletwithathirdbulletintherightplaceattherighttimetowatch.I’dlovetohaveajoystick操纵杆tocontroltheimpactor." Planetaryscientistshave"noidea"whatsortofcraterwillresultMcFaddensays.Predictionsrangefromadeepbutskinnyshaftdrivenintoaporoussnowconetoafootballstadium-sizedexcavationinahard-packediceball. Butastronomersshouldhavetheiranswershortlyafterimpactwhichshouldsettlesomequestionsaboutthecomet’scrustandinterior.Analysisofthechemistryofthatinteriorbasedonthelightspectragivenoffintheimpact’saftermathcouldtakemuchlonger. 42
LateVictorianandmodernideasofculturearealwaysinsomesenseattributedtoMatthewArnoldwholargelythroughhisCultureandAnarchy1869placedthewordatthecenterofdebatesaboutthegoalsofintellectuallifeandhumanisticsociety.Arnolddefinedcultureasthepursuitoftotalperfectionbymeansofgettingtoknowonallmatterswhichmostconcernusthebestwhichhasbeenthoughtandsaidintheworld.ItwasArnold’’shopethatthroughthisknowledgewecanturnafreshandfreethoughtuponourstocknotionsandhabits.AlthoughArnold’’sthinkingaboutculturehelpedtodefinethepurposesoftheliberalartscurriculuminthecenturyfollowingthepublicationofCulturethreeconcreteformsofdisagreementwithArnold’’sviewshavehadconsiderableimpactoftheirown. ThefirstcanbeseenasprotestingArnold’’sfearfuldestinationofanarchyasculture’’senemy.Thisdivisionseemstosetupsimplyonemoreversionoftheoldstrugglebetweenaprivilegedpowerstructureandradicalchallengestoitsauthority.Arnoldcertainlytriedtodefinethearch-thelawfulorderofvalue-againstwhathesawasthean-archexistentialistdemocracyyethehimselfwasannoyedinhissoulbytheblindprideofthereactionarypowersinhisworld. AnotherformofoppositionsawArnold’’scultureasanabsurdperpetuationofclassicalandliterarylearningoutlookandprivilegesinaworldwheresciencehadbecomethenewarchandfromwhichanyreallyneworderofthinkingmustdevelop.AtthecenterofthetwoculturesdebatewerethegoalsoftheformalcurriculumintheeducationalsystemwhichisalwaystakentobetheprincipalvehiclethroughwhichArnoldiancultureoperates.HoweverArnoldhimselfhadviewedcultureasenactingitslifeinamuchmorebroadlyconceivedsetofinstitutions. TodayhoweverArnoldiancultureissustainedifindirectlybymulticulturalismamovementaimedlargelyatgainingrecognitionforvoicesandvisionsthatArnoldianculturehasimplicitlysuppressed.Atthelevelofeducationalpracticethemulticulturalistsareinterestedinlesseningthearbitraryauthoritythathighcultureexercisesoverthecurriculumwhilebringingintoplaytheprinciplethatwemustlearnwhatisrepresentativeforwehaveoveremphasizedwhatisexceptional.Themulticulturalists’’conflictwithArnoldianculturehasclearsimilaritiestotheradicalcritique;yetmulticulturalismaffirmsArnoldbyreturningusmorespecificallytoatensioninherentintheideaofcultureratherthantotheculture-anarchydivision. ThesocialcriticsdefendersofscienceandmulticulturalistsinsistthatArnold’’scultureissimplyadevicefororderingusabout.Insteaditisdesignedtoregisterthegatheringofideologicalcloudsonthehorizon.ThereisnoutopianmotiveinArnold’’scelebrationofperfection.TheideaofperfectionmatteredtoArnoldastheonlybackgroundagainstwhichwecouldformajustimageofouractualcircumstancesjustaswecanconceivefinersunsetsandunheardmelodies.ThiscapacitywhichallhumanspossessArnoldmadethefoundationandauthorityofculture. Thetextischieflyaimedat
Directions: ReadthefollowingtextcarefullyandthentranslatetheunderlinedsegmentsintoChinese.YourtranslationshouldbewrittenclearlyonAnswerSheet2.B aghdadIraq--Ifintimetheattempttoimplantapro-WesterndemocraticpoliticalsysteminIraqendsupburiedinthedesertsandshistorianswillhavenoshortageofthingsthatwentwrong.46Equallyiftheproblemshereultimatelyrecedesupportersoftheenterprisewillfindvindication证明…正确intheBushadministration’sdecisiontoholdcourseasotherslostfaith. 47EitherwayanyreckoningwillexaminethenumbersofAmericantroopscommittedhere:whethertheyweresothinlystretchedthattheirmissionwasdoomedfromthestartorasSecretaryOfDefenseDonaldRumsfeldsaidlastweekAmericancommandersweregiven"exactlywhatthey’verecommended"intermsoftroops. Mr.Rumsfeldhaslongtakena"lessismore"approachtocombattrooplevelsandinaBBCinterviewMondayheseemedtomovetowardthosenowpressingtoreducetrooplevelssoon.48"Thereasonforfewer"hesaid"isbecauseultimatelyit’sgoingtobetheIraqipeoplewhoaregoingtoprevailinthisinsurgency起义"--inotherwordsIraqinotAmericantroopsaretheoneswhowillwinthewarifitcanbewon. Thewordsseemedatleasttonodtopolitics.49LastweekevenasopinionpollsshowedcontinuingerosioninsupportforthewaraconservativefromastateheavywithmilitaryBaseswhohasbeenastaunch坚定的supporterofthewarRepresentativeWalterB.JonesofNorthCarolinajoinedwithanotherRepublicanandtwoDemocratsincallingonPresidentBushtobegindrawingdownthetroopsinIraqbyOct.12006. EarlierthisyearthePentagonofferedanevenearlierdateforaninitialreduction.ButinrecentweeksAmericangeneralsherehavebeentellingCongressionalvisitorsthatthedisappointingperformanceofmanyIraqicombatunitshasmadeearlydeparturesimpractical.TheysayitwillbetwoyearsormorebeforeIraqiscanbeexpectedtobeginreplacingAmericanunitsasthemainguarantorsofsecurity. Commandersconcernedfortheircareershavenotthoughtitprudenttogofurtherandtosaypubliclywhatmanysayprivately:thatwithrecentAmericantrooplevels139000now--theyhavebeenforcedtoplayaninfernalboardgameconstantlyshuttlingcombatunitsfromonewarzonetoanotherleavinginsurgentbuildupsunmetinsomeplaceswhiletheydealwithmoreurgentproblemselsewhere. Generalsarenotfamousforwantingsmallerarmies.50ButAmericancommandersherehavebeencautionedbytherealitythatthePentagon五角大楼inatimeofall-volunteerforcesandplungingrecruitinglevelshasfewifanyextratroopstodeploy部署andthattherearelimitstowhatAmericanpublicopinionwouldbear.Sothegeneralshavekeptquietabouttrooplevels. ButAmericancommandersherehavebeencautionedbytherealitythatthePentagon五角大楼inatimeofall-volunteerforcesandplungingrecruitinglevelshasfewifanyextratroopstodeploy部署andthattherearelimitstowhatAmericanpublicopinionwouldbear.
Scatteredaroundtheglobearemorethan100smallregionsofisolatedvolcanicactivityknowntogeologistsashotspots.Unlikemostoftheworld’’svolcanoestheyarenotalwaysfoundattheboundariesofthegreatdriftingplatesthatmakeuptheearth’’ssurface;onthecontrarymanyofthemliedeepintheinteriorofaplate.Mostofthehotspotsmoveonlyslowlyandinsomecasesthemovementoftheplatespastthemhaslefttrailsofdeadvolcanoes.Thehotspotsandtheirvolcanictrailsaremilestonesthatmarkthepassageoftheplates. Thattheplatesaremovingisnowbeyonddispute.AfricaandSouthAmericaforexamplearemovingawayfromeachotherasnewmaterialisinjectedintotheseafloorbetweenthem.Thecomplementarycoastlinesandcertaingeologicalfeaturesthatseemtospantheoceanareremindersofwherethetwocontinentswereoncejoined.Therelativemotionoftheplatescarryingthesecontinentshasbeenconstructedindetailbutthemotionofoneplatewithrespecttoanothercannotreadilybetranslatedintomotionwithrespecttotheearth’’sinterior.Itisnotpossibletodeterminewhetherbothcontinentsaremovinginoppositedirectionsorwhetheronecontinentisstationaryandtheotherisdriftingawayfromit.Hotspotsanchoredinthedeeperlayersoftheearthprovidethemeasuringinstrumentsneededtoresolvethequestion.Fromananalysisofthehot-spotpopulationitappearsthattheAfricanplateisstationaryandthatithasnotmovedduringthepast30millionyears. Thesignificanceofhotspotsisnotconfinedtotheirroleasaframeofreference.Itnowappearsthattheyalsohaveanimportantinfluenceonthegeophysicalprocessesthatpropeltheplatesacrosstheglobe.Whenacontinentalplatecomestorestoverahotspotthematerialrisingfromdeeperlayerscreatesabroaddome.Asthedomegrowsitdevelopsdeepfissurescracks:inatleastafewcasesthecontinentmaybreakentirelyalongsomeofthesefissuressothatthehotspotinitiatestheformationofnewocean.Thusjustasearliertheorieshaveexplainedthemobilityofthecontinentssohotspotsmayexplaintheirmutabilityinconstancy. Thehot-spottheorymayproveusefulinexplaining____________.
Governmentsthroughouttheworldactontheassumptionthatthewelfareoftheirpeopledependslargelyontheeconomicstrengthandwealthofthecommunity.71.Undermodernconditionsthisrequiresvaryingmeasuresofcentralizedcontrolandhencethehelpofspecializedscientistssuchaseconomistsandoperationalresearchexperts.72.Furthermoreitisobviousthatthestrengthofacountry’’seconomyisdirectlyboundupwiththeefficiencyofitsagricultureandindustryandthatthisinturnrestsupontheeffortsofscientistsandtechnologistsofallkinds.Italsomeansthatgovernmentsareincreasinglycompelledtointerfereinthesesectorsinordertostepupproductionandensurethatitisutilizedtothebestadvantage.Forexampletheymayencourageresearchinvariouswaysincludingthesettingupoftheirownresearchcenters;theymayalterthestructureofeducationorinterfereinordertoreducethewastageofnaturalresourcesortapresourceshithertounexploited;ortheymayco-operatedirectlyinthegrowingnumberofinternationalprojectsrelatedtoscienceeconomicsandindustry.Inanycaseallsuchinterventionsareheavilydependentonscientificadviceandalsoscientificandtechnologicalmanpowerofallkinds. 73.Owingtotheremarkabledevelopmentinmass-communicationspeopleeverywherearefeelingnewwantsandarebeingexposedtonewcustomsandideaswhilegovernmentsareoftenforcedtointroducestirfurtherinnovationsforthereasonsgivenabove.Atthesametimethenormalrateofsocialchangethroughouttheworldistakingplaceatavastlyacceleratedspeedcomparedwiththepast.Forexample74.intheearlyinindustrializedcountriesofEuropetheprocessofindustrialization―withallthefar-reachingchangesinsocialpatternsthatfollowed--wasspreadovernearlyacenturywhereasnowadaysadevelopingnationmayundergothesameprocessinadecadeorso.Allthishastheeffectofbuildingupunusualpressuresandtensionswithinthecommunityandconsequentlypresentsseriousproblemsforthegovernmentsconcerned.75.Additionalsocialstressesmayalsooccurbecauseofthepopulationexplosionorproblemsarisingfrommassmigrationmovements--themselvesmaderelativelyeasynowadaysbymodernmeansoftransport.Asaresultofallthesefactorsgovernmentsarebecomingincreasinglydependentonbiologistsandsocialscientistsforplanningtheappropriateprogramsandputtingthemintoeffect.
TheU.SSupremeCourt’sdecisionMondaytoletstandarulinginanonlinedefamationcasewillmakeitmoredifficulttodeterminecorrectlegaljurisdictionsinotherInternetcaseslegalexpertssaid. Byoptingnottotakethecasethehighcourteffectivelyendorsedalowercourt’sdecisionthataColoradocompanythatpostsratingsofhealthplansontheInternetcouldbesuedfordefamationinaWashingtoncourt.ThelowercourtrulingisoneofseveralthatmakesiteasierforplaintiffstosueWebsiteoperatorsintheirownjurisdictionsratherthanwheretheoperatorsmaintainaphysicalpresence. ThecaseinvolvedadefamationsuitfiledbyChehalisWash.-based-NorthwestHealthcareAllianceagainstLakewoodColo.basedHealthgrades.com.TheAlliancesuedinWashingtonfederalcourtafterHealthgrades.compostedanegativerankingofNorthwestHealthcare’shomehealthservicesontheInternet.Healthgrades.comarguedthatitshouldnotbesubjecttothejurisdictionofacourtinWashingtonbecauseitspublishingoperationisinColorado. ObserverssaidthefactthattheSupremeCourtoptednottohearthecaseonlycloudsthelegalsituationforWebsiteoperators. GeoffStewartapartneratJonesDayinWashingtonD.C.saidthattheSupremeCourteventuallymustactontheissueasInternetsitesthatrateeverythingfromautomobiledealershipstocreditofferscouldscalebacktheirofferingstoavoidlawsuitsoriginatingnumerousjurisdictions. OnlinepublishersalsomighthavetoworryaboutbeingdraggedintolawsuitsinforeigncourtssaidDowLohnes&AlbertsonattorneyJonHartwhohasrepresentedtheOnlineNewsAssociation. "ThemuchmoredifficultproblemsforU.S.mediacompaniesarisewhenclaimsarebroughtinforeigncountriesovercontentpublishedintheUnitedStates"Hartsaid.HartcitedarecentcaseinwhichanAustraliancourtruledthatDowJonesmustappearinaVictoriaAustraliacourttodefenditspublicationofallarticleontheU.S.-basedWallStreetJournalWebsite. AccordingtoHartthepotentialchillingeffectofthosesortsofjurisdictionaldecisionsissubstantial."Ihavenotyetseenpublishersholdingbackonwhattheyotherwisepublishbecausethey’reafraidthey’regoingtogetsuedinanothercountrybutthatdoesn’tmeanitwon’thappenifweseearashofU.S.libelcasesagainstU.S.mediacompaniesbeingbroughtinforeigncountries"hesaid. UntilthehighcourtdecidestoweighindirectlyonthisissueWebsiteoperatorsthatofferinformationandservicestouserslocatedoutsideoftheirhomestatesmustdealwithathornylegallandscapesaidJohnMorganapartneratPerkinsColeLLPandanexpertinInternetlaw. Theauthorwritesthispassagemainlytoshowthat
Toavoidthevariousfoolishopinionstowhichmankindisliablenosuperhumangeniusisrequired.Afewsimpleruleswillkeepyounotfromallerrorsbutfromsillyerrors. Ifthematterisonethatcanbesettledbyobservationmaketheobservationyourself.AristotlecouldhaveavoidedthemistakeofthinkingthatwomenhavefewerteeththanmenbythesimpledeviceofaskingMrs.Aristotletokeephermouthopenwhilehecounted.Hedidnotdosobecausehethoughtheknew.Thinkingthatyouknowwheninfactyoudon’’tisafatalmistaketowhichweareallliable. Manymattershoweverarelesseasilybroughttothetestofexperience.Iflikemostofmankindyouhavestrongconvictionsonmanysuchmatterstherearewaysinwhichyoucanmakeyourselfawareofyourownprejudice.Ifanopinioncontrarytoyourownmakesyouangrythatisasignthatyousubconsciouslyareawareofhavingnogoodreasonforthinkingasyoudo.IfsomeonemaintainsthattwoandtwoarefiveorthatIcelandisontheequatoryoufeelpityratherthanangerunlessyouknowsolittleofarithmeticorgeographythathisopinionshakesyourowncontraryconviction.Themostsavagecontroversiesarethoseaboutmattersastowhichthereisnogoodevidenceeitherway.Sowheneveryoufindyourselfgettingangryaboutadifferenceofopinionbeonyourguard;youwillprobablyfindonexaminationthatyourbeliefisgoingbeyondwhattheevidencejustifies. Forthosewhohaveenoughpsychologicalimaginationitisagoodplantoimagineanargumentwithapersonhavingadifferentopinion.Thishasoneadvantageandonlyoneascomparedwithactualconversationwithopponents;thisoneadvantageisthatthemethodisnotsubjecttothesamelimitationsoftimeandspace.MahatmaGandhi圣雄甘地considereditunfortunatetohaverailwaysandsteamboatsandmachinery;hewouldhavelikedtoundothewholeoftheindustrialrevolution.YoumayneverhaveanopportunityofactuallymeetinganyonewhoholdsthisopinionbecauseinWesterncountriesmostpeopletaketheadvantageofmoderntechnologyforgranted.ButifyouwanttomakesurethatyouarerightinagreeingwiththeprevailingopinionyouwillfinditagoodplantotesttheargumentsthatoccurtoyoubyconsideringwhatGandhimighthavesaidinrefutationofthem.Ihavesometimesbeenledactuallytochangemymindasaresultofthiskindofimaginarydialogue.FurthermoreIhavefrequentlyfoundmyselfgrowingmoreagreeablethroughrealizingthepossiblereasonablenessofahypotheticalopponent. Mostpeopleareunlikelytobesubjecttosillyerrors
UntilrecentlymosthistoriansspokeverycriticallyoftheIndustrialRevolution.They________thatinthelongrunindustrializationgreatlyraisedthestandardoflivingforthe________man.Buttheyinsistedthatits________resultsduringtheperiodfrom1750to1850werewidespreadpovertyandmiseryforthe________oftheEnglishpopulation.______contrasttheysawintheprecedinghundredyearsfrom1650to1750whenEnglandwasstilla______agriculturalcountryaperiodofgreatabundanceandprosperity. Thisview______isgenerallythoughttobewrong.Specialists________historyandeconomicshave________twothings:thattheperiodfrom1650to1750was________bygreatpovertyandthatindustrializationcertainlydidnotworsenandmayhaveactuallyimprovedtheconditionsforthemajorityofthepopulace.
Allthecharacteristicsandabilitiesapersonacquiresandalldevelopmentalchangesresultfromtwobasicthoughcomplexprocesses:learningandmaturation.Sincethetwoprocessesalmostalwaysinteractitisdifficulttoseparatetheireffectsfromeachotherortospecifytherelativecontributionofeachtoachild’’sdevelopment.Clearlygrowthinheightisnotlearnedbutdependsonmaturationabiologicalprocess.Butimprovementsinmotoractivitiessuchaswalkingdependonmaturationandlearningandtheinteractionbetweenthem. WhatthenarematurationandlearningDevelopmentalpsychologistsarenotentirelyinagreementthoughthereisacommoncoreofacceptedmeaning.Thusalldefinitionsofmaturationstressorganicprocessesorstructuralchangesoccurringwithinanindividual’’sbodythatarerelativelyindependentofexternalenvironmentalconditionsexperiencesorpractice.Bymaturationitismeantdevelopmentoftheorganismasafunctionoftimeorage. Learninghasalsobeendefinedindiversewaysbutthetermgenerallyreferstochangesinbehaviororperformanceasaconsequenceofexperience.Learningistheprocessbywhichanactivityoriginatesorischangedthroughtrainingproceduresasdistinguishedfromchangesnotattributabletotraining. Anumberofimportantandstimulatingtheoriesoflearninghavebeenproposedeachwithitsownsetofprinciplesandhypothesesforexplainingthelearningprocess.Forourpurposeswedonotneedtobeconcernedwiththespecificdetailsofthelearningprocesseventhoughlearningplaysthemostimportantroleinmostaspectsofdevelopmentandchange.Weshallemployonlyafewgenerallyacceptedprinciplesoflearninginthisdiscussion. Specificallyweaccepttheprinciplethatachildwilllearnaresponsemoreeffectivelyandmorethoroughlyifheismotivatedtolearnit.Moreoverhewilllearnaresponsebetterifheisrewardedforlearningit.Accordingtothisviewthemorearesponseisrewardedthestrongeritbecomesandthemorelikelyitistoberepeated.AlthoughmostlearninginvolvesmotivationandrewardIbelievesomelearningdoesoccurwithoutthem. Asfortheinterrelationshipsbetweenmaturationandlearningprocessageneralprinciplemaybeprovided:maturationisessentialtolearning. WhichisNOTtrueaccordingtothetext
UntilrecentlymosthistoriansspokeverycriticallyoftheIndustrialRevolution.They________thatinthelongrunindustrializationgreatlyraisedthestandardoflivingforthe________man.Buttheyinsistedthatits________resultsduringtheperiodfrom1750to1850werewidespreadpovertyandmiseryforthe________oftheEnglishpopulation.______contrasttheysawintheprecedinghundredyearsfrom1650to1750whenEnglandwasstilla______agriculturalcountryaperiodofgreatabundanceandprosperity. Thisview______isgenerallythoughttobewrong.Specialists________historyandeconomicshave________twothings:thattheperiodfrom1650to1750was________bygreatpovertyandthatindustrializationcertainlydidnotworsenandmayhaveactuallyimprovedtheconditionsforthemajorityofthepopulace.
Scatteredaroundtheglobearemorethan100smallregionsofisolatedvolcanicactivityknowntogeologistsashotspots.Unlikemostoftheworld’’svolcanoestheyarenotalwaysfoundattheboundariesofthegreatdriftingplatesthatmakeuptheearth’’ssurface;onthecontrarymanyofthemliedeepintheinteriorofaplate.Mostofthehotspotsmoveonlyslowlyandinsomecasesthemovementoftheplatespastthemhaslefttrailsofdeadvolcanoes.Thehotspotsandtheirvolcanictrailsaremilestonesthatmarkthepassageoftheplates. Thattheplatesaremovingisnowbeyonddispute.AfricaandSouthAmericaforexamplearemovingawayfromeachotherasnewmaterialisinjectedintotheseafloorbetweenthem.Thecomplementarycoastlinesandcertaingeologicalfeaturesthatseemtospantheoceanareremindersofwherethetwocontinentswereoncejoined.Therelativemotionoftheplatescarryingthesecontinentshasbeenconstructedindetailbutthemotionofoneplatewithrespecttoanothercannotreadilybetranslatedintomotionwithrespecttotheearth’’sinterior.Itisnotpossibletodeterminewhetherbothcontinentsaremovinginoppositedirectionsorwhetheronecontinentisstationaryandtheotherisdriftingawayfromit.Hotspotsanchoredinthedeeperlayersoftheearthprovidethemeasuringinstrumentsneededtoresolvethequestion.Fromananalysisofthehot-spotpopulationitappearsthattheAfricanplateisstationaryandthatithasnotmovedduringthepast30millionyears. Thesignificanceofhotspotsisnotconfinedtotheirroleasaframeofreference.Itnowappearsthattheyalsohaveanimportantinfluenceonthegeophysicalprocessesthatpropeltheplatesacrosstheglobe.Whenacontinentalplatecomestorestoverahotspotthematerialrisingfromdeeperlayerscreatesabroaddome.Asthedomegrowsitdevelopsdeepfissurescracks:inatleastafewcasesthecontinentmaybreakentirelyalongsomeofthesefissuressothatthehotspotinitiatestheformationofnewocean.Thusjustasearliertheorieshaveexplainedthemobilityofthecontinentssohotspotsmayexplaintheirmutabilityinconstancy. Theauthorbelievesthat____________.
UntilrecentlymosthistoriansspokeverycriticallyoftheIndustrialRevolution.They________thatinthelongrunindustrializationgreatlyraisedthestandardoflivingforthe________man.Buttheyinsistedthatits________resultsduringtheperiodfrom1750to1850werewidespreadpovertyandmiseryforthe________oftheEnglishpopulation.______contrasttheysawintheprecedinghundredyearsfrom1650to1750whenEnglandwasstilla______agriculturalcountryaperiodofgreatabundanceandprosperity. Thisview______isgenerallythoughttobewrong.Specialists________historyandeconomicshave________twothings:thattheperiodfrom1650to1750was________bygreatpovertyandthatindustrializationcertainlydidnotworsenandmayhaveactuallyimprovedtheconditionsforthemajorityofthepopulace.
TheU.SSupremeCourt’sdecisionMondaytoletstandarulinginanonlinedefamationcasewillmakeitmoredifficulttodeterminecorrectlegaljurisdictionsinotherInternetcaseslegalexpertssaid. Byoptingnottotakethecasethehighcourteffectivelyendorsedalowercourt’sdecisionthataColoradocompanythatpostsratingsofhealthplansontheInternetcouldbesuedfordefamationinaWashingtoncourt.ThelowercourtrulingisoneofseveralthatmakesiteasierforplaintiffstosueWebsiteoperatorsintheirownjurisdictionsratherthanwheretheoperatorsmaintainaphysicalpresence. ThecaseinvolvedadefamationsuitfiledbyChehalisWash.-based-NorthwestHealthcareAllianceagainstLakewoodColo.basedHealthgrades.com.TheAlliancesuedinWashingtonfederalcourtafterHealthgrades.compostedanegativerankingofNorthwestHealthcare’shomehealthservicesontheInternet.Healthgrades.comarguedthatitshouldnotbesubjecttothejurisdictionofacourtinWashingtonbecauseitspublishingoperationisinColorado. ObserverssaidthefactthattheSupremeCourtoptednottohearthecaseonlycloudsthelegalsituationforWebsiteoperators. GeoffStewartapartneratJonesDayinWashingtonD.C.saidthattheSupremeCourteventuallymustactontheissueasInternetsitesthatrateeverythingfromautomobiledealershipstocreditofferscouldscalebacktheirofferingstoavoidlawsuitsoriginatingnumerousjurisdictions. OnlinepublishersalsomighthavetoworryaboutbeingdraggedintolawsuitsinforeigncourtssaidDowLohnes&AlbertsonattorneyJonHartwhohasrepresentedtheOnlineNewsAssociation. "ThemuchmoredifficultproblemsforU.S.mediacompaniesarisewhenclaimsarebroughtinforeigncountriesovercontentpublishedintheUnitedStates"Hartsaid.HartcitedarecentcaseinwhichanAustraliancourtruledthatDowJonesmustappearinaVictoriaAustraliacourttodefenditspublicationofallarticleontheU.S.-basedWallStreetJournalWebsite. AccordingtoHartthepotentialchillingeffectofthosesortsofjurisdictionaldecisionsissubstantial."Ihavenotyetseenpublishersholdingbackonwhattheyotherwisepublishbecausethey’reafraidthey’regoingtogetsuedinanothercountrybutthatdoesn’tmeanitwon’thappenifweseearashofU.S.libelcasesagainstU.S.mediacompaniesbeingbroughtinforeigncountries"hesaid. UntilthehighcourtdecidestoweighindirectlyonthisissueWebsiteoperatorsthatofferinformationandservicestouserslocatedoutsideoftheirhomestatesmustdealwithathornylegallandscapesaidJohnMorganapartneratPerkinsColeLLPandanexpertinInternetlaw. TheauthorseemstobelievethattheSupremeCourt’sdecision
Toavoidthevariousfoolishopinionstowhichmankindisliablenosuperhumangeniusisrequired.Afewsimpleruleswillkeepyounotfromallerrorsbutfromsillyerrors. Ifthematterisonethatcanbesettledbyobservationmaketheobservationyourself.AristotlecouldhaveavoidedthemistakeofthinkingthatwomenhavefewerteeththanmenbythesimpledeviceofaskingMrs.Aristotletokeephermouthopenwhilehecounted.Hedidnotdosobecausehethoughtheknew.Thinkingthatyouknowwheninfactyoudon’’tisafatalmistaketowhichweareallliable. Manymattershoweverarelesseasilybroughttothetestofexperience.Iflikemostofmankindyouhavestrongconvictionsonmanysuchmatterstherearewaysinwhichyoucanmakeyourselfawareofyourownprejudice.Ifanopinioncontrarytoyourownmakesyouangrythatisasignthatyousubconsciouslyareawareofhavingnogoodreasonforthinkingasyoudo.IfsomeonemaintainsthattwoandtwoarefiveorthatIcelandisontheequatoryoufeelpityratherthanangerunlessyouknowsolittleofarithmeticorgeographythathisopinionshakesyourowncontraryconviction.Themostsavagecontroversiesarethoseaboutmattersastowhichthereisnogoodevidenceeitherway.Sowheneveryoufindyourselfgettingangryaboutadifferenceofopinionbeonyourguard;youwillprobablyfindonexaminationthatyourbeliefisgoingbeyondwhattheevidencejustifies. Forthosewhohaveenoughpsychologicalimaginationitisagoodplantoimagineanargumentwithapersonhavingadifferentopinion.Thishasoneadvantageandonlyoneascomparedwithactualconversationwithopponents;thisoneadvantageisthatthemethodisnotsubjecttothesamelimitationsoftimeandspace.MahatmaGandhi圣雄甘地considereditunfortunatetohaverailwaysandsteamboatsandmachinery;hewouldhavelikedtoundothewholeoftheindustrialrevolution.YoumayneverhaveanopportunityofactuallymeetinganyonewhoholdsthisopinionbecauseinWesterncountriesmostpeopletaketheadvantageofmoderntechnologyforgranted.ButifyouwanttomakesurethatyouarerightinagreeingwiththeprevailingopinionyouwillfinditagoodplantotesttheargumentsthatoccurtoyoubyconsideringwhatGandhimighthavesaidinrefutationofthem.Ihavesometimesbeenledactuallytochangemymindasaresultofthiskindofimaginarydialogue.FurthermoreIhavefrequentlyfoundmyselfgrowingmoreagreeablethroughrealizingthepossiblereasonablenessofahypotheticalopponent. Theauthortriestoconvinceusofthefactthat
Governmentsthroughouttheworldactontheassumptionthatthewelfareoftheirpeopledependslargelyontheeconomicstrengthandwealthofthecommunity.71.Undermodernconditionsthisrequiresvaryingmeasuresofcentralizedcontrolandhencethehelpofspecializedscientistssuchaseconomistsandoperationalresearchexperts.72.Furthermoreitisobviousthatthestrengthofacountry’’seconomyisdirectlyboundupwiththeefficiencyofitsagricultureandindustryandthatthisinturnrestsupontheeffortsofscientistsandtechnologistsofallkinds.Italsomeansthatgovernmentsareincreasinglycompelledtointerfereinthesesectorsinordertostepupproductionandensurethatitisutilizedtothebestadvantage.Forexampletheymayencourageresearchinvariouswaysincludingthesettingupoftheirownresearchcenters;theymayalterthestructureofeducationorinterfereinordertoreducethewastageofnaturalresourcesortapresourceshithertounexploited;ortheymayco-operatedirectlyinthegrowingnumberofinternationalprojectsrelatedtoscienceeconomicsandindustry.Inanycaseallsuchinterventionsareheavilydependentonscientificadviceandalsoscientificandtechnologicalmanpowerofallkinds. 73.Owingtotheremarkabledevelopmentinmass-communicationspeopleeverywherearefeelingnewwantsandarebeingexposedtonewcustomsandideaswhilegovernmentsareoftenforcedtointroducestirfurtherinnovationsforthereasonsgivenabove.Atthesametimethenormalrateofsocialchangethroughouttheworldistakingplaceatavastlyacceleratedspeedcomparedwiththepast.Forexample74.intheearlyinindustrializedcountriesofEuropetheprocessofindustrialization―withallthefar-reachingchangesinsocialpatternsthatfollowed--wasspreadovernearlyacenturywhereasnowadaysadevelopingnationmayundergothesameprocessinadecadeorso.Allthishastheeffectofbuildingupunusualpressuresandtensionswithinthecommunityandconsequentlypresentsseriousproblemsforthegovernmentsconcerned.75.Additionalsocialstressesmayalsooccurbecauseofthepopulationexplosionorproblemsarisingfrommassmigrationmovements--themselvesmaderelativelyeasynowadaysbymodernmeansoftransport.Asaresultofallthesefactorsgovernmentsarebecomingincreasinglydependentonbiologistsandsocialscientistsforplanningtheappropriateprogramsandputtingthemintoeffect. Governmentsthroughouttheworldactontheassumptionthatthewelfareoftheirpeopledependslargelyontheeconomicstrengthandwealthofthecommunity.71.Undermodernconditionsthisrequiresvaryingmeasuresofcentralizedcontrolandhencethehelpofspecializedscientistssuchaseconomistsandoperationalresearchexperts.72.Furthermoreitisobviousthatthestrengthofacountry’’seconomyisdirectlyboundupwiththeefficiencyofitsagricultureandindustryandthatthisinturnrestsupontheeffortsofscientistsandtechnologistsofallkinds.Italsomeansthatgovernmentsareincreasinglycompelledtointerfereinthesesectorsinordertostepupproductionandensurethatitisutilizedtothebestadvantage.Forexampletheymayencourageresearchinvariouswaysincludingthesettingupoftheirownresearchcenters;theymayalterthestructureofeducationorinterfereinordertoreducethewastageofnaturalresourcesortapresourceshithertounexploited;ortheymayco-operatedirectlyinthegrowingnumberofinternationalprojectsrelatedtoscienceeconomicsandindustry.Inanycaseallsuchinterventionsareheavilydependentonscientificadviceandalsoscientificandtechnologicalmanpowerofallkinds. 73.Owingtotheremarkabledevelopmentinmass-communicationspeopleeverywherearefeelingnewwantsandarebeingexposedtonewcustomsandideaswhilegovernmentsareoftenforcedtointroducestirfurtherinnovationsforthereasonsgivenabove.Atthesametimethenormalrateofsocialchangethroughouttheworldistakingplaceatavastlyacceleratedspeedcomparedwiththepast.Forexample74.intheearlyinindustrializedcountriesofEuropetheprocessofindustrialization―withallthefar-reachingchangesinsocialpatternsthatfollowed--wasspreadovernearlyacenturywhereasnowadaysadevelopingnationmayundergothesameprocessinadecadeorso.Allthishastheeffectofbuildingupunusualpressuresandtensionswithinthecommunityandconsequentlypresentsseriousproblemsforthegovernmentsconcerned.75.Additionalsocialstressesmayalsooccurbecauseofthepopulationexplosionorproblemsarisingfrommassmigrationmovements--themselvesmaderelativelyeasynowadaysbymodernmeansoftransport.Asaresultofallthesefactorsgovernmentsarebecomingincreasinglydependentonbiologistsandsocialscientistsforplanningtheappropriateprogramsandputtingthemintoeffect.
Toavoidthevariousfoolishopinionstowhichmankindisliablenosuperhumangeniusisrequired.Afewsimpleruleswillkeepyounotfromallerrorsbutfromsillyerrors. Ifthematterisonethatcanbesettledbyobservationmaketheobservationyourself.AristotlecouldhaveavoidedthemistakeofthinkingthatwomenhavefewerteeththanmenbythesimpledeviceofaskingMrs.Aristotletokeephermouthopenwhilehecounted.Hedidnotdosobecausehethoughtheknew.Thinkingthatyouknowwheninfactyoudon’’tisafatalmistaketowhichweareallliable. Manymattershoweverarelesseasilybroughttothetestofexperience.Iflikemostofmankindyouhavestrongconvictionsonmanysuchmatterstherearewaysinwhichyoucanmakeyourselfawareofyourownprejudice.Ifanopinioncontrarytoyourownmakesyouangrythatisasignthatyousubconsciouslyareawareofhavingnogoodreasonforthinkingasyoudo.IfsomeonemaintainsthattwoandtwoarefiveorthatIcelandisontheequatoryoufeelpityratherthanangerunlessyouknowsolittleofarithmeticorgeographythathisopinionshakesyourowncontraryconviction.Themostsavagecontroversiesarethoseaboutmattersastowhichthereisnogoodevidenceeitherway.Sowheneveryoufindyourselfgettingangryaboutadifferenceofopinionbeonyourguard;youwillprobablyfindonexaminationthatyourbeliefisgoingbeyondwhattheevidencejustifies. Forthosewhohaveenoughpsychologicalimaginationitisagoodplantoimagineanargumentwithapersonhavingadifferentopinion.Thishasoneadvantageandonlyoneascomparedwithactualconversationwithopponents;thisoneadvantageisthatthemethodisnotsubjecttothesamelimitationsoftimeandspace.MahatmaGandhi圣雄甘地considereditunfortunatetohaverailwaysandsteamboatsandmachinery;hewouldhavelikedtoundothewholeoftheindustrialrevolution.YoumayneverhaveanopportunityofactuallymeetinganyonewhoholdsthisopinionbecauseinWesterncountriesmostpeopletaketheadvantageofmoderntechnologyforgranted.ButifyouwanttomakesurethatyouarerightinagreeingwiththeprevailingopinionyouwillfinditagoodplantotesttheargumentsthatoccurtoyoubyconsideringwhatGandhimighthavesaidinrefutationofthem.Ihavesometimesbeenledactuallytochangemymindasaresultofthiskindofimaginarydialogue.FurthermoreIhavefrequentlyfoundmyselfgrowingmoreagreeablethroughrealizingthepossiblereasonablenessofahypotheticalopponent. Theauthorintendstotellusthat
Directions: ReadthefollowingtextcarefullyandthentranslatetheunderlinedsegmentsintoChinese.YourtranslationshouldbewrittenclearlyonAnswerSheet2.B aghdadIraq--Ifintimetheattempttoimplantapro-WesterndemocraticpoliticalsysteminIraqendsupburiedinthedesertsandshistorianswillhavenoshortageofthingsthatwentwrong.46Equallyiftheproblemshereultimatelyrecedesupportersoftheenterprisewillfindvindication证明…正确intheBushadministration’sdecisiontoholdcourseasotherslostfaith. 47EitherwayanyreckoningwillexaminethenumbersofAmericantroopscommittedhere:whethertheyweresothinlystretchedthattheirmissionwasdoomedfromthestartorasSecretaryOfDefenseDonaldRumsfeldsaidlastweekAmericancommandersweregiven"exactlywhatthey’verecommended"intermsoftroops. Mr.Rumsfeldhaslongtakena"lessismore"approachtocombattrooplevelsandinaBBCinterviewMondayheseemedtomovetowardthosenowpressingtoreducetrooplevelssoon.48"Thereasonforfewer"hesaid"isbecauseultimatelyit’sgoingtobetheIraqipeoplewhoaregoingtoprevailinthisinsurgency起义"--inotherwordsIraqinotAmericantroopsaretheoneswhowillwinthewarifitcanbewon. Thewordsseemedatleasttonodtopolitics.49LastweekevenasopinionpollsshowedcontinuingerosioninsupportforthewaraconservativefromastateheavywithmilitaryBaseswhohasbeenastaunch坚定的supporterofthewarRepresentativeWalterB.JonesofNorthCarolinajoinedwithanotherRepublicanandtwoDemocratsincallingonPresidentBushtobegindrawingdownthetroopsinIraqbyOct.12006. EarlierthisyearthePentagonofferedanevenearlierdateforaninitialreduction.ButinrecentweeksAmericangeneralsherehavebeentellingCongressionalvisitorsthatthedisappointingperformanceofmanyIraqicombatunitshasmadeearlydeparturesimpractical.TheysayitwillbetwoyearsormorebeforeIraqiscanbeexpectedtobeginreplacingAmericanunitsasthemainguarantorsofsecurity. Commandersconcernedfortheircareershavenotthoughtitprudenttogofurtherandtosaypubliclywhatmanysayprivately:thatwithrecentAmericantrooplevels139000now--theyhavebeenforcedtoplayaninfernalboardgameconstantlyshuttlingcombatunitsfromonewarzonetoanotherleavinginsurgentbuildupsunmetinsomeplaceswhiletheydealwithmoreurgentproblemselsewhere. Generalsarenotfamousforwantingsmallerarmies.50ButAmericancommandersherehavebeencautionedbytherealitythatthePentagon五角大楼inatimeofall-volunteerforcesandplungingrecruitinglevelshasfewifanyextratroopstodeploy部署andthattherearelimitstowhatAmericanpublicopinionwouldbear.Sothegeneralshavekeptquietabouttrooplevels. Thereasonforfewerhesaidisbecauseultimatelyit’sgoingtobetheIraqipeoplewhoaregoingtoprevailinthisinsurgency起义--inotherwordsIraqinotAmericantroopsaretheoneswhowillwinthewarifitcanbewon.
Governmentsthroughouttheworldactontheassumptionthatthewelfareoftheirpeopledependslargelyontheeconomicstrengthandwealthofthecommunity.71.Undermodernconditionsthisrequiresvaryingmeasuresofcentralizedcontrolandhencethehelpofspecializedscientistssuchaseconomistsandoperationalresearchexperts.72.Furthermoreitisobviousthatthestrengthofacountry’’seconomyisdirectlyboundupwiththeefficiencyofitsagricultureandindustryandthatthisinturnrestsupontheeffortsofscientistsandtechnologistsofallkinds.Italsomeansthatgovernmentsareincreasinglycompelledtointerfereinthesesectorsinordertostepupproductionandensurethatitisutilizedtothebestadvantage.Forexampletheymayencourageresearchinvariouswaysincludingthesettingupoftheirownresearchcenters;theymayalterthestructureofeducationorinterfereinordertoreducethewastageofnaturalresourcesortapresourceshithertounexploited;ortheymayco-operatedirectlyinthegrowingnumberofinternationalprojectsrelatedtoscienceeconomicsandindustry.Inanycaseallsuchinterventionsareheavilydependentonscientificadviceandalsoscientificandtechnologicalmanpowerofallkinds. 73.Owingtotheremarkabledevelopmentinmass-communicationspeopleeverywherearefeelingnewwantsandarebeingexposedtonewcustomsandideaswhilegovernmentsareoftenforcedtointroducestirfurtherinnovationsforthereasonsgivenabove.Atthesametimethenormalrateofsocialchangethroughouttheworldistakingplaceatavastlyacceleratedspeedcomparedwiththepast.Forexample74.intheearlyinindustrializedcountriesofEuropetheprocessofindustrialization―withallthefar-reachingchangesinsocialpatternsthatfollowed--wasspreadovernearlyacenturywhereasnowadaysadevelopingnationmayundergothesameprocessinadecadeorso.Allthishastheeffectofbuildingupunusualpressuresandtensionswithinthecommunityandconsequentlypresentsseriousproblemsforthegovernmentsconcerned.75.Additionalsocialstressesmayalsooccurbecauseofthepopulationexplosionorproblemsarisingfrommassmigrationmovements--themselvesmaderelativelyeasynowadaysbymodernmeansoftransport.Asaresultofallthesefactorsgovernmentsarebecomingincreasinglydependentonbiologistsandsocialscientistsforplanningtheappropriateprogramsandputtingthemintoeffect.
Directions: YouaregoingtoreadalistofheadingsandatextabouttheDeepImpactbyNASA;ChoosethemostsuitableheadingfromthelistA-Fforeachnumberedparagraph41--45.Thefirstparagraphandthelasttwoparagraphsofthetextarenotnumbered.Thereisoneextraheadingwhichyoudon’tneedtouse.MarkyouranswersonAnswerSheet1. A.Revelationofthenatureofcomets B.Aperfectrepresentativeofthecomets C.Hopingforthebest D.RighttimeandrightplacefortheImpact E.WhattoexpectofthisDeepImpact F.Mysteryintheheavens OnMondayat1:52a.m.ETaprobedeployedbyaNASAspacecraft83millionmilesfromhomewillsmashat23000mphintoanancientcometthesizeofManhattanblastingaholeperhaps14storiesdeep. 41. LaunchedinJanuaryNASA’s$333millionDeepImpactmissionisdesignedtoanswerquestionsthatscientistshavelonghadaboutcometstheominousicebergsofspace.Thisisthefirsttimeanyspaceagencyhasstagedsuchadeliberatecrash.ScientistshopeimagestransmittedbytheprobeanditsmothershipwilltellthemaboutconditionsintheearlysolarsystemwhencometsandplanetsincludingEarthwereformed.Theteamhopestoreleasephotosoftheimpactassoonastheyarereceivedfromthecraft.NASAandobservatoriesacrossthenationwillbereleasingwebcasts. 42. AttheveryleastNASAsaysknowinghowdeeptheprobedivesintothecometcouldsettlethedebateoverwhethercometsarecompacticecubesorporoussnowcones."Weneedtodigasdeepaholeaspossible"saysmissionsciencechiefMichaelA’HearnoftheUniversityofMaryland.UntilnowtheclosestscientistshavecometoacometwaswhenNASA’sStardustmissionpassedwithin167milesofthecometWild2lastyearcollectingcometdustthatisboundforareturntoEarthinJanuary.ThemostfamousdatewithacometoccurredwhenaninternationalspacecraftflotillagreetedHalley’scometin1986.Butthesequicklooksexaminedonlythecomets’dustandSurface; 43. Totheancientscometswereharbingersofdoomcelestialintrudersontheperfectionoftheheavensthatpresageddisaster.ModernastronomershavelookedonthemmorefavorablyatleastsinceEdmondHalley’scelebrated1705predictionofthereturnofHalley’scometin1758andevery75yearsthereafter.TodayscientistsbelieveTempel1namedforErnstWilhelmLeberechtTempelwhofirstspotteditin1867whilesearchingforcometsintheskyoverMarseillesFranceandothercometsarewindowstotheearliestdaysofthesolarsystem4.6billionyearsagowhenplanetsformedfromthedustdisksurroundingtheinfantsun. 44. DeepImpact’scopper-plated"impactor"--a39-inchlong820-poundbeer-barrel-shapedprobe--willbe"runoverlikeapennyonatraintrack"whenitcrashesA’Hearnsays.Theimpactorisequippedwithanavigationsystemtomakesureitsmacksintothecometintherightlocationfortheflybycraft’scameras.OnSundaytheflybyspacecraftwillreleasetheprobe.Twelveminuteslateritwillbeatahastyretreatwithamaneuveraimedatallowingacloseflybyfrom5348milesawaywithcameraspointed.Fourteenminutesaftertheimpacttheflybyspacecraftwillscoottowithinamere310milesforaclose-upofthedamage. 45. Ideallyeverythingwilllineupandtheflybyspacecraftwilltakeimagesofthecratercausedbytheimpact.Itwillgointoa"shielded"modeasiceanddustbatterthecraftthenemergetotakemorepictures."Therealisticworstcaseishittingthecometbutnothavingtheflybyintherightplace"A’Hearnsays."Basicallywehaveabullettryingtohitasecondbulletwithathirdbulletintherightplaceattherighttimetowatch.I’dlovetohaveajoystick操纵杆tocontroltheimpactor." Planetaryscientistshave"noidea"whatsortofcraterwillresultMcFaddensays.Predictionsrangefromadeepbutskinnyshaftdrivenintoaporoussnowconetoafootballstadium-sizedexcavationinahard-packediceball. Butastronomersshouldhavetheiranswershortlyafterimpactwhichshouldsettlesomequestionsaboutthecomet’scrustandinterior.Analysisofthechemistryofthatinteriorbasedonthelightspectragivenoffintheimpact’saftermathcouldtakemuchlonger. 44
Directions: Studythefollowingpicturecarefullyandwriteanarticleonthewasteofenergy.Inyourarticleyoushouldcoverthefollowingpoints: 1describethepictureand 2analysethereasonsandgiveyourcomments. Youshouldwrite160~200wordsneatlyonAnswerSheet2.
TheU.SSupremeCourt’sdecisionMondaytoletstandarulinginanonlinedefamationcasewillmakeitmoredifficulttodeterminecorrectlegaljurisdictionsinotherInternetcaseslegalexpertssaid. Byoptingnottotakethecasethehighcourteffectivelyendorsedalowercourt’sdecisionthataColoradocompanythatpostsratingsofhealthplansontheInternetcouldbesuedfordefamationinaWashingtoncourt.ThelowercourtrulingisoneofseveralthatmakesiteasierforplaintiffstosueWebsiteoperatorsintheirownjurisdictionsratherthanwheretheoperatorsmaintainaphysicalpresence. ThecaseinvolvedadefamationsuitfiledbyChehalisWash.-based-NorthwestHealthcareAllianceagainstLakewoodColo.basedHealthgrades.com.TheAlliancesuedinWashingtonfederalcourtafterHealthgrades.compostedanegativerankingofNorthwestHealthcare’shomehealthservicesontheInternet.Healthgrades.comarguedthatitshouldnotbesubjecttothejurisdictionofacourtinWashingtonbecauseitspublishingoperationisinColorado. ObserverssaidthefactthattheSupremeCourtoptednottohearthecaseonlycloudsthelegalsituationforWebsiteoperators. GeoffStewartapartneratJonesDayinWashingtonD.C.saidthattheSupremeCourteventuallymustactontheissueasInternetsitesthatrateeverythingfromautomobiledealershipstocreditofferscouldscalebacktheirofferingstoavoidlawsuitsoriginatingnumerousjurisdictions. OnlinepublishersalsomighthavetoworryaboutbeingdraggedintolawsuitsinforeigncourtssaidDowLohnes&AlbertsonattorneyJonHartwhohasrepresentedtheOnlineNewsAssociation. "ThemuchmoredifficultproblemsforU.S.mediacompaniesarisewhenclaimsarebroughtinforeigncountriesovercontentpublishedintheUnitedStates"Hartsaid.HartcitedarecentcaseinwhichanAustraliancourtruledthatDowJonesmustappearinaVictoriaAustraliacourttodefenditspublicationofallarticleontheU.S.-basedWallStreetJournalWebsite. AccordingtoHartthepotentialchillingeffectofthosesortsofjurisdictionaldecisionsissubstantial."Ihavenotyetseenpublishersholdingbackonwhattheyotherwisepublishbecausethey’reafraidthey’regoingtogetsuedinanothercountrybutthatdoesn’tmeanitwon’thappenifweseearashofU.S.libelcasesagainstU.S.mediacompaniesbeingbroughtinforeigncountries"hesaid. UntilthehighcourtdecidestoweighindirectlyonthisissueWebsiteoperatorsthatofferinformationandservicestouserslocatedoutsideoftheirhomestatesmustdealwithathornylegallandscapesaidJohnMorganapartneratPerkinsColeLLPandanexpertinInternetlaw. AccordingtoGeoffStewartthehighcourt’sdecisionwill
UntilrecentlymosthistoriansspokeverycriticallyoftheIndustrialRevolution.They________thatinthelongrunindustrializationgreatlyraisedthestandardoflivingforthe________man.Buttheyinsistedthatits________resultsduringtheperiodfrom1750to1850werewidespreadpovertyandmiseryforthe________oftheEnglishpopulation.______contrasttheysawintheprecedinghundredyearsfrom1650to1750whenEnglandwasstilla______agriculturalcountryaperiodofgreatabundanceandprosperity. Thisview______isgenerallythoughttobewrong.Specialists________historyandeconomicshave________twothings:thattheperiodfrom1650to1750was________bygreatpovertyandthatindustrializationcertainlydidnotworsenandmayhaveactuallyimprovedtheconditionsforthemajorityofthepopulace.
LateVictorianandmodernideasofculturearealwaysinsomesenseattributedtoMatthewArnoldwholargelythroughhisCultureandAnarchy1869placedthewordatthecenterofdebatesaboutthegoalsofintellectuallifeandhumanisticsociety.Arnolddefinedcultureasthepursuitoftotalperfectionbymeansofgettingtoknowonallmatterswhichmostconcernusthebestwhichhasbeenthoughtandsaidintheworld.ItwasArnold’’shopethatthroughthisknowledgewecanturnafreshandfreethoughtuponourstocknotionsandhabits.AlthoughArnold’’sthinkingaboutculturehelpedtodefinethepurposesoftheliberalartscurriculuminthecenturyfollowingthepublicationofCulturethreeconcreteformsofdisagreementwithArnold’’sviewshavehadconsiderableimpactoftheirown. ThefirstcanbeseenasprotestingArnold’’sfearfuldestinationofanarchyasculture’’senemy.Thisdivisionseemstosetupsimplyonemoreversionoftheoldstrugglebetweenaprivilegedpowerstructureandradicalchallengestoitsauthority.Arnoldcertainlytriedtodefinethearch-thelawfulorderofvalue-againstwhathesawasthean-archexistentialistdemocracyyethehimselfwasannoyedinhissoulbytheblindprideofthereactionarypowersinhisworld. AnotherformofoppositionsawArnold’’scultureasanabsurdperpetuationofclassicalandliterarylearningoutlookandprivilegesinaworldwheresciencehadbecomethenewarchandfromwhichanyreallyneworderofthinkingmustdevelop.AtthecenterofthetwoculturesdebatewerethegoalsoftheformalcurriculumintheeducationalsystemwhichisalwaystakentobetheprincipalvehiclethroughwhichArnoldiancultureoperates.HoweverArnoldhimselfhadviewedcultureasenactingitslifeinamuchmorebroadlyconceivedsetofinstitutions. TodayhoweverArnoldiancultureissustainedifindirectlybymulticulturalismamovementaimedlargelyatgainingrecognitionforvoicesandvisionsthatArnoldianculturehasimplicitlysuppressed.Atthelevelofeducationalpracticethemulticulturalistsareinterestedinlesseningthearbitraryauthoritythathighcultureexercisesoverthecurriculumwhilebringingintoplaytheprinciplethatwemustlearnwhatisrepresentativeforwehaveoveremphasizedwhatisexceptional.Themulticulturalists’’conflictwithArnoldianculturehasclearsimilaritiestotheradicalcritique;yetmulticulturalismaffirmsArnoldbyreturningusmorespecificallytoatensioninherentintheideaofcultureratherthantotheculture-anarchydivision. ThesocialcriticsdefendersofscienceandmulticulturalistsinsistthatArnold’’scultureissimplyadevicefororderingusabout.Insteaditisdesignedtoregisterthegatheringofideologicalcloudsonthehorizon.ThereisnoutopianmotiveinArnold’’scelebrationofperfection.TheideaofperfectionmatteredtoArnoldastheonlybackgroundagainstwhichwecouldformajustimageofouractualcircumstancesjustaswecanconceivefinersunsetsandunheardmelodies.ThiscapacitywhichallhumanspossessArnoldmadethefoundationandauthorityofculture. WhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutmulticulturalistsisNOTsupportedbythetext
Directions: ReadthefollowingtextcarefullyandthentranslatetheunderlinedsegmentsintoChinese.YourtranslationshouldbewrittenclearlyonAnswerSheet2.B aghdadIraq--Ifintimetheattempttoimplantapro-WesterndemocraticpoliticalsysteminIraqendsupburiedinthedesertsandshistorianswillhavenoshortageofthingsthatwentwrong.46Equallyiftheproblemshereultimatelyrecedesupportersoftheenterprisewillfindvindication证明…正确intheBushadministration’sdecisiontoholdcourseasotherslostfaith. 47EitherwayanyreckoningwillexaminethenumbersofAmericantroopscommittedhere:whethertheyweresothinlystretchedthattheirmissionwasdoomedfromthestartorasSecretaryOfDefenseDonaldRumsfeldsaidlastweekAmericancommandersweregiven"exactlywhatthey’verecommended"intermsoftroops. Mr.Rumsfeldhaslongtakena"lessismore"approachtocombattrooplevelsandinaBBCinterviewMondayheseemedtomovetowardthosenowpressingtoreducetrooplevelssoon.48"Thereasonforfewer"hesaid"isbecauseultimatelyit’sgoingtobetheIraqipeoplewhoaregoingtoprevailinthisinsurgency起义"--inotherwordsIraqinotAmericantroopsaretheoneswhowillwinthewarifitcanbewon. Thewordsseemedatleasttonodtopolitics.49LastweekevenasopinionpollsshowedcontinuingerosioninsupportforthewaraconservativefromastateheavywithmilitaryBaseswhohasbeenastaunch坚定的supporterofthewarRepresentativeWalterB.JonesofNorthCarolinajoinedwithanotherRepublicanandtwoDemocratsincallingonPresidentBushtobegindrawingdownthetroopsinIraqbyOct.12006. EarlierthisyearthePentagonofferedanevenearlierdateforaninitialreduction.ButinrecentweeksAmericangeneralsherehavebeentellingCongressionalvisitorsthatthedisappointingperformanceofmanyIraqicombatunitshasmadeearlydeparturesimpractical.TheysayitwillbetwoyearsormorebeforeIraqiscanbeexpectedtobeginreplacingAmericanunitsasthemainguarantorsofsecurity. Commandersconcernedfortheircareershavenotthoughtitprudenttogofurtherandtosaypubliclywhatmanysayprivately:thatwithrecentAmericantrooplevels139000now--theyhavebeenforcedtoplayaninfernalboardgameconstantlyshuttlingcombatunitsfromonewarzonetoanotherleavinginsurgentbuildupsunmetinsomeplaceswhiletheydealwithmoreurgentproblemselsewhere. Generalsarenotfamousforwantingsmallerarmies.50ButAmericancommandersherehavebeencautionedbytherealitythatthePentagon五角大楼inatimeofall-volunteerforcesandplungingrecruitinglevelshasfewifanyextratroopstodeploy部署andthattherearelimitstowhatAmericanpublicopinionwouldbear.Sothegeneralshavekeptquietabouttrooplevels. Equallyiftheproblemshereultimatelyrecedesupportersoftheenterprisewillfindvindication证明正确intheBushadministration’sdecisiontoholdcourseasotherslostfaith.
Allthecharacteristicsandabilitiesapersonacquiresandalldevelopmentalchangesresultfromtwobasicthoughcomplexprocesses:learningandmaturation.Sincethetwoprocessesalmostalwaysinteractitisdifficulttoseparatetheireffectsfromeachotherortospecifytherelativecontributionofeachtoachild’’sdevelopment.Clearlygrowthinheightisnotlearnedbutdependsonmaturationabiologicalprocess.Butimprovementsinmotoractivitiessuchaswalkingdependonmaturationandlearningandtheinteractionbetweenthem. WhatthenarematurationandlearningDevelopmentalpsychologistsarenotentirelyinagreementthoughthereisacommoncoreofacceptedmeaning.Thusalldefinitionsofmaturationstressorganicprocessesorstructuralchangesoccurringwithinanindividual’’sbodythatarerelativelyindependentofexternalenvironmentalconditionsexperiencesorpractice.Bymaturationitismeantdevelopmentoftheorganismasafunctionoftimeorage. Learninghasalsobeendefinedindiversewaysbutthetermgenerallyreferstochangesinbehaviororperformanceasaconsequenceofexperience.Learningistheprocessbywhichanactivityoriginatesorischangedthroughtrainingproceduresasdistinguishedfromchangesnotattributabletotraining. Anumberofimportantandstimulatingtheoriesoflearninghavebeenproposedeachwithitsownsetofprinciplesandhypothesesforexplainingthelearningprocess.Forourpurposeswedonotneedtobeconcernedwiththespecificdetailsofthelearningprocesseventhoughlearningplaysthemostimportantroleinmostaspectsofdevelopmentandchange.Weshallemployonlyafewgenerallyacceptedprinciplesoflearninginthisdiscussion. Specificallyweaccepttheprinciplethatachildwilllearnaresponsemoreeffectivelyandmorethoroughlyifheismotivatedtolearnit.Moreoverhewilllearnaresponsebetterifheisrewardedforlearningit.Accordingtothisviewthemorearesponseisrewardedthestrongeritbecomesandthemorelikelyitistoberepeated.AlthoughmostlearninginvolvesmotivationandrewardIbelievesomelearningdoesoccurwithoutthem. Asfortheinterrelationshipsbetweenmaturationandlearningprocessageneralprinciplemaybeprovided:maturationisessentialtolearning. Achild’’sdevelopmentdependson
Inthecollege-admissionswarsweparentsarethetruefighters.We’repushingourkidstogetgoodgradestakeSATpreparatorycoursesandbuildresumessotheycangetintothecollegeofourfirstchoice.Wesayourmotivesareselflessandsensible.AdegreefromStanfordorPrincetonistheticketforlife.IfAaronandNicoledon’tgetinthey’reforeverdoomed.Goshwe’redelusional. I’vetwicebeentothewarsandasIsurveythebattlefieldsomethingdifferentishappening.It’stheone-upmanshipamongparents.Weseeourkids’collegeratingasmedalsprovinghowwellorhowpoorlywe’veraisedthem.Butwecan’tacknowledgethatourobsessionismoreaboutusthanthem.Sowe’vecontrivedvariousjustificationsthatturnouttobehalf-truthsprejudicesormyths.Itactuallydoesn’tmattermuchwhetherAaronandNicolegotoStanford. Admissionsanxietyafflictsonlyaminorityofparents.It’struethatgettingintocollegehasgenerallybecometougherbecausethenumberofhigh-schoolgraduateshasgrown.From1994to2006theincreaseis28percent.Still64percentoffreshmenattendschoolswhereacceptanceratesexceed70percentandtheapplicationsurgeateliteschoolsdwarfspopulationgrowth.TakeYale.In1994itaccepted18.9percentof12991applicants;thisyearitadmittedonly8.6percentof21000. Wehaveafull-blownprestigepanic;weworrythattherewon’tbeenoughmedalstogoaround.Fearfulparentsprodtheirchildrentoapplytomoreschoolsthanever."TheepicentersofparentalanxietyusedtobeonthecoastsBostonNewYorkWashingtonLosAngeles"saysTomParkerAmherst’sadmissionsdean."Butit’sradiatedthroughoutthecountry." Underlyingthehysteriaisthebeliefthatscarceelitedegreesmustbehighlyvaluable.Theirgraduatesmustenjoymoresuccessbecausetheygetabettereducationanddevelopbettercontacts.Allthat’splausibleandmostlywrong."Wehaven’tfoundanyconvincingevidencethatselectivityorprestigematters"saysErnestT.PascarellaoftheUniversityofIowacoauthorof"HowCollegeAffectsStudents"an827-pageevaluationofhundredsofstudiesofthecollegeexperience.Selectiveschoolsdon’tsystematicallyemploybetterinstructionalapproachesthanless-selectiveschoolsaccordingtoastudybyPascarellaandGeorgeKuhofIndianaUniversity.Somedo;somedon’t.Ontwomeasuresprofessors’feedbackandthenumberofessayexamsselectiveschoolsdoslightlyworse. AccordingtoErnestT.Pascarellaeliteschools
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