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Onhisfifty-fifthbirthdaythepresidentdecidedto1someprisonersofthe2ageasagestureofgoodwillNottoomanybutonesayfromeachofthetwentyofthirty3prisonsinthesmallstate.Theywouldhavetobecarefullyselected4nottogivetroubleoncetheywereout.Menperhapshadbeenso5inprisonthattheyhadceasedtohaveandrealcontactwiththeoutsideworld.Noneofthemwastobetolda6ofhis7liberty.Marlowastherefore8whenhewascalledtotheGovernor’sofficeonemorningandtoldhewastobeset9nextday.Hehadspentalmostthreequartersof.hislifein10workingoutalifesentence11stabbingapolicemantodeath.Hewasadull-wittedmanwithnorelations12andnofriendsexcepthisprisonmates. Thefollowingmorningwasclearandbright.Marlo13noopportunitytosaygoodbyeto14butaguard15himtotheprisongatesandwishedhimg6dspeed.Alonehesetoffupthelongwhiteroadleadingtothetown.Thetraffictheincessantnoisetheabsence16thesecureprisonwallsterrifiedhim.Presentlyhe’satdownbythesideoftheroadtothink17.Afterhehadthoughtforalongtimeforhisbrainworkedslowlyhe18adecision.Heremainedhewaswaitingpatientlyuntilatlasthesawapolicecar19Whenitwasnearenoughhedartedoutintotheroadobligingittostopwithasquealofbrakes.Hehadwithhimalittleknife.Whentheyoungpoliceofficergotoutofthecardemanding20whatwaswrongMarlostabbedhimveryneatlyjustbehindtherightear. 1
Text3 AfterdecadesofexilefromUScourtsthescienceofliedetectionisgainingnewacceptance.ButthefederalgovernmentwantstoputastoptoitandtheUSSupremeCourthasnowagreedtoconsiderarequestfromtheDepartmentofJusticetobarthetechnologyfrommilitarycourts. Uncertaintiessurroundthescienceofliedetectionwhichusesadevicecalledpolygraph.In1991PresidentGeorgeBushbannedliedetectorevidenceinmilitarycourts.ButthatbanhassincebeenoverturnedbytheUSCourtofMilitaryAppealswhichruledthatitrestrictsdefendants’rightstopresentevidenceoftheirinnocence. Inthepasttwoyearssomefederalcourtshavealsoruled’thatpolygraphevidencecanbeheard.ThisfollowsadecisionbytheSupremeCourtin1993thatgavefederaljudgesmorediscretiontodecideontheadmissibilityofevidence. Apolygraphconsistsofmonitorsforpulseratesweatingandbreathingrate.Thedeviceissupposedtouncoverliesbyrecordingincreasesinthesemeasuresasthesubjectanswersquestions. Criticshavealwaysarguedthatcunningdefendantscancontroltheirphysiologicalresponsesandswaypolygraphresults.Butsupportersofthetechniquearguethatrecentresearchhasfoundittobereliable.ApsychologistnamedCharlesHontsatastateuniversityinIdahopointstolaboratorystudiessomeofthembeinghisowninwhichstudent-subjectswereofferedcashtoswaythetestresults. ThisargumentisrejectedbyLeonardSaxeapsychologistataBostonuniversity."Thereisahugedifferencebetweenstudentsinalabandadefendant"hesays.Guiltydefendantshavetimeinwhichtorehearsetheirliesandcanevencometobelievethemtobetrue. Saxebelievesthattheentiretheoreticalbasisofliedetectionisinvalid."Itassumesyouwillbemorenervouslyingthantellingthetruth."Buthesaysthatforsomepeopleliesaretrivialwhilecertaintruthscanbehardtoswallow. DavidFaigmanoftheUniversityofCaliforniasaysthatiftheSupremeCourtupholdsthemilitaryappealcourtsdecisiontoallowpolygraphevidencepolygraphbanswouldbeoverturnedinfederalcourtsacrossUS."Thatwillputabigburdenonjudgestounderstandthescienceandleadtoalotmoreexperttestimonyinthecourts"hepredicts.Thejusticedepartmentfearsthatthiswillgreatlyincreasethecostoftrials. Whichofthefollowingstatementsistrueaccordingtothepassage
Onhisfifty-fifthbirthdaythepresidentdecidedto1someprisonersofthe2ageasagestureofgoodwillNottoomanybutonesayfromeachofthetwentyofthirty3prisonsinthesmallstate.Theywouldhavetobecarefullyselected4nottogivetroubleoncetheywereout.Menperhapshadbeenso5inprisonthattheyhadceasedtohaveandrealcontactwiththeoutsideworld.Noneofthemwastobetolda6ofhis7liberty.Marlowastherefore8whenhewascalledtotheGovernor’sofficeonemorningandtoldhewastobeset9nextday.Hehadspentalmostthreequartersof.hislifein10workingoutalifesentence11stabbingapolicemantodeath.Hewasadull-wittedmanwithnorelations12andnofriendsexcepthisprisonmates. Thefollowingmorningwasclearandbright.Marlo13noopportunitytosaygoodbyeto14butaguard15himtotheprisongatesandwishedhimg6dspeed.Alonehesetoffupthelongwhiteroadleadingtothetown.Thetraffictheincessantnoisetheabsence16thesecureprisonwallsterrifiedhim.Presentlyhe’satdownbythesideoftheroadtothink17.Afterhehadthoughtforalongtimeforhisbrainworkedslowlyhe18adecision.Heremainedhewaswaitingpatientlyuntilatlasthesawapolicecar19Whenitwasnearenoughhedartedoutintotheroadobligingittostopwithasquealofbrakes.Hehadwithhimalittleknife.Whentheyoungpoliceofficergotoutofthecardemanding20whatwaswrongMarlostabbedhimveryneatlyjustbehindtherightear. 17
Theprocessofenteringtheconfinesofpoliticalandeconomicpowercanbepicturedasasysteminwhichpersonsarechosenfromapoliticalelitepool.46Inthisreservoirofpossibleleadersaretheindividualswiththeskillseducationandotherqualificationsneededtofillelitepositions.Itisherethatcompetitiondoesexistthatthehighestachieversdodisplaytheirabilitiesandthatthebestqualifieddogenerallysucceed.Herewhatismoreimportantisenteringthisreservoirofqualifiedpeople. 47Manyinthemassesmayhaveleadershipabilitiesbutunlesstheycangainentranceintotheelitepooltheirabilitieswillgounnoticed.Thoseofthehigherclassandstatusrankentermoreeasilyintothiscompetitionsincetheyhavebeenaffordedgreateropportunitiestoacquiretheneededqualifications. 48Inadditiontoformalqualificationstherearelessobvioussocial-psychologicalfactorswhichtendtonarrowthepotentialelitepoolfurther.49“Self-assertion”and“self-elimination”areprocessesbywhichthoseofhighersocialstatusassertthemselvesandthoseoflowersocialstatuseliminatethemselvesfromcompetitionforelitepositions.AyoungmanwhosefamilyhasbeenactiveinpoliticswhohasattendedHarvardandwhohasestablishedanetworkofconnectionstothehighpositioninthebusinessorpoliticalworldwillhaveapromisingfuture.50Ontheotherhandayoungmanwithlessprestigious有声望的familybackgroundnoconnectionsandonlyahighschooleducationorevenacollegedegreefromastateuniversitywouldnotlikelyexpectafurtherplaceforhimselfatthetop.AsPrewittandStoneexplainsuchanindividual"hasfewmodelstofollownocontactstoputhimintotherightchannelsandlittlereasontothinkofhimselfaspotentiallywealthyorpowerful."Thusself-selectionaidsinfilteringoutthoseoflowerincomeandstatusgroupsfromthepoolofpotentialelites.Mosteliminatethemselvesfromthecompetitionearlyinthegame. Self-assertionandself-eliminationareprocessesbywhichthoseofhighersocialstatusassertthemselvesandthoseoflowersocialstatuseliminatethemselvesfromcompetitionforelitepositions.
DoanimalshaverightsThisishowthequestionisusuallyput.Itsoundslikeausefulground-clearingwaytostart.46Actuallyitisn’tbecauseitassumesthatthereisanagreedaccountofhumanrightswhichissomethingtheworlddoesnothave. Ononeviewofrightstobesureitnecessarilyfollowswhatanimalshavedone.47Somephilosophersarguethatrightsexistonlywithinasocialcontractaspartofanexchangeofdutiesandentitlements.Thereforeanimalscannothaverights.Theideaofpunishin’gatigerthatkillssomebodyisabsurdforexactlythesamereason’soistheideathattigershaverights.Howeverthisisonlyoneaccountandbynomeansanuncontestedone.Itdeniesrightsnotonlytoanimalsbutalsotosomepeople--forinstancetoinfantsthementallyincapableandfuturegenerations.Inadditionitisunclearwhatforceacontractcanhaveforpeoplewhoneverconsentedtoit.Howdoyoureplytosomebodywhosays"Idon’tlikethiscontract" Thepointisthis:withoutagreementontherightsofpeoplearguingabouttherightsofanimalsisfruitless.48Itleadsthediscussiontoextremesattheoutset:itinvitesyoutothinkthatanimalsshouldbetreatedeitherwithconsiderationhumansextendtootherhumansorwithnoconsiderationatall.Thisisafalsechoice.Bettertostartwithanothermorefundamentalquestion:isthisthewaywetreatanimalsamoralissueatall Manydenyit.49Arguingfromthepointofviewthathumansaredifferentfromanimalsineveryrelevantrespectextremistsofthiskindthinkthatanimalslieoutsidetheareaofmoralchoice.Anyregardforthesufferingofanimalsisseenasamistake--asentimentaldisplacementoffeelingthatshouldproperlybedirectedtootherhumans. Thisviewwhichholdsthattorturingamonkeyismorallyequivalenttochoppingwoodmayseembravely"logical".Infactitissimplyshallow:theconfusedcenterisrighttorejectit.Themostelementaryformofmoralreasoning--theethicalequivalentoflearningtocrawlistoweighothers’interestsagainstone’sown.Thisinturnrequiressympathyandimagination:withoutwhichthereisnocapacityformoralthought.Toseeananimalinpainisenoughformosttoengagesympathy.50Whenthathappensitisnotamistake:itismankind’sinstinctformoralreasoninginactionaninstinctthatshouldbeencouragedratherthanlaughedat. 49
FortyyearsagoahistoricdocumentwassignedinRomethatwastochangetheeconomicoutlookandthefutureofmanycountriesinEurope.ThatdocumentwastheTreatyofRomeandthisyearonMarch251997theEuropeanUnioncelebratedthe40thanniversaryofitssigning.AreviseddraftTreatyonEuropeanUniontheMaastrichtTreatywaspresentedinRomeonthatdate.41______ 42______TheTreatysetoutthethreepillarsoftheEuropeanUnion--Pillar1:thethreeEuropeancommunitieswhichformitsbasis;Pillar2:thedevelopmentofacommonforeignandsecuritypolicy;andPillar3;cooperationintheareasofjusticeandhomeaffairsincludingimmigrationandasylum收容所drugtrafficking交易andinternationalcrime. 43______EMUmeansasinglemonetarypolicyoperatingwithinasingleeconomicmarketandisthereforethelogicalcomplementtotheSingleMarketinEuropetoday. TheEMUwillberunbyaEuropeanCentralBankindependentofbothnationalgovernmentsand EuropeanUnioninstitutions. 44______TheeurowillenterintocirculationinJanuary1999inthoseMemberStateswhichmeetthecriteriaforentrytotheEMUandbymid2002thechangeoverfromnationalcurrenciestotheeurointhosecountrieswillbecomplete.TheintroductionoftheeurowillbethemostvisiblemeasureofintegrationtodateinthedailylivesofcitizensoftheEuropeanUnion. TherightsofEuropeancitizenswerefurtherextendedbytheMaastrichtTreatysothattodaycitizensoftheMemberStatesmaytravelresideworkandcarryouttransactionsinanycountryoftheEUwithouthindrance障碍andwithfullprotectionofthelaw.TheEuropeanUnion’sfieldsofresponsibilityWireextendedtoincludeareassuchasconsumerprotectionpublichealthpolicyenvironmentalprotectioneducationandcultureandthecreationofmajortransportcommunicationsandenergy. 45______ThefirstunionofsixMemberStateshasbeenenlargedtoitspresentnumberoffifteen.AddedtotheoriginalsixareDenmarkIrelandtheUnitedKingdomGreeceSpainPortugalAustriaSwedenandFinlandthelastthreecountriesbeingadmittedtotheEuropeanUnionin1995.ThenextcenturywillseetheinclusionintheUnionofanumberofcountriesmostlyfromCentralandEasternEurope.TodaytheEuropeanUnionisoneoftheworld’sgreatestsingletradingpowers.Itspresentpopulationof370millionhasmanyfreedomsandchoicesbothascitizensandasconsumers.Itscompanieshaveenterednewmarketsandformednewpartnershipstoexploiteconomicopportunitiesathomeandabroad.AsthecenturydrawstoaclosethevisionofaunitedEuropemademanifestbytheTreatyofRomeisclosertorealizationthaneverbefore. A.InNovember1993theTreatyonEuropeanUnionalsoknownastheMaastrichtTreatyaltertheDutchtownwhereEUleadersmetcameintoforcecreatingtheEuropeanUnionandpavingthewayforgreaterintegrationbetweenMemberStates. B.AmajoraspectofEMUisthesinglecurrencyknownastheeuro. C.SincethesigningoftheTreatyofRomein1957Europehaswitnessedaremarkablegrowthinitsvitalityhomogeneityandstrengthasademocracy. D.AsthecenturycomestoanendaunitedandenlargedEuropeundertheguideofTreatyofRomeissuretoberealizedverysoon. E.TherevisedTreatyisacontinuationoftheprocesstowardsintegrationofthecountriesofEuropethatbeganin1957. F.Therevisedtreatyisaformalagreementbetweentwoormorestatesasregardspeace.andtrade. G.TheTreatyalsosetouttheeconomiccriteriaMemberStatesmustmeettocompleteEurope’seconomicandmonetaryunionEMUtheultimategoalofeconomicpartnershipenvisagedbythearchitectsoftheTreatyofRome. 41
Text4 IslanguagelikefoodabasichumanneedwithoutwhichachildatacriticalperiodoflifecanbestarvedanddamagedJudgingfromthedrasticexperimentofFrederickIIinthethirteenthcenturyitmaybe.Hopingtodiscoverwhatlanguageachildwouldspeakifheheardnomothertonguehetoldthenursestokeepsilent. Alltheinfantsdiedbeforethefirstyear.Butclearlytherewasmorethanlackoflanguagehere.Whatwasmissingwasgoodmothering.Withoutgoodmotheringinthefirstyearoflifeespeciallythecapacitytosurviveisseri9uslyaffected.TodaynosuchseverelackexistsasthatorderedbyFrederick.Neverthelesssomechildrenarestillbackwardinspeaking.Mostoftenthereasonforthisisthatthemotherisinsensitivetothesignalsoftheinfantwhosebrainisprogrammedtolearnlanguagerapidly.Ifthesesensitiveperiodsareneglectedtheidealtimeforacquiringskillspassesandtheymightneverbelearnedsoeasilyagain.Abirdlearnstosingandtoflyattherighttimebuttheprocessisslowandhardoncethecriticalstagehaspassed. ExpertssuggestthatspeechstagesarereachedinafixedsequenceandataconstantagebuttherearecaseswherespeechhasstartedlateinachildwhoeventuallyturnsouttobeofhighIQAttwelveweeksababysmilesandmakesvowel-likesounds;attwelvemonthshecanspeaksimplewordsandunderstandsimplecommands;ateighteenmonthshehasavocabularyofthreetofivewords.Atthreeheknowsabout1000wordswhichhecanputintosentencesandatfourhislanguagediffersfromthatofhisparentsinstyleratherthangrammar. Recentevidencesuggeststhataninfantisbornwiththecapacitytospeak.Whatisspecialaboutman’sbraincomparedwiththatofthemonkeyisthecomplexsystemwhichenablesachildtoconnectthesightandfeelofsayatoy-bearwiththesoundpattern"toybear".Andevenmoreincredibleistheyoungbrain’sabilitytopickoutanorderinlanguagefromthemixtureofsoundaroundhimtoanalysetocombineandrecombinethepartsofalanguageinnewways. Butspeechhastobeinducedandthisdependsoninteractionbetweenthemotherandthechildwherethemotherrecognizesthesignalsinthechild’sbabbling咿呀声graspingandsmilingandrespondstothem.Insensitivityofthemothertothesesignalsdullstheinteractionbecausethechildgetsdiscouragedandsendsoutonlytheobvioussignals.Sensitivitytothechild’snon-verbalsignalsisessentialtothegrowthanddevelopmentoflanguage. Whatisincredibleaboutachildisthat
Text3 AfterdecadesofexilefromUScourtsthescienceofliedetectionisgainingnewacceptance.ButthefederalgovernmentwantstoputastoptoitandtheUSSupremeCourthasnowagreedtoconsiderarequestfromtheDepartmentofJusticetobarthetechnologyfrommilitarycourts. Uncertaintiessurroundthescienceofliedetectionwhichusesadevicecalledpolygraph.In1991PresidentGeorgeBushbannedliedetectorevidenceinmilitarycourts.ButthatbanhassincebeenoverturnedbytheUSCourtofMilitaryAppealswhichruledthatitrestrictsdefendants’rightstopresentevidenceoftheirinnocence. Inthepasttwoyearssomefederalcourtshavealsoruled’thatpolygraphevidencecanbeheard.ThisfollowsadecisionbytheSupremeCourtin1993thatgavefederaljudgesmorediscretiontodecideontheadmissibilityofevidence. Apolygraphconsistsofmonitorsforpulseratesweatingandbreathingrate.Thedeviceissupposedtouncoverliesbyrecordingincreasesinthesemeasuresasthesubjectanswersquestions. Criticshavealwaysarguedthatcunningdefendantscancontroltheirphysiologicalresponsesandswaypolygraphresults.Butsupportersofthetechniquearguethatrecentresearchhasfoundittobereliable.ApsychologistnamedCharlesHontsatastateuniversityinIdahopointstolaboratorystudiessomeofthembeinghisowninwhichstudent-subjectswereofferedcashtoswaythetestresults. ThisargumentisrejectedbyLeonardSaxeapsychologistataBostonuniversity."Thereisahugedifferencebetweenstudentsinalabandadefendant"hesays.Guiltydefendantshavetimeinwhichtorehearsetheirliesandcanevencometobelievethemtobetrue. Saxebelievesthattheentiretheoreticalbasisofliedetectionisinvalid."Itassumesyouwillbemorenervouslyingthantellingthetruth."Buthesaysthatforsomepeopleliesaretrivialwhilecertaintruthscanbehardtoswallow. DavidFaigmanoftheUniversityofCaliforniasaysthatiftheSupremeCourtupholdsthemilitaryappealcourtsdecisiontoallowpolygraphevidencepolygraphbanswouldbeoverturnedinfederalcourtsacrossUS."Thatwillputabigburdenonjudgestounderstandthescienceandleadtoalotmoreexperttestimonyinthecourts"hepredicts.Thejusticedepartmentfearsthatthiswillgreatlyincreasethecostoftrials. Aliedetectorfindoutthatthesubjectistellingalie
Text2 Traditionallythestudyofhistoryhashadfixedboundariesandfocalpoints--periodscountriesdramaticeventsandgreatleaders.Italsohashadclearandfirmnotionsofscholarlprocedure:howoneinquiresintoahistoricalproblemhowonepresentsanddocumentsone’sfindingswhatconstitutesadmissibleandadequateproof. Anyonewhohasfollowedrecenthistoricalliteraturecantestifytotherevolutionthatistakingplaceinhistoricalstudies.Thecurrentlyfashionablesubjectscomedirectlyfromthesociologycatalog:childhoodworkleisure.Thenewsubjectsareaccompaniedbynewmethods.Wherehistoryoncewasprimarilynarrativeitisnowentirelyanalytic.Theoldquestions"Whathappened"and“Howdidithappen”havegivenwaytothequestion"WhydidithappenProminentamongthemethodsusedtoanswerthequestion"Why"ispsychoanalysisanditsusehasgivenrisetopsychohistory. Psychohistorydoesnotmerelyusepsychologicalexplanationsinhistoricalcontexts.Historianshavealwaysusedsuchexplanationswhentheywereappropriateandwhentherewassufficientevidenceforthem.Butthispragmaticuseofpsychologyisnotwhatpsychohistoriansintend.TheyarecommittednotjusttopsychologyingeneralbuttoFreudianpsychoanalysis.Thiscommitmentprecludesacommitmenttohistoryashistorianshavealwaysunderstoodit.Psychohistoryderivesits"facts"notfromhistorythedetailedrecordsofeventsandtheirconsequencesbutfrompsychoanalysisoftheindividualswhomadehistoryanddeducesitstheoriesnotfromthisorthatinstanceintheirlivesbutfromaviewofhumannaturethattranscendshistory.Itdeniesthebasiccriterionofhistoricalevidence:thatevidencebepubliclyaccessibletoandthereforeassessablebyallhistorians.Anditviolatesthebasictenetofhistoricalmethod:thathistoriansbealerttothenegativeinstancesthatwouldrefutetheirtheses.Psychohistoriansconvincedoftheabsoluterightnessoftheirowntheoriesarealsoconvincedthattheirsisthe"deepest"explanationofanyeventthatotherexplanationsfallshortofthetruth. Psychohistoryisnotcontenttoviolatethedisciplineofhistoryinthesenseofthepropermodeofstudyingandwritingaboutthepast;italsoviolatesthepastitself.Itdeniestothepastanintegrityandwillofitsowninwhichpeopleactedoutofavarietyofmotivesandinwhicheventshadamultiplicityofcausesandeffects.Itimposesuponthepresentthusrobbingpeopleandeventsoftheirindividualityandoftheircomplexity.Insteadofrespectingtheparticularityofthepastitassimilatesalleventspastandpresentintosingledeterministicschemathatispresumedtobetrueatalltimesandinallcircumstances. Whichofthefollowingbeststatesthemainpointofthepassage
Text2 Traditionallythestudyofhistoryhashadfixedboundariesandfocalpoints--periodscountriesdramaticeventsandgreatleaders.Italsohashadclearandfirmnotionsofscholarlprocedure:howoneinquiresintoahistoricalproblemhowonepresentsanddocumentsone’sfindingswhatconstitutesadmissibleandadequateproof. Anyonewhohasfollowedrecenthistoricalliteraturecantestifytotherevolutionthatistakingplaceinhistoricalstudies.Thecurrentlyfashionablesubjectscomedirectlyfromthesociologycatalog:childhoodworkleisure.Thenewsubjectsareaccompaniedbynewmethods.Wherehistoryoncewasprimarilynarrativeitisnowentirelyanalytic.Theoldquestions"Whathappened"and“Howdidithappen”havegivenwaytothequestion"WhydidithappenProminentamongthemethodsusedtoanswerthequestion"Why"ispsychoanalysisanditsusehasgivenrisetopsychohistory. Psychohistorydoesnotmerelyusepsychologicalexplanationsinhistoricalcontexts.Historianshavealwaysusedsuchexplanationswhentheywereappropriateandwhentherewassufficientevidenceforthem.Butthispragmaticuseofpsychologyisnotwhatpsychohistoriansintend.TheyarecommittednotjusttopsychologyingeneralbuttoFreudianpsychoanalysis.Thiscommitmentprecludesacommitmenttohistoryashistorianshavealwaysunderstoodit.Psychohistoryderivesits"facts"notfromhistorythedetailedrecordsofeventsandtheirconsequencesbutfrompsychoanalysisoftheindividualswhomadehistoryanddeducesitstheoriesnotfromthisorthatinstanceintheirlivesbutfromaviewofhumannaturethattranscendshistory.Itdeniesthebasiccriterionofhistoricalevidence:thatevidencebepubliclyaccessibletoandthereforeassessablebyallhistorians.Anditviolatesthebasictenetofhistoricalmethod:thathistoriansbealerttothenegativeinstancesthatwouldrefutetheirtheses.Psychohistoriansconvincedoftheabsoluterightnessoftheirowntheoriesarealsoconvincedthattheirsisthe"deepest"explanationofanyeventthatotherexplanationsfallshortofthetruth. Psychohistoryisnotcontenttoviolatethedisciplineofhistoryinthesenseofthepropermodeofstudyingandwritingaboutthepast;italsoviolatesthepastitself.Itdeniestothepastanintegrityandwillofitsowninwhichpeopleactedoutofavarietyofmotivesandinwhicheventshadamultiplicityofcausesandeffects.Itimposesuponthepresentthusrobbingpeopleandeventsoftheirindividualityandoftheircomplexity.Insteadofrespectingtheparticularityofthepastitassimilatesalleventspastandpresentintosingledeterministicschemathatispresumedtobetrueatalltimesandinallcircumstances. Whichofthefollowingdoestheauthormentionasacharacteristicofthepracticeofpsychohistorians
Onhisfifty-fifthbirthdaythepresidentdecidedto1someprisonersofthe2ageasagestureofgoodwillNottoomanybutonesayfromeachofthetwentyofthirty3prisonsinthesmallstate.Theywouldhavetobecarefullyselected4nottogivetroubleoncetheywereout.Menperhapshadbeenso5inprisonthattheyhadceasedtohaveandrealcontactwiththeoutsideworld.Noneofthemwastobetolda6ofhis7liberty.Marlowastherefore8whenhewascalledtotheGovernor’sofficeonemorningandtoldhewastobeset9nextday.Hehadspentalmostthreequartersof.hislifein10workingoutalifesentence11stabbingapolicemantodeath.Hewasadull-wittedmanwithnorelations12andnofriendsexcepthisprisonmates. Thefollowingmorningwasclearandbright.Marlo13noopportunitytosaygoodbyeto14butaguard15himtotheprisongatesandwishedhimg6dspeed.Alonehesetoffupthelongwhiteroadleadingtothetown.Thetraffictheincessantnoisetheabsence16thesecureprisonwallsterrifiedhim.Presentlyhe’satdownbythesideoftheroadtothink17.Afterhehadthoughtforalongtimeforhisbrainworkedslowlyhe18adecision.Heremainedhewaswaitingpatientlyuntilatlasthesawapolicecar19Whenitwasnearenoughhedartedoutintotheroadobligingittostopwithasquealofbrakes.Hehadwithhimalittleknife.Whentheyoungpoliceofficergotoutofthecardemanding20whatwaswrongMarlostabbedhimveryneatlyjustbehindtherightear. 11
Onhisfifty-fifthbirthdaythepresidentdecidedto1someprisonersofthe2ageasagestureofgoodwillNottoomanybutonesayfromeachofthetwentyofthirty3prisonsinthesmallstate.Theywouldhavetobecarefullyselected4nottogivetroubleoncetheywereout.Menperhapshadbeenso5inprisonthattheyhadceasedtohaveandrealcontactwiththeoutsideworld.Noneofthemwastobetolda6ofhis7liberty.Marlowastherefore8whenhewascalledtotheGovernor’sofficeonemorningandtoldhewastobeset9nextday.Hehadspentalmostthreequartersof.hislifein10workingoutalifesentence11stabbingapolicemantodeath.Hewasadull-wittedmanwithnorelations12andnofriendsexcepthisprisonmates. Thefollowingmorningwasclearandbright.Marlo13noopportunitytosaygoodbyeto14butaguard15himtotheprisongatesandwishedhimg6dspeed.Alonehesetoffupthelongwhiteroadleadingtothetown.Thetraffictheincessantnoisetheabsence16thesecureprisonwallsterrifiedhim.Presentlyhe’satdownbythesideoftheroadtothink17.Afterhehadthoughtforalongtimeforhisbrainworkedslowlyhe18adecision.Heremainedhewaswaitingpatientlyuntilatlasthesawapolicecar19Whenitwasnearenoughhedartedoutintotheroadobligingittostopwithasquealofbrakes.Hehadwithhimalittleknife.Whentheyoungpoliceofficergotoutofthecardemanding20whatwaswrongMarlostabbedhimveryneatlyjustbehindtherightear. 9
FortyyearsagoahistoricdocumentwassignedinRomethatwastochangetheeconomicoutlookandthefutureofmanycountriesinEurope.ThatdocumentwastheTreatyofRomeandthisyearonMarch251997theEuropeanUnioncelebratedthe40thanniversaryofitssigning.AreviseddraftTreatyonEuropeanUniontheMaastrichtTreatywaspresentedinRomeonthatdate.41______ 42______TheTreatysetoutthethreepillarsoftheEuropeanUnion--Pillar1:thethreeEuropeancommunitieswhichformitsbasis;Pillar2:thedevelopmentofacommonforeignandsecuritypolicy;andPillar3;cooperationintheareasofjusticeandhomeaffairsincludingimmigrationandasylum收容所drugtrafficking交易andinternationalcrime. 43______EMUmeansasinglemonetarypolicyoperatingwithinasingleeconomicmarketandisthereforethelogicalcomplementtotheSingleMarketinEuropetoday. TheEMUwillberunbyaEuropeanCentralBankindependentofbothnationalgovernmentsand EuropeanUnioninstitutions. 44______TheeurowillenterintocirculationinJanuary1999inthoseMemberStateswhichmeetthecriteriaforentrytotheEMUandbymid2002thechangeoverfromnationalcurrenciestotheeurointhosecountrieswillbecomplete.TheintroductionoftheeurowillbethemostvisiblemeasureofintegrationtodateinthedailylivesofcitizensoftheEuropeanUnion. TherightsofEuropeancitizenswerefurtherextendedbytheMaastrichtTreatysothattodaycitizensoftheMemberStatesmaytravelresideworkandcarryouttransactionsinanycountryoftheEUwithouthindrance障碍andwithfullprotectionofthelaw.TheEuropeanUnion’sfieldsofresponsibilityWireextendedtoincludeareassuchasconsumerprotectionpublichealthpolicyenvironmentalprotectioneducationandcultureandthecreationofmajortransportcommunicationsandenergy. 45______ThefirstunionofsixMemberStateshasbeenenlargedtoitspresentnumberoffifteen.AddedtotheoriginalsixareDenmarkIrelandtheUnitedKingdomGreeceSpainPortugalAustriaSwedenandFinlandthelastthreecountriesbeingadmittedtotheEuropeanUnionin1995.ThenextcenturywillseetheinclusionintheUnionofanumberofcountriesmostlyfromCentralandEasternEurope.TodaytheEuropeanUnionisoneoftheworld’sgreatestsingletradingpowers.Itspresentpopulationof370millionhasmanyfreedomsandchoicesbothascitizensandasconsumers.Itscompanieshaveenterednewmarketsandformednewpartnershipstoexploiteconomicopportunitiesathomeandabroad.AsthecenturydrawstoaclosethevisionofaunitedEuropemademanifestbytheTreatyofRomeisclosertorealizationthaneverbefore. A.InNovember1993theTreatyonEuropeanUnionalsoknownastheMaastrichtTreatyaltertheDutchtownwhereEUleadersmetcameintoforcecreatingtheEuropeanUnionandpavingthewayforgreaterintegrationbetweenMemberStates. B.AmajoraspectofEMUisthesinglecurrencyknownastheeuro. C.SincethesigningoftheTreatyofRomein1957Europehaswitnessedaremarkablegrowthinitsvitalityhomogeneityandstrengthasademocracy. D.AsthecenturycomestoanendaunitedandenlargedEuropeundertheguideofTreatyofRomeissuretoberealizedverysoon. E.TherevisedTreatyisacontinuationoftheprocesstowardsintegrationofthecountriesofEuropethatbeganin1957. F.Therevisedtreatyisaformalagreementbetweentwoormorestatesasregardspeace.andtrade. G.TheTreatyalsosetouttheeconomiccriteriaMemberStatesmustmeettocompleteEurope’seconomicandmonetaryunionEMUtheultimategoalofeconomicpartnershipenvisagedbythearchitectsoftheTreatyofRome. 45
PartA Directions: Youcaughtacoldyesterdayandfeelextremelyuncomfortabletoday.ItisnecessarytowritealettertoyourSchoolPrincipalforaleaveandtellhimthereasonforit: Youshouldwriteabout100wordsonANSWERSHEET2.Donotsignyourownnameattheendoftheletter.Use"Martin"instead.Youdonotneedtowritetheaddress.10points
Text1 AsDr.SamuelJohnsonsaidinadifferenteraaboutladiespreachingthesurprisingthingaboutcomputersisnotthattheythinklesswellthanamanbutthattheythinkatall.Theearlyelectroniccomputerdidnothavemuchgoingforitexceptamarvelousmemoryandsomegoodmathskills.Buttodaythebestmodelscanbewireduptolearnbyexperiencefollowanargumentaskproperquestionsandwritepoetryandmusic.Theycanalsocarryonsomewhatpuzzlingconversations. Computersimitatelife.Ascomputersgetmorecomplextheimitationgetsbetter.Finallythelinebetweentheoriginalandthecopybecomesunclear.Inanother15yearsorsowewillseethecomputerasanewformoflife. Theopinionseemsridiculousbecauseforonethingcomputerslackthedrivesandemotionsoflivingcreatures.Butdrivescanbeprogrammedintothecomputer’sbrainjustasanewformoflife. Computersmatchpeopleinsomerolesandwhenfastdecisionsareneededinacrisistheyoftensurpassthem.Havingevolvedwhenthepaceoflifewasslowerthehumanbrainhasaninherentdefectthatpreventsitfromabsorbingseveralstreamsofinformationsimultaneouslyandactingonthemquickly.Throwtoomanythingsatthebrainatonetimeanditfreezesup. Wearestillincontrolbutthecapabilitiesofcomputersareincreasingatafantasticratewhilerawhumanintelligenceischangingslowlyifatall.Computerpowerhasincreasedtentimeseveryeightyearssince1846.Inthe1990swhenthesixthgenerationappearsthereasoningpowerofanintelligencebuiltoutofsiliconwillbegintomatchthatofthehumanbrain. Thatdoesnotmeantheevolutionofintelligencehasendedontheearth.Judgingbythepastwecanexpectthatanewspecieswillariseoutofmansurpassinghisachievementsashehassurpassedthoseofhispredecessor.Onlyacarbonchemistryenthusiastwouldassumethatthenewspeciesmustbeman’sflesh-and-blooddescendants.Thenewkindofintelligentlifeismorelikelytobemadeofsilicon. AccordingtothepassagewhichofthefollowingstatementsisTRUE
Onhisfifty-fifthbirthdaythepresidentdecidedto1someprisonersofthe2ageasagestureofgoodwillNottoomanybutonesayfromeachofthetwentyofthirty3prisonsinthesmallstate.Theywouldhavetobecarefullyselected4nottogivetroubleoncetheywereout.Menperhapshadbeenso5inprisonthattheyhadceasedtohaveandrealcontactwiththeoutsideworld.Noneofthemwastobetolda6ofhis7liberty.Marlowastherefore8whenhewascalledtotheGovernor’sofficeonemorningandtoldhewastobeset9nextday.Hehadspentalmostthreequartersof.hislifein10workingoutalifesentence11stabbingapolicemantodeath.Hewasadull-wittedmanwithnorelations12andnofriendsexcepthisprisonmates. Thefollowingmorningwasclearandbright.Marlo13noopportunitytosaygoodbyeto14butaguard15himtotheprisongatesandwishedhimg6dspeed.Alonehesetoffupthelongwhiteroadleadingtothetown.Thetraffictheincessantnoisetheabsence16thesecureprisonwallsterrifiedhim.Presentlyhe’satdownbythesideoftheroadtothink17.Afterhehadthoughtforalongtimeforhisbrainworkedslowlyhe18adecision.Heremainedhewaswaitingpatientlyuntilatlasthesawapolicecar19Whenitwasnearenoughhedartedoutintotheroadobligingittostopwithasquealofbrakes.Hehadwithhimalittleknife.Whentheyoungpoliceofficergotoutofthecardemanding20whatwaswrongMarlostabbedhimveryneatlyjustbehindtherightear. 13
Text1 AsDr.SamuelJohnsonsaidinadifferenteraaboutladiespreachingthesurprisingthingaboutcomputersisnotthattheythinklesswellthanamanbutthattheythinkatall.Theearlyelectroniccomputerdidnothavemuchgoingforitexceptamarvelousmemoryandsomegoodmathskills.Buttodaythebestmodelscanbewireduptolearnbyexperiencefollowanargumentaskproperquestionsandwritepoetryandmusic.Theycanalsocarryonsomewhatpuzzlingconversations. Computersimitatelife.Ascomputersgetmorecomplextheimitationgetsbetter.Finallythelinebetweentheoriginalandthecopybecomesunclear.Inanother15yearsorsowewillseethecomputerasanewformoflife. Theopinionseemsridiculousbecauseforonethingcomputerslackthedrivesandemotionsoflivingcreatures.Butdrivescanbeprogrammedintothecomputer’sbrainjustasanewformoflife. Computersmatchpeopleinsomerolesandwhenfastdecisionsareneededinacrisistheyoftensurpassthem.Havingevolvedwhenthepaceoflifewasslowerthehumanbrainhasaninherentdefectthatpreventsitfromabsorbingseveralstreamsofinformationsimultaneouslyandactingonthemquickly.Throwtoomanythingsatthebrainatonetimeanditfreezesup. Wearestillincontrolbutthecapabilitiesofcomputersareincreasingatafantasticratewhilerawhumanintelligenceischangingslowlyifatall.Computerpowerhasincreasedtentimeseveryeightyearssince1846.Inthe1990swhenthesixthgenerationappearsthereasoningpowerofanintelligencebuiltoutofsiliconwillbegintomatchthatofthehumanbrain. Thatdoesnotmeantheevolutionofintelligencehasendedontheearth.Judgingbythepastwecanexpectthatanewspecieswillariseoutofmansurpassinghisachievementsashehassurpassedthoseofhispredecessor.Onlyacarbonchemistryenthusiastwouldassumethatthenewspeciesmustbeman’sflesh-and-blooddescendants.Thenewkindofintelligentlifeismorelikelytobemadeofsilicon. Thoughhethinkshighlyofthedevelopmentofcomputersciencetheauthordoesn'tmeanthat
Text4 IslanguagelikefoodabasichumanneedwithoutwhichachildatacriticalperiodoflifecanbestarvedanddamagedJudgingfromthedrasticexperimentofFrederickIIinthethirteenthcenturyitmaybe.Hopingtodiscoverwhatlanguageachildwouldspeakifheheardnomothertonguehetoldthenursestokeepsilent. Alltheinfantsdiedbeforethefirstyear.Butclearlytherewasmorethanlackoflanguagehere.Whatwasmissingwasgoodmothering.Withoutgoodmotheringinthefirstyearoflifeespeciallythecapacitytosurviveisseri9uslyaffected.TodaynosuchseverelackexistsasthatorderedbyFrederick.Neverthelesssomechildrenarestillbackwardinspeaking.Mostoftenthereasonforthisisthatthemotherisinsensitivetothesignalsoftheinfantwhosebrainisprogrammedtolearnlanguagerapidly.Ifthesesensitiveperiodsareneglectedtheidealtimeforacquiringskillspassesandtheymightneverbelearnedsoeasilyagain.Abirdlearnstosingandtoflyattherighttimebuttheprocessisslowandhardoncethecriticalstagehaspassed. ExpertssuggestthatspeechstagesarereachedinafixedsequenceandataconstantagebuttherearecaseswherespeechhasstartedlateinachildwhoeventuallyturnsouttobeofhighIQAttwelveweeksababysmilesandmakesvowel-likesounds;attwelvemonthshecanspeaksimplewordsandunderstandsimplecommands;ateighteenmonthshehasavocabularyofthreetofivewords.Atthreeheknowsabout1000wordswhichhecanputintosentencesandatfourhislanguagediffersfromthatofhisparentsinstyleratherthangrammar. Recentevidencesuggeststhataninfantisbornwiththecapacitytospeak.Whatisspecialaboutman’sbraincomparedwiththatofthemonkeyisthecomplexsystemwhichenablesachildtoconnectthesightandfeelofsayatoy-bearwiththesoundpattern"toybear".Andevenmoreincredibleistheyoungbrain’sabilitytopickoutanorderinlanguagefromthemixtureofsoundaroundhimtoanalysetocombineandrecombinethepartsofalanguageinnewways. Butspeechhastobeinducedandthisdependsoninteractionbetweenthemotherandthechildwherethemotherrecognizesthesignalsinthechild’sbabbling咿呀声graspingandsmilingandrespondstothem.Insensitivityofthemothertothesesignalsdullstheinteractionbecausethechildgetsdiscouragedandsendsoutonlytheobvioussignals.Sensitivitytothechild’snon-verbalsignalsisessentialtothegrowthanddevelopmentoflanguage. Ifachildstartstospeaklaterthanothershewillinfuture.
FortyyearsagoahistoricdocumentwassignedinRomethatwastochangetheeconomicoutlookandthefutureofmanycountriesinEurope.ThatdocumentwastheTreatyofRomeandthisyearonMarch251997theEuropeanUnioncelebratedthe40thanniversaryofitssigning.AreviseddraftTreatyonEuropeanUniontheMaastrichtTreatywaspresentedinRomeonthatdate.41______ 42______TheTreatysetoutthethreepillarsoftheEuropeanUnion--Pillar1:thethreeEuropeancommunitieswhichformitsbasis;Pillar2:thedevelopmentofacommonforeignandsecuritypolicy;andPillar3;cooperationintheareasofjusticeandhomeaffairsincludingimmigrationandasylum收容所drugtrafficking交易andinternationalcrime. 43______EMUmeansasinglemonetarypolicyoperatingwithinasingleeconomicmarketandisthereforethelogicalcomplementtotheSingleMarketinEuropetoday. TheEMUwillberunbyaEuropeanCentralBankindependentofbothnationalgovernmentsand EuropeanUnioninstitutions. 44______TheeurowillenterintocirculationinJanuary1999inthoseMemberStateswhichmeetthecriteriaforentrytotheEMUandbymid2002thechangeoverfromnationalcurrenciestotheeurointhosecountrieswillbecomplete.TheintroductionoftheeurowillbethemostvisiblemeasureofintegrationtodateinthedailylivesofcitizensoftheEuropeanUnion. TherightsofEuropeancitizenswerefurtherextendedbytheMaastrichtTreatysothattodaycitizensoftheMemberStatesmaytravelresideworkandcarryouttransactionsinanycountryoftheEUwithouthindrance障碍andwithfullprotectionofthelaw.TheEuropeanUnion’sfieldsofresponsibilityWireextendedtoincludeareassuchasconsumerprotectionpublichealthpolicyenvironmentalprotectioneducationandcultureandthecreationofmajortransportcommunicationsandenergy. 45______ThefirstunionofsixMemberStateshasbeenenlargedtoitspresentnumberoffifteen.AddedtotheoriginalsixareDenmarkIrelandtheUnitedKingdomGreeceSpainPortugalAustriaSwedenandFinlandthelastthreecountriesbeingadmittedtotheEuropeanUnionin1995.ThenextcenturywillseetheinclusionintheUnionofanumberofcountriesmostlyfromCentralandEasternEurope.TodaytheEuropeanUnionisoneoftheworld’sgreatestsingletradingpowers.Itspresentpopulationof370millionhasmanyfreedomsandchoicesbothascitizensandasconsumers.Itscompanieshaveenterednewmarketsandformednewpartnershipstoexploiteconomicopportunitiesathomeandabroad.AsthecenturydrawstoaclosethevisionofaunitedEuropemademanifestbytheTreatyofRomeisclosertorealizationthaneverbefore. A.InNovember1993theTreatyonEuropeanUnionalsoknownastheMaastrichtTreatyaltertheDutchtownwhereEUleadersmetcameintoforcecreatingtheEuropeanUnionandpavingthewayforgreaterintegrationbetweenMemberStates. B.AmajoraspectofEMUisthesinglecurrencyknownastheeuro. C.SincethesigningoftheTreatyofRomein1957Europehaswitnessedaremarkablegrowthinitsvitalityhomogeneityandstrengthasademocracy. D.AsthecenturycomestoanendaunitedandenlargedEuropeundertheguideofTreatyofRomeissuretoberealizedverysoon. E.TherevisedTreatyisacontinuationoftheprocesstowardsintegrationofthecountriesofEuropethatbeganin1957. F.Therevisedtreatyisaformalagreementbetweentwoormorestatesasregardspeace.andtrade. G.TheTreatyalsosetouttheeconomiccriteriaMemberStatesmustmeettocompleteEurope’seconomicandmonetaryunionEMUtheultimategoalofeconomicpartnershipenvisagedbythearchitectsoftheTreatyofRome. 43
DoanimalshaverightsThisishowthequestionisusuallyput.Itsoundslikeausefulground-clearingwaytostart.46Actuallyitisn’tbecauseitassumesthatthereisanagreedaccountofhumanrightswhichissomethingtheworlddoesnothave. Ononeviewofrightstobesureitnecessarilyfollowswhatanimalshavedone.47Somephilosophersarguethatrightsexistonlywithinasocialcontractaspartofanexchangeofdutiesandentitlements.Thereforeanimalscannothaverights.Theideaofpunishin’gatigerthatkillssomebodyisabsurdforexactlythesamereason’soistheideathattigershaverights.Howeverthisisonlyoneaccountandbynomeansanuncontestedone.Itdeniesrightsnotonlytoanimalsbutalsotosomepeople--forinstancetoinfantsthementallyincapableandfuturegenerations.Inadditionitisunclearwhatforceacontractcanhaveforpeoplewhoneverconsentedtoit.Howdoyoureplytosomebodywhosays"Idon’tlikethiscontract" Thepointisthis:withoutagreementontherightsofpeoplearguingabouttherightsofanimalsisfruitless.48Itleadsthediscussiontoextremesattheoutset:itinvitesyoutothinkthatanimalsshouldbetreatedeitherwithconsiderationhumansextendtootherhumansorwithnoconsiderationatall.Thisisafalsechoice.Bettertostartwithanothermorefundamentalquestion:isthisthewaywetreatanimalsamoralissueatall Manydenyit.49Arguingfromthepointofviewthathumansaredifferentfromanimalsineveryrelevantrespectextremistsofthiskindthinkthatanimalslieoutsidetheareaofmoralchoice.Anyregardforthesufferingofanimalsisseenasamistake--asentimentaldisplacementoffeelingthatshouldproperlybedirectedtootherhumans. Thisviewwhichholdsthattorturingamonkeyismorallyequivalenttochoppingwoodmayseembravely"logical".Infactitissimplyshallow:theconfusedcenterisrighttorejectit.Themostelementaryformofmoralreasoning--theethicalequivalentoflearningtocrawlistoweighothers’interestsagainstone’sown.Thisinturnrequiressympathyandimagination:withoutwhichthereisnocapacityformoralthought.Toseeananimalinpainisenoughformosttoengagesympathy.50Whenthathappensitisnotamistake:itismankind’sinstinctformoralreasoninginactionaninstinctthatshouldbeencouragedratherthanlaughedat. 47
Onhisfifty-fifthbirthdaythepresidentdecidedto1someprisonersofthe2ageasagestureofgoodwillNottoomanybutonesayfromeachofthetwentyofthirty3prisonsinthesmallstate.Theywouldhavetobecarefullyselected4nottogivetroubleoncetheywereout.Menperhapshadbeenso5inprisonthattheyhadceasedtohaveandrealcontactwiththeoutsideworld.Noneofthemwastobetolda6ofhis7liberty.Marlowastherefore8whenhewascalledtotheGovernor’sofficeonemorningandtoldhewastobeset9nextday.Hehadspentalmostthreequartersof.hislifein10workingoutalifesentence11stabbingapolicemantodeath.Hewasadull-wittedmanwithnorelations12andnofriendsexcepthisprisonmates. Thefollowingmorningwasclearandbright.Marlo13noopportunitytosaygoodbyeto14butaguard15himtotheprisongatesandwishedhimg6dspeed.Alonehesetoffupthelongwhiteroadleadingtothetown.Thetraffictheincessantnoisetheabsence16thesecureprisonwallsterrifiedhim.Presentlyhe’satdownbythesideoftheroadtothink17.Afterhehadthoughtforalongtimeforhisbrainworkedslowlyhe18adecision.Heremainedhewaswaitingpatientlyuntilatlasthesawapolicecar19Whenitwasnearenoughhedartedoutintotheroadobligingittostopwithasquealofbrakes.Hehadwithhimalittleknife.Whentheyoungpoliceofficergotoutofthecardemanding20whatwaswrongMarlostabbedhimveryneatlyjustbehindtherightear. 5
Youshouldwriteabout100wordsonANSWERSHEET2.Donotsignyourownnameattillendoftheletter.UseJordaninstead.Youdonotneedtowritetheaddress.10points
Onhisfifty-fifthbirthdaythepresidentdecidedto1someprisonersofthe2ageasagestureofgoodwillNottoomanybutonesayfromeachofthetwentyofthirty3prisonsinthesmallstate.Theywouldhavetobecarefullyselected4nottogivetroubleoncetheywereout.Menperhapshadbeenso5inprisonthattheyhadceasedtohaveandrealcontactwiththeoutsideworld.Noneofthemwastobetolda6ofhis7liberty.Marlowastherefore8whenhewascalledtotheGovernor’sofficeonemorningandtoldhewastobeset9nextday.Hehadspentalmostthreequartersof.hislifein10workingoutalifesentence11stabbingapolicemantodeath.Hewasadull-wittedmanwithnorelations12andnofriendsexcepthisprisonmates. Thefollowingmorningwasclearandbright.Marlo13noopportunitytosaygoodbyeto14butaguard15himtotheprisongatesandwishedhimg6dspeed.Alonehesetoffupthelongwhiteroadleadingtothetown.Thetraffictheincessantnoisetheabsence16thesecureprisonwallsterrifiedhim.Presentlyhe’satdownbythesideoftheroadtothink17.Afterhehadthoughtforalongtimeforhisbrainworkedslowlyhe18adecision.Heremainedhewaswaitingpatientlyuntilatlasthesawapolicecar19Whenitwasnearenoughhedartedoutintotheroadobligingittostopwithasquealofbrakes.Hehadwithhimalittleknife.Whentheyoungpoliceofficergotoutofthecardemanding20whatwaswrongMarlostabbedhimveryneatlyjustbehindtherightear. 3
Onhisfifty-fifthbirthdaythepresidentdecidedto1someprisonersofthe2ageasagestureofgoodwillNottoomanybutonesayfromeachofthetwentyofthirty3prisonsinthesmallstate.Theywouldhavetobecarefullyselected4nottogivetroubleoncetheywereout.Menperhapshadbeenso5inprisonthattheyhadceasedtohaveandrealcontactwiththeoutsideworld.Noneofthemwastobetolda6ofhis7liberty.Marlowastherefore8whenhewascalledtotheGovernor’sofficeonemorningandtoldhewastobeset9nextday.Hehadspentalmostthreequartersof.hislifein10workingoutalifesentence11stabbingapolicemantodeath.Hewasadull-wittedmanwithnorelations12andnofriendsexcepthisprisonmates. Thefollowingmorningwasclearandbright.Marlo13noopportunitytosaygoodbyeto14butaguard15himtotheprisongatesandwishedhimg6dspeed.Alonehesetoffupthelongwhiteroadleadingtothetown.Thetraffictheincessantnoisetheabsence16thesecureprisonwallsterrifiedhim.Presentlyhe’satdownbythesideoftheroadtothink17.Afterhehadthoughtforalongtimeforhisbrainworkedslowlyhe18adecision.Heremainedhewaswaitingpatientlyuntilatlasthesawapolicecar19Whenitwasnearenoughhedartedoutintotheroadobligingittostopwithasquealofbrakes.Hehadwithhimalittleknife.Whentheyoungpoliceofficergotoutofthecardemanding20whatwaswrongMarlostabbedhimveryneatlyjustbehindtherightear. 15
Onhisfifty-fifthbirthdaythepresidentdecidedto1someprisonersofthe2ageasagestureofgoodwillNottoomanybutonesayfromeachofthetwentyofthirty3prisonsinthesmallstate.Theywouldhavetobecarefullyselected4nottogivetroubleoncetheywereout.Menperhapshadbeenso5inprisonthattheyhadceasedtohaveandrealcontactwiththeoutsideworld.Noneofthemwastobetolda6ofhis7liberty.Marlowastherefore8whenhewascalledtotheGovernor’sofficeonemorningandtoldhewastobeset9nextday.Hehadspentalmostthreequartersof.hislifein10workingoutalifesentence11stabbingapolicemantodeath.Hewasadull-wittedmanwithnorelations12andnofriendsexcepthisprisonmates. Thefollowingmorningwasclearandbright.Marlo13noopportunitytosaygoodbyeto14butaguard15himtotheprisongatesandwishedhimg6dspeed.Alonehesetoffupthelongwhiteroadleadingtothetown.Thetraffictheincessantnoisetheabsence16thesecureprisonwallsterrifiedhim.Presentlyhe’satdownbythesideoftheroadtothink17.Afterhehadthoughtforalongtimeforhisbrainworkedslowlyhe18adecision.Heremainedhewaswaitingpatientlyuntilatlasthesawapolicecar19Whenitwasnearenoughhedartedoutintotheroadobligingittostopwithasquealofbrakes.Hehadwithhimalittleknife.Whentheyoungpoliceofficergotoutofthecardemanding20whatwaswrongMarlostabbedhimveryneatlyjustbehindtherightear. 7
Theprocessofenteringtheconfinesofpoliticalandeconomicpowercanbepicturedasasysteminwhichpersonsarechosenfromapoliticalelitepool.46Inthisreservoirofpossibleleadersaretheindividualswiththeskillseducationandotherqualificationsneededtofillelitepositions.Itisherethatcompetitiondoesexistthatthehighestachieversdodisplaytheirabilitiesandthatthebestqualifieddogenerallysucceed.Herewhatismoreimportantisenteringthisreservoirofqualifiedpeople. 47Manyinthemassesmayhaveleadershipabilitiesbutunlesstheycangainentranceintotheelitepooltheirabilitieswillgounnoticed.Thoseofthehigherclassandstatusrankentermoreeasilyintothiscompetitionsincetheyhavebeenaffordedgreateropportunitiestoacquiretheneededqualifications. 48Inadditiontoformalqualificationstherearelessobvioussocial-psychologicalfactorswhichtendtonarrowthepotentialelitepoolfurther.49“Self-assertion”and“self-elimination”areprocessesbywhichthoseofhighersocialstatusassertthemselvesandthoseoflowersocialstatuseliminatethemselvesfromcompetitionforelitepositions.AyoungmanwhosefamilyhasbeenactiveinpoliticswhohasattendedHarvardandwhohasestablishedanetworkofconnectionstothehighpositioninthebusinessorpoliticalworldwillhaveapromisingfuture.50Ontheotherhandayoungmanwithlessprestigious有声望的familybackgroundnoconnectionsandonlyahighschooleducationorevenacollegedegreefromastateuniversitywouldnotlikelyexpectafurtherplaceforhimselfatthetop.AsPrewittandStoneexplainsuchanindividual"hasfewmodelstofollownocontactstoputhimintotherightchannelsandlittlereasontothinkofhimselfaspotentiallywealthyorpowerful."Thusself-selectionaidsinfilteringoutthoseoflowerincomeandstatusgroupsfromthepoolofpotentialelites.Mosteliminatethemselvesfromthecompetitionearlyinthegame. Manyinthemassesmayhaveleadershipabilitiesbutunlesstheycangainentranceintotheelitepooltheirabilitieswillgounnoticed
Onhisfifty-fifthbirthdaythepresidentdecidedto1someprisonersofthe2ageasagestureofgoodwillNottoomanybutonesayfromeachofthetwentyofthirty3prisonsinthesmallstate.Theywouldhavetobecarefullyselected4nottogivetroubleoncetheywereout.Menperhapshadbeenso5inprisonthattheyhadceasedtohaveandrealcontactwiththeoutsideworld.Noneofthemwastobetolda6ofhis7liberty.Marlowastherefore8whenhewascalledtotheGovernor’sofficeonemorningandtoldhewastobeset9nextday.Hehadspentalmostthreequartersof.hislifein10workingoutalifesentence11stabbingapolicemantodeath.Hewasadull-wittedmanwithnorelations12andnofriendsexcepthisprisonmates. Thefollowingmorningwasclearandbright.Marlo13noopportunitytosaygoodbyeto14butaguard15himtotheprisongatesandwishedhimg6dspeed.Alonehesetoffupthelongwhiteroadleadingtothetown.Thetraffictheincessantnoisetheabsence16thesecureprisonwallsterrifiedhim.Presentlyhe’satdownbythesideoftheroadtothink17.Afterhehadthoughtforalongtimeforhisbrainworkedslowlyhe18adecision.Heremainedhewaswaitingpatientlyuntilatlasthesawapolicecar19Whenitwasnearenoughhedartedoutintotheroadobligingittostopwithasquealofbrakes.Hehadwithhimalittleknife.Whentheyoungpoliceofficergotoutofthecardemanding20whatwaswrongMarlostabbedhimveryneatlyjustbehindtherightear. 19
Text1 AsDr.SamuelJohnsonsaidinadifferenteraaboutladiespreachingthesurprisingthingaboutcomputersisnotthattheythinklesswellthanamanbutthattheythinkatall.Theearlyelectroniccomputerdidnothavemuchgoingforitexceptamarvelousmemoryandsomegoodmathskills.Buttodaythebestmodelscanbewireduptolearnbyexperiencefollowanargumentaskproperquestionsandwritepoetryandmusic.Theycanalsocarryonsomewhatpuzzlingconversations. Computersimitatelife.Ascomputersgetmorecomplextheimitationgetsbetter.Finallythelinebetweentheoriginalandthecopybecomesunclear.Inanother15yearsorsowewillseethecomputerasanewformoflife. Theopinionseemsridiculousbecauseforonethingcomputerslackthedrivesandemotionsoflivingcreatures.Butdrivescanbeprogrammedintothecomputer’sbrainjustasanewformoflife. Computersmatchpeopleinsomerolesandwhenfastdecisionsareneededinacrisistheyoftensurpassthem.Havingevolvedwhenthepaceoflifewasslowerthehumanbrainhasaninherentdefectthatpreventsitfromabsorbingseveralstreamsofinformationsimultaneouslyandactingonthemquickly.Throwtoomanythingsatthebrainatonetimeanditfreezesup. Wearestillincontrolbutthecapabilitiesofcomputersareincreasingatafantasticratewhilerawhumanintelligenceischangingslowlyifatall.Computerpowerhasincreasedtentimeseveryeightyearssince1846.Inthe1990swhenthesixthgenerationappearsthereasoningpowerofanintelligencebuiltoutofsiliconwillbegintomatchthatofthehumanbrain. Thatdoesnotmeantheevolutionofintelligencehasendedontheearth.Judgingbythepastwecanexpectthatanewspecieswillariseoutofmansurpassinghisachievementsashehassurpassedthoseofhispredecessor.Onlyacarbonchemistryenthusiastwouldassumethatthenewspeciesmustbeman’sflesh-and-blooddescendants.Thenewkindofintelligentlifeismorelikelytobemadeofsilicon. WhatdoyousupposewastheattitudeofDr.SamuelJohnsontowardsladiespreaching
Text3 AfterdecadesofexilefromUScourtsthescienceofliedetectionisgainingnewacceptance.ButthefederalgovernmentwantstoputastoptoitandtheUSSupremeCourthasnowagreedtoconsiderarequestfromtheDepartmentofJusticetobarthetechnologyfrommilitarycourts. Uncertaintiessurroundthescienceofliedetectionwhichusesadevicecalledpolygraph.In1991PresidentGeorgeBushbannedliedetectorevidenceinmilitarycourts.ButthatbanhassincebeenoverturnedbytheUSCourtofMilitaryAppealswhichruledthatitrestrictsdefendants’rightstopresentevidenceoftheirinnocence. Inthepasttwoyearssomefederalcourtshavealsoruled’thatpolygraphevidencecanbeheard.ThisfollowsadecisionbytheSupremeCourtin1993thatgavefederaljudgesmorediscretiontodecideontheadmissibilityofevidence. Apolygraphconsistsofmonitorsforpulseratesweatingandbreathingrate.Thedeviceissupposedtouncoverliesbyrecordingincreasesinthesemeasuresasthesubjectanswersquestions. Criticshavealwaysarguedthatcunningdefendantscancontroltheirphysiologicalresponsesandswaypolygraphresults.Butsupportersofthetechniquearguethatrecentresearchhasfoundittobereliable.ApsychologistnamedCharlesHontsatastateuniversityinIdahopointstolaboratorystudiessomeofthembeinghisowninwhichstudent-subjectswereofferedcashtoswaythetestresults. ThisargumentisrejectedbyLeonardSaxeapsychologistataBostonuniversity."Thereisahugedifferencebetweenstudentsinalabandadefendant"hesays.Guiltydefendantshavetimeinwhichtorehearsetheirliesandcanevencometobelievethemtobetrue. Saxebelievesthattheentiretheoreticalbasisofliedetectionisinvalid."Itassumesyouwillbemorenervouslyingthantellingthetruth."Buthesaysthatforsomepeopleliesaretrivialwhilecertaintruthscanbehardtoswallow. DavidFaigmanoftheUniversityofCaliforniasaysthatiftheSupremeCourtupholdsthemilitaryappealcourtsdecisiontoallowpolygraphevidencepolygraphbanswouldbeoverturnedinfederalcourtsacrossUS."Thatwillputabigburdenonjudgestounderstandthescienceandleadtoalotmoreexperttestimonyinthecourts"hepredicts.Thejusticedepartmentfearsthatthiswillgreatlyincreasethecostoftrials. WhatdoCharlesHonts'laboratorystudiessuggest
ShoppinghabitsintheUnitedStateshavechangedgreatlyinthelastquarterofthetwentiethcentury.1inthe1990smostAmericantownsandcitieshadaMainStreet.MainStreetwasalwaysintheheartofatown.Thisstreetwas.2onbothsideswithmany.3businessesHereshopperswalkedintostorestolookatallsortsofmerchandise:clothingfurniturehardwareandgroceries4someshopsoffere5Theseshopsincludeddrag-storesshoe-repairstoresandbarberorhairdressingshops.6inthe1950sachangebeganto7ToomanyautomobileshadcrowdedintoMainStreet8toofewparkingplaceswere9shoppers.Becausethestreetswerecrowdedmerchantsbegantolookwithinter6stattheopenspaces10thecitylimits.Openspaceiswhattheircar-drivingcustomersneeded.Andopenspaceiswhattheygot.11thefirstshoppingcenterwasbuilt.Shoppingcenter12mallsstartedasacollectionofsmallnewstores.13congestedcitycenters..14byhundredsoffreeparkingspacescustomersweredrawnaway.from15areastooutlyingmalls.Andthegrowing.16ofshoppingcentersled17tothebuildingofbiggerandbetterstockedstores18thelate1970smanyshoppingmallshadalmostdevelopedintosmallcitiesthemselves.Inadditiontoprovidingthe19ofone-stopshoppingmallsweretransformedintolandscapedparks20benchesfountainsandoutdoorentertainment. 1
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