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Even before canaries (特高频噪声) were brought into coal mines to alert workers to the presence of poison...
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GIS局部放电可用方法进行检测
特高频、超声波
高频、超声波
高频、地电波
特高频、地电波
较早的移动通信主要使用频段
高频，甚高频
甚高频，特高频
低频，高频
中高频，特高频
下面的频谱与理想的白噪声频谱相同
低频噪声
高频噪声
随机噪声
ζ函数
特高频局部放电带电检测中现场的干扰根据其时域特征的不同可分为
白噪声干扰
谐波干扰
窄带周期性干扰
脉冲型干扰
特高频检测常见的干扰信号主要由
雷达噪声
移动电话噪声
荧光噪声
马达噪声
较早的移动通信主要使用频段
高频，甚高频
甚高频，特高频
低频，高频
中高频，特高频
在一次噪声测量中用ABC网络测出噪声的声级值分别为LALBLC若LC＞LB＞LA则表明噪声集中在
超高频段
高频段
中频段
低频段
生产性噪声中噪声占比例最大
低频
中频
中高频
高频
在实际工作中低频噪声比高频噪声容易治理
某个噪声的总声压级比A声级大得多说明此噪声是特性
低频
中频
中高频
高频
生产性噪声中噪声占比例最大
低频
中频
中高频
高频
噪声分为低频噪声和高频噪声声两种来自电源线
高频噪声选择阻性消声器中低频噪声选用
噪声频率大于800Hz者称为
脉冲性噪声
连续性噪声
稳态噪声
非稳态噪声
高频噪声
外部噪声包括
太阳噪声
接收机噪声
高频电器噪声
电力线噪声
高频噪声
双原子气体噪声特点是以高频率噪声为主
特高频背景噪声测试时应将仪器调到量程测量空间背景噪声值并记 录
最小
中间
最大
不用调
150MKZ无线频段范围属于.
特高频
甚高频
高频
下列说法正确的是
特高频局放检测技术可用于电缆的带电检测
特高频局放检测技术可用于任意类型GIS局放的检测
特高频法局部放电检测不可用于__电缆、电缆本体的带电检测
特高频局部放电检测中的同步信号通常是指同时发生的局部放电信号
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Thehousingmarkethasbeenfortwoyearsproppingupconsumers’spiritswhiletherestoftheeconomyliesexhaustedonthefloorstilltryingtostruggletoitsfeet.AccordingtotheNationalAssociationofRealtorsthenationalmedianexisting-homepriceendedtheyearat$164000up7.1percentfrom2001.That’sthestrongestannualincreasesince1980.Althoughresidentialrealestateactivitymakesuplessthan8%oftotalU.S.GDPahousingmarketlikethisonecanmakethedifferencebetweenpositiveandnegativegrowth.Mostsignificantlyconsumerspendingis66%ofGDPandthepurchaseofanewhometendstohaveanumbrellaeffectonthehomeowner’sspendingashehastostockitwithawasher/dryeranewbig-screenTVandmaybeaswingsetfortheyard.Themainfactorinhousing’scontinuedstrengthisaclassiceconomicexampleofzero-sumboom:thepersistentweaknesseverywhereelse.Asthe2003recoverycontinuestobemoreforecastthanreality.FallingstockpricesraisedinvestorappealforU.S.TreasuryBondswhichinturnallowedmostinterestratestodriftevenlower.Buttherearenotmanysignsthatthere’sabubblereadytoburst.December’snewrecordinhousingstartsforexamplewasnicelymatchedbythenewrecordinnewhomesales.Ifyoubuildittheywillbuyandevenifaneconomicpickupstartstoreducehousing’srelativeattractivenessthere’snoreasonwhymodesteconomicgrowthandimprovedconsumermoodcan’thelpsustaininghousing’sstrength.Themomentumgainedfromlowmortgageinterestrateswillcarrystronghomesalesinto2003withanimprovingeconomyoffsettingmodestlyhighermortgageinterestratesastheyearprogressessaidDavidLereahchiefeconomistattheNationalAssociationofRealtors.Justashousinghastakenupmuchoftheeconomicslackforthepasttwoyearsbothasacomfortinginvestmentforfrettingconsumersandadriverofconsumerspendingitselfabigbumpelsewhereintheeconomyin2003couldbehousing’sdownfall.Ifstocksroarbackthisspringcapitalinflowscouldstealfromthebondmarketpushinguplong-terminterestrates.OrAlanGreenspanandtheFedcoulddothesametoshort-termratesasawaytohitthebrakesonarecoverythatisheatinguptoofast.Inotherwordsifeverythingpossiblegoeswrongforhousinghomeownersshouldhaveplentytocompensatethemintermsbfjobsecurityandincomehikes.Howdotheconsumersfeelabouttheirinvestmentinthehousingmarket
Biologicallythereisonlyonequalitywhichdistinguishesusfromanimals:theabilitytolaugh.Inauniversewhichappearstobeutterlydevoidofhumorweenjoythissupremeluxury.Anditisaluxuryforunlikeanyotherbodilyprocesslaughterdoesnotseemserveabiologicallyusefulpurpose.Inadividedworldalaughterisaunifyingforce.Humanbeingsopposeeachotheronagreatmanyissues.Nationsmaydisagreeaboutsystemsofgovernmentandhumanrelationsmaybeplaguedbyideologicalfactionsandpoliticalcampsbutweallsharetheabilitytolaugh.Andlaughterinturndependsonthemostcomplexandsubtleofall-humanqualities:asenseofhumor.Certaincomicstereotypeshaveauniversalappeal.Thiscanbestbeseenfromtheworld-widepopularityofCharlieChaplain’searlyfilms.Thelittlemanatoddswithsocietyneverfailstoamusenomatterwhichcountrywecomefrom.AsthatgreatcommentatoronhumanaffairsDr.SamuelJohnsononceremarkedMenhavebeenwiseinverydifferentmodes;buttheyhavealwayslaughedinthesameway.Asenseofhumormaytakevariousformsandlaughtermaybeanythingfromrefinedtinkletoanearthquakingroarbuttheeffectisalwaysthesame.Humorhelpsustomaintainacorrectsenseofvalues.Itistheonequalitywhichpoliticalfanaticsappeartolack.Ifwecanseethefunnysidewenevermakethemistakeoftakingourselvestooseriously.Wearealwaysremindedthattragedyisnotreallyfarremovedfromcomedysowenevergetalopsidedviewofthings.Thisisoneofthechieffunctionsofsatireandirony.Humanpainandsufferingaresogrim;wehoversooftenonthebrinkofwarpoliticalrealitiesareusuallyenoughtoplungeusintototaldespair.Insuchcircumstancescartoonsandsatiricalaccountsofsomberpoliticaleventsredressthebalance.Theytakethewindoutofpompousandarrogantpoliticianswhohavelosttheirsenseofproportion.Theyenableustoseethatmanyofourmostprofoundactionsaremerelycomicorabsurd.WelaughwhenagreatsatiristlikeSwiftwritesaboutwarsinGulliver’sTravels.TheLilliputiansandtheirneighborsattackeachotherbecausetheycan’tagreewhichendtobreakanegg.Welaughbecausewearemeanttolaugh;hutwearemeanttoweeptoo.ItisnowonderthatintotalitarianregimesanysatireagainsttheEstablishmentiswhollybanned.Itistoopowerfulweapontobeallowedtoflourish.Thesenseofhumormustbesingledoutasman’smostimportantqualitybecauseitisassociatedwithlaughter.Andlaughterinturnisassociatedwithhappiness.Couragedeterminationinitiative--thesearequalitieswesharewithotherformsoflife.Butthesenseofhumorisanuniquehumanquality.Ifhappinessisoneofthegreatgoalsoflifethenitisthesenseofhumorthatprovidesthekey.Accordingtothe4thparagraphwhatintereststheauthoristhatsomepoliticiansfailto
Text1 KarimNasserMiranlivesonabenchintheCharlesdeGaulleAirportontheoutskirtsofParis.Hehasbeenlivingtherefor11years.Amazinglythislittleseatbyabasementshoppingmallbetweenapizzeriaandafastfoodstandhasbeentheonlyplacehehasbeenallowedtostayforallthattime. Hispossessionsarecrammedintoanairporttrolleyswhichisalwaysbesidehim.Hehasasportsbagwhichholdshisfewclothesashoppingbagwithhiswashingsoapandotherbathroomgoodsandbooksandhisdiarieswhichhekeepsincardboardboxes. Foryearsthe54-year-oldMiranhasbeentryingtoleaveCharlesdeGaulleAirportbutauthoritieswillnotlethimoutoftheairport.Thisstrangesetofcircumstanceshascontinuedfor11years. MiranwasborninIranbutisstateless]becausehehasnodocumentstoprovehiscitizenry.Theyhavebeenlost.Forthisreasonhecannotgetapassport.MiransaysthathismotherisDanishorScottish.HisfatherdiedwhenMiranwasjustover20yearsoldsoheleftIranforBritainsearchingforhismother.HecouldnotfindherandreturnedtoIran.HelosthiscitizenshipandtriedtoreturntoBritain.WhentheBritishaskedhimaboutrelativeswhocouldguaranteehimajobhecouldnottelltheimmigrationofficialstheirnamesashewasstillsearchingfor.them. HetriedtoenterGermanyRussiaandHollandwithoutsuccess.HemanagedtogetintoBelgiumwherehewas’givenrefugeestatus.FiveyearslaterheleftforFrancebuthesaysthedocumentwhichgavehimrefugeestatusandtherighttotravelwasstolenfromhim.HecouldnotleavetheCharlesdeGaulleAirport.This;vasin1988.Elevenyearslaterhewasstillsearchingforthem. Tostartwithfriendlyairportworkersgavehimfreemealsandlethimusetheshowerandtoiletsthere.TheyevengavehimaccesstoaphoneandcalledtheairportdoctorwhenMirandidnotfeelwell. MiranbecamesuchapermanentfixtureofTerminalOnethatalltheworkersstartedtocallhimMonsieurAlfred.EachdaytheygreetedhimeachdayMiranwroteinhisdiaryinordertokeeptraceofhisownworldandeachdayhefailedtoreleasehimselffromhisgiantglass-and-concreteprison. Butin1999Miranbecameconfidentthathemightbeabletoleavetheairportterminalandstartanewlife.Officialstoldhimtheyfinallylocatedakeydocumentissuedin1981butlostin1988whichcouldbehistickettofreedom. EvenafterelevenyearsintheairportterminalMiransaidhehadnotlosthope.Hedidacorrespondencecoursetohelptoeducatehimself.Everydaytheairportpostofficecarefullysetaside’allthemailaddressedtohimwithhiswrittenlessonstobedone.Everydayhesetallalarmclocktoringat7a.m.andafterhisteaandfoodhewouldbeginstudying.TheambitionhebuiltupwastoreturntoBrusselstodoadegree. WherewouldMiranprobablygoifhecouldleavetheairport
Thisisthestoryofasturdy-Americansymbolwhichhasnowspreadthroughoutmostoftheworld.Thesymbolisnotthedollar.ItisnotevenCoca-Cola.ItisasimplepairofpantscalledbluejeansandwhatthepantssymbolizeiswhatAlexisdeTocquevillecalled"amanlyandlegitimatepassionforequality..." 2Bluejeansarefavoredequallybybureaucratsandcowboys;bankersanddeadbeats;fashiondesignersandbeerdrinkers.Theydrawnodistinctionsandrecognizenoclasses;theyaremerelyAmerican. 341.__________. 4ThisubiquitousAmericansymbolwastheinventionofaBavaraian-bornJew.HisnamewasLeviStrauss. 5HewasborninBadOcheimGermanyin1829andduringtheEuropeanpoliticalturmoilof1848decidedtotakehischancesinNewYorktowhichhistwobrothersalreadyhademigrated.UponarrivalLevisoonfoundthathistwobrothershadexaggeratedtheirtalesofaneasylifeinthelandofthemainchance.Hefoundthempushingneedlesthreadpotspansribbonsyarnscissorsandbuttonstohousewives. 642.__________. 7Itwasthewrongkindofcanvasforthatpurposebutwhiletalkingwithaminerdownfromthemotherlodehelearnedthatpants-sturdypantsthatwouldstanduptotherigorsofthedigging--werealmostimpossibletofind. 8OpportunitybeckonedonthespotStraussmeasuredtheman’sgirthandinseamwithapieceofstringandforsixdollarsingolddusthad[thecanvas]tailoredintoapairofstiffbutruggedpants. 943.__________. 10WhenStraussranoutofcanvasheWrotehistwobrotherstosendmore.HereceivedinsteadatoughbrowncottonclothmadeinNimesFrance. 11AlmostfromthefirstStrausshadhisclothdyedthedistinctiveindigothatgavebluejeanstheirnamebutitwasnotuntilthe1870sthatheaddedthecopperrivetswhichhavelongsincebecomeacompanytrademark. 1244.__________. 13ForthreedecadesthereafterthebusinessremainedprofitablethoughsmallwithsaleslargelyconfinedtotheworkingpeopleoftheWest-cowboyslumberjacksrailroadworkersandthelike. 14Levi’sjeanswerefirstintroducedtotheEastapparentlyduringthedude-ranchcrazeofthe1930swhenvacationingEasternersreturnedandspreadthewordaboutthewonderfulpantswithrivets. 1545.__________. 16ThepantshavebecomeatraditionandalongthewayhaveacquiredahistoryoftheirownsomuchsothatthecompanyhasopenedamuseuminSanFrancisco.ForexamplethereistheparticularlyterrifyingstoryofthecarelessconstructionworkerwhodangledfiftytwostoriesabovethestreetuntilrescuedhissolesupporttheLevi’sbeltloopthroughwhichhisropewashooked. [A]Theminerwasdelightedwiththeresultwordgotaroundabout"thosepantsofLevi’s"andStrausswasinbusiness.Thecompanyhasbeeninbusinessverysince. [B]AsakindofjokeDavistookthepantstoablacksmithandhadthepocketsriveted;onceagaintheideaworkedsowellthatwordgotaround;in1873Straussappropriatedandpatentedthegimmick--andhiredDavisasaregionalmanager. [C]BythistimeStrausshadtakenbothhisbrothersandtwobrothers-in-lawintothecompanyandwasreadyforhisthirdSanFranciscostore.Overtheensuingyearsthecompanyprosperedlocallyandbythetimeofhisdeathin1902StrausshadbecomeamanofprominenceinCalifornia. [D]Fortwoyearshewasalowlypeddlerhaulingsome180poundsofsundriesdoor-to-doortoekeoutamarginalliving.WhenamarriedsisterinSanFranciscoofferedtopayhiswayWestin1850hejumpedattheopportunitytakingwithhimboltsofcanvashehopedtosellfortenting. [E]AnotherboostcameinWorldWarⅡwhenbluejeansweredeclaredanessentialcommodityandweresold0nlytopeopleengagedindefensework.FromacompanywithfifteensalespeopletwoplantsandalmostnobusinesseastoftheMississippiin1946theorganizationgrewinthirtyyearstoincludeasalesforceofmorethantwenty-twothousandwithplantsandofficesinthirty-fivecountries. [F]Theyadaptthemselvestoanysortofidiosyncraticuse;womenslitthemattheinseamsandconvertthemintolongskirtsmenchopthemoffabovethekneesandturnthemintosomethingtobewornwhilechallengingthesurf.Decorationsandornamentationsabound. [G]Yettheyaresoughtafteralmosteverywhereintheworld-includingRussiawhereauthoritiesrecentlybrokeupateen-agedgangthatwassellingthemontheblackmarketfortwohundreddollarsapair. 41
Text2 Asthemerchantclassexpandedintheeighteenth-centuryNorthAmericancoloniesthesilversmithandthecoppersmithbusinessesrosetoserveit.OnlyafewsilversmithswereavailableinNewYorkorBostoninthelateseventeenthcenturybutintheeighteenth-centurytheycouldbefoundinallmajorcolonialcities.Noothercolonialartisansrivaledthesilversmiths’prestige.Theyhandledthemostexpensivematerialandposseddirectconnectionstoprosperouscolonialmerchants.Theirproductsprimarilysilverplatesandbowlsreflectedtheirexaltedstatusandtestifiedtotheircustomers’prominence. Silverstoodasoneofthesurestwaystostorewealthatatimebeforeneighborhoodbanksexisted.Unlikethesilvercoinsfromwhichtheyweremadesilverarticleswerereadilyidentifiable.Oftenformedtoindividualspecificationstheyalwayscarriedthesilversmith’sdistinctivemarkingsandconsequentlycouldbetracedandretrieved. Customersgenerallysecuredthesilverforthesilverobjectstheyordered.Theysavedcoinstookthemtosmithsanddiscussedthetypeofpiecestheydesired.Silversmithscompliedwiththeserequestsbymeltingthemoneyinasmallfurnaceaddingabitofcoppertoformastrongeralloyandcastingthealloyinrectangularblocks.Theyhammeredtheseingotstotheappropriatethicknessbyhandshapedthemandpresseddesignsintothemforadornment.Engravingwasalsodonebyhand.Inadditiontoplatesandbowlssomecustomerssoughtmoreintricateproductssuchassilverteapots.Theseweremadebyshapingorcastingpansseparatelyandthensolderingthemtogether. Colonialcoppersmithingalsocameofageintheearlyeighteenthcenturyandprosperedinnortherncities.12opper’sabilitytoconductheatefficientlyandtoresistcorrosion’contributedtoitsattractiveness.ButbecauseitwasexpensiveincolonialAmericacoppersmithswereneververynumerous.Virtuallyallcopperworkedbysmithswasimportedassheetsorobtainedbyrecyclingoldcoppergoods.Copperwasusedforpracticalitemsbutitwasnotadmiredforitsbeauty.Coppersmithsemployedittofashionpotsandkettlesforthehome.Theyshapeditinmuchthesamemannerassilverormelteditinafoundrywithleadortin.Theyalsomixeditwithzinctomakebrassformaritimeandscientificinstruments. IncolonialAmericawheredidsilversmithsusuallyobtainthematerialtomakesilverarticles
Text3 HistorianshaveonlyrecentlybeguntonotetheincreaseindemandforluxurygoodsandservicethattookplaceineighteenthcenturyEngland.McKendrickhasexploredtheWedgwoodfirm’sremarkablesuccessinmarketingluxurypottery;Plumbhaswrittenabouttheproliferationsofprovincialtheatersmusicalfestivalsandchildren’stoysandbooks.Whilethefactofthisconsumerrevolutionishardlyindoubtthreekeyquestionsremain:WhoweretheconsumersWhatweretheirmotives7Andwhatweretheeffectsofthenewdemandforluxuries Ananswertotheflintofthesehasbeendifficulttoobtain.Althoughithasbeenpossibletoinferfromthegoodsandservicesactuallyproducedwhatmanufacturersandservicingtradesthoughttheircustomerswantedonlyastudyofrelevantpersonaldocumentswrittenbyactualconsumerswillprovideaprecisepictureofwhowantedwhat.Westillneedtoknowhowlargethisconsumermarketwasandhowfarclownthesocialscaletheconsumerdemandforluxurygoodspenetrated.WithregardtothislastquestionwemightnoteinpassingthatThompsonwhilerightlyrestoringlaboringpeopletothestageofeighteenthcentury. Englishhistoryhasprobablyexaggeratedtheoppositionofthesepeopletotheinroadsofcapitalistconsumerismingeneral:forexamplelaboringpeopleineighteenthcenturyEnglandreadilyshiftedfromhome-brewedbeertostandardizedbeerproducedbyhugeheavilycapitalizedurbanbreweries. Toanswerthequestionofwhyconsumersbecamesoeagertobuysomehistorianshavepointedtotheabilityofmanufacturerstoadvertiseinarelativelyuncensoredpress.Thishoweverhardlyseemsasufficientanswer.McKendriekfavorsaVeblenmodelofconspicuousconsumptionsstimulatedbycompetitionforstatus.The"middlingsort"boughtgoodsandservicesbecausetheywantedtofollowfashionssetbytherich.Againwemaywonderwhetherthisexplanationissufficient.Donotpeopleenjoybuyingthingsasaformofself-gratificationIfsoconsumerismcouldbeseenasaproductoftheriseofnewconceptsofindividualismandmaterialismbutnotnecessarilyofthefrenzyforconspicuouscompetition. FinallywhatweretheconsequencesofthisconsumerdemandforluxuriesMcKendrickclaimsthatitgoesalongwaytowardexplainingthecomingoftheIndustrialRevolution.ButdoesitWhatforexampledoestheproductionofhigh-qualitypotteryandtoyshavetodowiththedevelopmentofironmanufactureortextilemillsItisperfectlypossibletohavethepsychologyandrealityofaconsumersocietywithoutaheavyindustrialsector. Thatfutureexplorationofthesekeyquestionsisundoubtedlynecessaryshouldnothoweverdiminishtheforceoftheconclusionofrecentstudies:theinsatiabledemandineighteenthcenturyEnglandforfrivolousaswellasusefulgoodsandservicesforeshadowsourownworld. AccordingtothepassageaVeblenmodelofconspicuousconsumptionhasbeenusedto
Thehousingmarkethasbeenfortwoyearsproppingupconsumers’spiritswhiletherestoftheeconomyliesexhaustedonthefloorstilltryingtostruggletoitsfeet.AccordingtotheNationalAssociationofRealtorsthenationalmedianexisting-homepriceendedtheyearat$164000up7.1percentfrom2001.That’sthestrongestannualincreasesince1980.Althoughresidentialrealestateactivitymakesuplessthan8%oftotalU.S.GDPahousingmarketlikethisonecanmakethedifferencebetweenpositiveandnegativegrowth.Mostsignificantlyconsumerspendingis66%ofGDPandthepurchaseofanewhometendstohaveanumbrellaeffectonthehomeowner’sspendingashehastostockitwithawasher/dryeranewbig-screenTVandmaybeaswingsetfortheyard.Themainfactorinhousing’scontinuedstrengthisaclassiceconomicexampleofzero-sumboom:thepersistentweaknesseverywhereelse.Asthe2003recoverycontinuestobemoreforecastthanreality.FallingstockpricesraisedinvestorappealforU.S.TreasuryBondswhichinturnallowedmostinterestratestodriftevenlower.Buttherearenotmanysignsthatthere’sabubblereadytoburst.December’snewrecordinhousingstartsforexamplewasnicelymatchedbythenewrecordinnewhomesales.Ifyoubuildittheywillbuyandevenifaneconomicpickupstartstoreducehousing’srelativeattractivenessthere’snoreasonwhymodesteconomicgrowthandimprovedconsumermoodcan’thelpsustaininghousing’sstrength.Themomentumgainedfromlowmortgageinterestrateswillcarrystronghomesalesinto2003withanimprovingeconomyoffsettingmodestlyhighermortgageinterestratesastheyearprogressessaidDavidLereahchiefeconomistattheNationalAssociationofRealtors.Justashousinghastakenupmuchoftheeconomicslackforthepasttwoyearsbothasacomfortinginvestmentforfrettingconsumersandadriverofconsumerspendingitselfabigbumpelsewhereintheeconomyin2003couldbehousing’sdownfall.Ifstocksroarbackthisspringcapitalinflowscouldstealfromthebondmarketpushinguplong-terminterestrates.OrAlanGreenspanandtheFedcoulddothesametoshort-termratesasawaytohitthebrakesonarecoverythatisheatinguptoofast.Inotherwordsifeverythingpossiblegoeswrongforhousinghomeownersshouldhaveplentytocompensatethemintermsbfjobsecurityandincomehikes.WhenmentioningtheumbrellaeffectPara.2theauthoristalkingabout
Text3 HistorianshaveonlyrecentlybeguntonotetheincreaseindemandforluxurygoodsandservicethattookplaceineighteenthcenturyEngland.McKendrickhasexploredtheWedgwoodfirm’sremarkablesuccessinmarketingluxurypottery;Plumbhaswrittenabouttheproliferationsofprovincialtheatersmusicalfestivalsandchildren’stoysandbooks.Whilethefactofthisconsumerrevolutionishardlyindoubtthreekeyquestionsremain:WhoweretheconsumersWhatweretheirmotives7Andwhatweretheeffectsofthenewdemandforluxuries Ananswertotheflintofthesehasbeendifficulttoobtain.Althoughithasbeenpossibletoinferfromthegoodsandservicesactuallyproducedwhatmanufacturersandservicingtradesthoughttheircustomerswantedonlyastudyofrelevantpersonaldocumentswrittenbyactualconsumerswillprovideaprecisepictureofwhowantedwhat.Westillneedtoknowhowlargethisconsumermarketwasandhowfarclownthesocialscaletheconsumerdemandforluxurygoodspenetrated.WithregardtothislastquestionwemightnoteinpassingthatThompsonwhilerightlyrestoringlaboringpeopletothestageofeighteenthcentury. Englishhistoryhasprobablyexaggeratedtheoppositionofthesepeopletotheinroadsofcapitalistconsumerismingeneral:forexamplelaboringpeopleineighteenthcenturyEnglandreadilyshiftedfromhome-brewedbeertostandardizedbeerproducedbyhugeheavilycapitalizedurbanbreweries. Toanswerthequestionofwhyconsumersbecamesoeagertobuysomehistorianshavepointedtotheabilityofmanufacturerstoadvertiseinarelativelyuncensoredpress.Thishoweverhardlyseemsasufficientanswer.McKendriekfavorsaVeblenmodelofconspicuousconsumptionsstimulatedbycompetitionforstatus.The"middlingsort"boughtgoodsandservicesbecausetheywantedtofollowfashionssetbytherich.Againwemaywonderwhetherthisexplanationissufficient.Donotpeopleenjoybuyingthingsasaformofself-gratificationIfsoconsumerismcouldbeseenasaproductoftheriseofnewconceptsofindividualismandmaterialismbutnotnecessarilyofthefrenzyforconspicuouscompetition. FinallywhatweretheconsequencesofthisconsumerdemandforluxuriesMcKendrickclaimsthatitgoesalongwaytowardexplainingthecomingoftheIndustrialRevolution.ButdoesitWhatforexampledoestheproductionofhigh-qualitypotteryandtoyshavetodowiththedevelopmentofironmanufactureortextilemillsItisperfectlypossibletohavethepsychologyandrealityofaconsumersocietywithoutaheavyindustrialsector. Thatfutureexplorationofthesekeyquestionsisundoubtedlynecessaryshouldnothoweverdiminishtheforceoftheconclusionofrecentstudies:theinsatiabledemandineighteenthcenturyEnglandforfrivolousaswellasusefulgoodsandservicesforeshadowsourownworld. AccordingtothepassageThompsonattributestolaboringpeopleineighteenthcenturyEnglandwhichofthefollowingattitudestowardcapitalistconsumerism
Text3 HistorianshaveonlyrecentlybeguntonotetheincreaseindemandforluxurygoodsandservicethattookplaceineighteenthcenturyEngland.McKendrickhasexploredtheWedgwoodfirm’sremarkablesuccessinmarketingluxurypottery;Plumbhaswrittenabouttheproliferationsofprovincialtheatersmusicalfestivalsandchildren’stoysandbooks.Whilethefactofthisconsumerrevolutionishardlyindoubtthreekeyquestionsremain:WhoweretheconsumersWhatweretheirmotives7Andwhatweretheeffectsofthenewdemandforluxuries Ananswertotheflintofthesehasbeendifficulttoobtain.Althoughithasbeenpossibletoinferfromthegoodsandservicesactuallyproducedwhatmanufacturersandservicingtradesthoughttheircustomerswantedonlyastudyofrelevantpersonaldocumentswrittenbyactualconsumerswillprovideaprecisepictureofwhowantedwhat.Westillneedtoknowhowlargethisconsumermarketwasandhowfarclownthesocialscaletheconsumerdemandforluxurygoodspenetrated.WithregardtothislastquestionwemightnoteinpassingthatThompsonwhilerightlyrestoringlaboringpeopletothestageofeighteenthcentury. Englishhistoryhasprobablyexaggeratedtheoppositionofthesepeopletotheinroadsofcapitalistconsumerismingeneral:forexamplelaboringpeopleineighteenthcenturyEnglandreadilyshiftedfromhome-brewedbeertostandardizedbeerproducedbyhugeheavilycapitalizedurbanbreweries. Toanswerthequestionofwhyconsumersbecamesoeagertobuysomehistorianshavepointedtotheabilityofmanufacturerstoadvertiseinarelativelyuncensoredpress.Thishoweverhardlyseemsasufficientanswer.McKendriekfavorsaVeblenmodelofconspicuousconsumptionsstimulatedbycompetitionforstatus.The"middlingsort"boughtgoodsandservicesbecausetheywantedtofollowfashionssetbytherich.Againwemaywonderwhetherthisexplanationissufficient.Donotpeopleenjoybuyingthingsasaformofself-gratificationIfsoconsumerismcouldbeseenasaproductoftheriseofnewconceptsofindividualismandmaterialismbutnotnecessarilyofthefrenzyforconspicuouscompetition. FinallywhatweretheconsequencesofthisconsumerdemandforluxuriesMcKendrickclaimsthatitgoesalongwaytowardexplainingthecomingoftheIndustrialRevolution.ButdoesitWhatforexampledoestheproductionofhigh-qualitypotteryandtoyshavetodowiththedevelopmentofironmanufactureortextilemillsItisperfectlypossibletohavethepsychologyandrealityofaconsumersocietywithoutaheavyindustrialsector. Thatfutureexplorationofthesekeyquestionsisundoubtedlynecessaryshouldnothoweverdiminishtheforceoftheconclusionofrecentstudies:theinsatiabledemandineighteenthcenturyEnglandforfrivolousaswellasusefulgoodsandservicesforeshadowsourownworld. ItcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheauthorwouldmostprobablyagreewithwhichofthefollowingstatementsabouttherelationshipbetweentheIndustrialRevolutionandaboutthedemandforluxurygoodsandservicesineighteenthcenturyEngland
TheprofessortalkedtoAmericanandBrazilianstudentsaboutlatenessinbothaninformalandaformalsituation:lunchwithafriendandinauniversityclassrespectively.Hegavethemanexampleandaskedthemhowtheywould1iftheyhadalunchappointmentwithafriendtheaverageAmericanstudent2latenessas19minutesafterthe3time.OntheotherhandtheaverageBrazilianstudentfeltthefriendwaslateafter33minutes. InanAmericanuniversity.studentsareexpectedtoarriveattheappointed4Classesnotonlybeginbutalsoendatthe5timeintheUnitedStates.IntheBrazilianclassonlyafewstudentslefttheclassatnoon;many6past12:30todiscussquestions.7arrivinglatemaynotbeveryimportantinBrazil8isstayinglate.The9forthesedifferencesiscomplicated.PeoplefromBrazilianandNorthAmerican10havedifferentfeelingaboutlateness.InBrazilthestudentsbelievethatapersonwhousually11thanapersonwhoisalways12.Infact..Braziliansexpectapersonwith13orprestigetoarrivelatewhileintheUnitedStateslatenessisusually14disrespectfulandunacceptable.15ifaBrazilianislateforanappointmentwithaNorthAmericantheAmericanmaymisinterpretthe16andbecomeangry. AsaresultofhisstudytheprofessorlearnedthattheBrazilianstudentswerenotbeing17tohim.Insteadtheyweresimplybehavinginthe18wayforaBrazilianstudentinBrazil.Eventuallytheprofessorwasableto19hisownbehaviorsothathecouldfeel20inthenewculture. 1
UnitedStatesSenatorJohnGlennreturnedtoorbitaboardthespaceshuttleDiscoveryinlateOctober199836yearsafterhisfirstlift-offfromCapeCanaveralinFlorida.46The77-year-oldpoliticianwhoin1962becameAmerica’sfirstmantoorbittheEarthblastedoffwithsixotherastronautsonamissionthatwouldincluderesearchintoageing.Takingleaveofhimatthespacecenteralongwith3000mediarepresentatives20000invitedguestsandanestimatedhalfmillionpeoplewhocrowdedvantagepointsroundabouttowatchthelaunch--werehiswifeofmorethan50yearsAnniehistwochildrenandtwograndchildren. GlennfeverstruckFlorida’sspacecoastmonthsaheadofthelaunchwithhotelroomsbookeduphalfayearinadvance.Onelocalnewspapercalledthephenomenon"HurricaneGlenn"anironicreferencetothespateofdevastatinghurricanethathadalreadyhittheFloridacoastduring1998. TheOhiosenatorhadcampaignedforseveralyearstobeallowedthisreturntripintospace.47NASAadministersfinallyagreedtohisproposedstudyontheeffectsofweightlessnessonelderlypeopleandthepossibleparallelsbetweentheside-effectsofweightlessnessandtheageingprocessitself.48CriticshowevercomplainedthatthemissionwaslittlemorethanapublicrelationsexerciseaimedatraisingtheprofileofNASAandwoulddonothingtoadvanceresearchintothegeriatriccondition.Somewereevensayingthatthetriprepresentedtheultimatecongressionaljunket. Glenninsistedfromthebeginningthatthespacemissionwasaseriousonehowever.Hesubjectedhimself--andothers--toaseriesoftestsinaspeciallaboratorywhileinorbit.49Heswallowedaspecialthermometerbeforelift-offsothathistemperaturecouldbemonitoredandhadatubeimplantedinhisarmtofacilitatethetakingofbloodsampleswithouttheneedforfreshneedleseachtime.OthertestsconductedonhisreturntoEarthweredesignedtomeasurehisbonedensityandchangesinhisspinalcord. 50NASAofficialsfuelledsuspicionthatGlenn’striphaddubiouspracticalvaluehoweverbyannouncingthattherewerenoplanstotestanymoreelderlyastronautsafterhistrip.Thiswasdespitethefactthat67-year-oldJerrieCobboneof13womenwhotrainedfortheSpaceprogrammewithGlennintheearly1960sbutwhowereneverallowedtoflyexpressedherdeterminationtobecomethenextgeriatricguineapiginorbit. Thespaceexperiencehaschangedagreatdealinthe36yearssinceGlennwaslastinorbit.Unlikehisfive-hour1962tripthiswasnosolomission. Heswallowedaspecialthermometerbeforelift-offsothathistemperaturecouldbemonitoredandhadatubeimplantedinhisarmtofacilitatethetakingofbloodsampleswithouttheneedforfreshneedleseachtime.
TheprofessortalkedtoAmericanandBrazilianstudentsaboutlatenessinbothaninformalandaformalsituation:lunchwithafriendandinauniversityclassrespectively.Hegavethemanexampleandaskedthemhowtheywould1iftheyhadalunchappointmentwithafriendtheaverageAmericanstudent2latenessas19minutesafterthe3time.OntheotherhandtheaverageBrazilianstudentfeltthefriendwaslateafter33minutes. InanAmericanuniversity.studentsareexpectedtoarriveattheappointed4Classesnotonlybeginbutalsoendatthe5timeintheUnitedStates.IntheBrazilianclassonlyafewstudentslefttheclassatnoon;many6past12:30todiscussquestions.7arrivinglatemaynotbeveryimportantinBrazil8isstayinglate.The9forthesedifferencesiscomplicated.PeoplefromBrazilianandNorthAmerican10havedifferentfeelingaboutlateness.InBrazilthestudentsbelievethatapersonwhousually11thanapersonwhoisalways12.Infact..Braziliansexpectapersonwith13orprestigetoarrivelatewhileintheUnitedStateslatenessisusually14disrespectfulandunacceptable.15ifaBrazilianislateforanappointmentwithaNorthAmericantheAmericanmaymisinterpretthe16andbecomeangry. AsaresultofhisstudytheprofessorlearnedthattheBrazilianstudentswerenotbeing17tohim.Insteadtheyweresimplybehavinginthe18wayforaBrazilianstudentinBrazil.Eventuallytheprofessorwasableto19hisownbehaviorsothathecouldfeel20inthenewculture. 11
Thisisthestoryofasturdy-Americansymbolwhichhasnowspreadthroughoutmostoftheworld.Thesymbolisnotthedollar.ItisnotevenCoca-Cola.ItisasimplepairofpantscalledbluejeansandwhatthepantssymbolizeiswhatAlexisdeTocquevillecalled"amanlyandlegitimatepassionforequality..." 2Bluejeansarefavoredequallybybureaucratsandcowboys;bankersanddeadbeats;fashiondesignersandbeerdrinkers.Theydrawnodistinctionsandrecognizenoclasses;theyaremerelyAmerican. 341.__________. 4ThisubiquitousAmericansymbolwastheinventionofaBavaraian-bornJew.HisnamewasLeviStrauss. 5HewasborninBadOcheimGermanyin1829andduringtheEuropeanpoliticalturmoilof1848decidedtotakehischancesinNewYorktowhichhistwobrothersalreadyhademigrated.UponarrivalLevisoonfoundthathistwobrothershadexaggeratedtheirtalesofaneasylifeinthelandofthemainchance.Hefoundthempushingneedlesthreadpotspansribbonsyarnscissorsandbuttonstohousewives. 642.__________. 7Itwasthewrongkindofcanvasforthatpurposebutwhiletalkingwithaminerdownfromthemotherlodehelearnedthatpants-sturdypantsthatwouldstanduptotherigorsofthedigging--werealmostimpossibletofind. 8OpportunitybeckonedonthespotStraussmeasuredtheman’sgirthandinseamwithapieceofstringandforsixdollarsingolddusthad[thecanvas]tailoredintoapairofstiffbutruggedpants. 943.__________. 10WhenStraussranoutofcanvasheWrotehistwobrotherstosendmore.HereceivedinsteadatoughbrowncottonclothmadeinNimesFrance. 11AlmostfromthefirstStrausshadhisclothdyedthedistinctiveindigothatgavebluejeanstheirnamebutitwasnotuntilthe1870sthatheaddedthecopperrivetswhichhavelongsincebecomeacompanytrademark. 1244.__________. 13ForthreedecadesthereafterthebusinessremainedprofitablethoughsmallwithsaleslargelyconfinedtotheworkingpeopleoftheWest-cowboyslumberjacksrailroadworkersandthelike. 14Levi’sjeanswerefirstintroducedtotheEastapparentlyduringthedude-ranchcrazeofthe1930swhenvacationingEasternersreturnedandspreadthewordaboutthewonderfulpantswithrivets. 1545.__________. 16ThepantshavebecomeatraditionandalongthewayhaveacquiredahistoryoftheirownsomuchsothatthecompanyhasopenedamuseuminSanFrancisco.ForexamplethereistheparticularlyterrifyingstoryofthecarelessconstructionworkerwhodangledfiftytwostoriesabovethestreetuntilrescuedhissolesupporttheLevi’sbeltloopthroughwhichhisropewashooked. [A]Theminerwasdelightedwiththeresultwordgotaroundabout"thosepantsofLevi’s"andStrausswasinbusiness.Thecompanyhasbeeninbusinessverysince. [B]AsakindofjokeDavistookthepantstoablacksmithandhadthepocketsriveted;onceagaintheideaworkedsowellthatwordgotaround;in1873Straussappropriatedandpatentedthegimmick--andhiredDavisasaregionalmanager. [C]BythistimeStrausshadtakenbothhisbrothersandtwobrothers-in-lawintothecompanyandwasreadyforhisthirdSanFranciscostore.Overtheensuingyearsthecompanyprosperedlocallyandbythetimeofhisdeathin1902StrausshadbecomeamanofprominenceinCalifornia. [D]Fortwoyearshewasalowlypeddlerhaulingsome180poundsofsundriesdoor-to-doortoekeoutamarginalliving.WhenamarriedsisterinSanFranciscoofferedtopayhiswayWestin1850hejumpedattheopportunitytakingwithhimboltsofcanvashehopedtosellfortenting. [E]AnotherboostcameinWorldWarⅡwhenbluejeansweredeclaredanessentialcommodityandweresold0nlytopeopleengagedindefensework.FromacompanywithfifteensalespeopletwoplantsandalmostnobusinesseastoftheMississippiin1946theorganizationgrewinthirtyyearstoincludeasalesforceofmorethantwenty-twothousandwithplantsandofficesinthirty-fivecountries. [F]Theyadaptthemselvestoanysortofidiosyncraticuse;womenslitthemattheinseamsandconvertthemintolongskirtsmenchopthemoffabovethekneesandturnthemintosomethingtobewornwhilechallengingthesurf.Decorationsandornamentationsabound. [G]Yettheyaresoughtafteralmosteverywhereintheworld-includingRussiawhereauthoritiesrecentlybrokeupateen-agedgangthatwassellingthemontheblackmarketfortwohundreddollarsapair. 43
TheprofessortalkedtoAmericanandBrazilianstudentsaboutlatenessinbothaninformalandaformalsituation:lunchwithafriendandinauniversityclassrespectively.Hegavethemanexampleandaskedthemhowtheywould1iftheyhadalunchappointmentwithafriendtheaverageAmericanstudent2latenessas19minutesafterthe3time.OntheotherhandtheaverageBrazilianstudentfeltthefriendwaslateafter33minutes. InanAmericanuniversity.studentsareexpectedtoarriveattheappointed4Classesnotonlybeginbutalsoendatthe5timeintheUnitedStates.IntheBrazilianclassonlyafewstudentslefttheclassatnoon;many6past12:30todiscussquestions.7arrivinglatemaynotbeveryimportantinBrazil8isstayinglate.The9forthesedifferencesiscomplicated.PeoplefromBrazilianandNorthAmerican10havedifferentfeelingaboutlateness.InBrazilthestudentsbelievethatapersonwhousually11thanapersonwhoisalways12.Infact..Braziliansexpectapersonwith13orprestigetoarrivelatewhileintheUnitedStateslatenessisusually14disrespectfulandunacceptable.15ifaBrazilianislateforanappointmentwithaNorthAmericantheAmericanmaymisinterpretthe16andbecomeangry. AsaresultofhisstudytheprofessorlearnedthattheBrazilianstudentswerenotbeing17tohim.Insteadtheyweresimplybehavinginthe18wayforaBrazilianstudentinBrazil.Eventuallytheprofessorwasableto19hisownbehaviorsothathecouldfeel20inthenewculture. 13
Thisisthestoryofasturdy-Americansymbolwhichhasnowspreadthroughoutmostoftheworld.Thesymbolisnotthedollar.ItisnotevenCoca-Cola.ItisasimplepairofpantscalledbluejeansandwhatthepantssymbolizeiswhatAlexisdeTocquevillecalled"amanlyandlegitimatepassionforequality..." 2Bluejeansarefavoredequallybybureaucratsandcowboys;bankersanddeadbeats;fashiondesignersandbeerdrinkers.Theydrawnodistinctionsandrecognizenoclasses;theyaremerelyAmerican. 341.__________. 4ThisubiquitousAmericansymbolwastheinventionofaBavaraian-bornJew.HisnamewasLeviStrauss. 5HewasborninBadOcheimGermanyin1829andduringtheEuropeanpoliticalturmoilof1848decidedtotakehischancesinNewYorktowhichhistwobrothersalreadyhademigrated.UponarrivalLevisoonfoundthathistwobrothershadexaggeratedtheirtalesofaneasylifeinthelandofthemainchance.Hefoundthempushingneedlesthreadpotspansribbonsyarnscissorsandbuttonstohousewives. 642.__________. 7Itwasthewrongkindofcanvasforthatpurposebutwhiletalkingwithaminerdownfromthemotherlodehelearnedthatpants-sturdypantsthatwouldstanduptotherigorsofthedigging--werealmostimpossibletofind. 8OpportunitybeckonedonthespotStraussmeasuredtheman’sgirthandinseamwithapieceofstringandforsixdollarsingolddusthad[thecanvas]tailoredintoapairofstiffbutruggedpants. 943.__________. 10WhenStraussranoutofcanvasheWrotehistwobrotherstosendmore.HereceivedinsteadatoughbrowncottonclothmadeinNimesFrance. 11AlmostfromthefirstStrausshadhisclothdyedthedistinctiveindigothatgavebluejeanstheirnamebutitwasnotuntilthe1870sthatheaddedthecopperrivetswhichhavelongsincebecomeacompanytrademark. 1244.__________. 13ForthreedecadesthereafterthebusinessremainedprofitablethoughsmallwithsaleslargelyconfinedtotheworkingpeopleoftheWest-cowboyslumberjacksrailroadworkersandthelike. 14Levi’sjeanswerefirstintroducedtotheEastapparentlyduringthedude-ranchcrazeofthe1930swhenvacationingEasternersreturnedandspreadthewordaboutthewonderfulpantswithrivets. 1545.__________. 16ThepantshavebecomeatraditionandalongthewayhaveacquiredahistoryoftheirownsomuchsothatthecompanyhasopenedamuseuminSanFrancisco.ForexamplethereistheparticularlyterrifyingstoryofthecarelessconstructionworkerwhodangledfiftytwostoriesabovethestreetuntilrescuedhissolesupporttheLevi’sbeltloopthroughwhichhisropewashooked. [A]Theminerwasdelightedwiththeresultwordgotaroundabout"thosepantsofLevi’s"andStrausswasinbusiness.Thecompanyhasbeeninbusinessverysince. [B]AsakindofjokeDavistookthepantstoablacksmithandhadthepocketsriveted;onceagaintheideaworkedsowellthatwordgotaround;in1873Straussappropriatedandpatentedthegimmick--andhiredDavisasaregionalmanager. [C]BythistimeStrausshadtakenbothhisbrothersandtwobrothers-in-lawintothecompanyandwasreadyforhisthirdSanFranciscostore.Overtheensuingyearsthecompanyprosperedlocallyandbythetimeofhisdeathin1902StrausshadbecomeamanofprominenceinCalifornia. [D]Fortwoyearshewasalowlypeddlerhaulingsome180poundsofsundriesdoor-to-doortoekeoutamarginalliving.WhenamarriedsisterinSanFranciscoofferedtopayhiswayWestin1850hejumpedattheopportunitytakingwithhimboltsofcanvashehopedtosellfortenting. [E]AnotherboostcameinWorldWarⅡwhenbluejeansweredeclaredanessentialcommodityandweresold0nlytopeopleengagedindefensework.FromacompanywithfifteensalespeopletwoplantsandalmostnobusinesseastoftheMississippiin1946theorganizationgrewinthirtyyearstoincludeasalesforceofmorethantwenty-twothousandwithplantsandofficesinthirty-fivecountries. [F]Theyadaptthemselvestoanysortofidiosyncraticuse;womenslitthemattheinseamsandconvertthemintolongskirtsmenchopthemoffabovethekneesandturnthemintosomethingtobewornwhilechallengingthesurf.Decorationsandornamentationsabound. [G]Yettheyaresoughtafteralmosteverywhereintheworld-includingRussiawhereauthoritiesrecentlybrokeupateen-agedgangthatwassellingthemontheblackmarketfortwohundreddollarsapair. 45
TheprofessortalkedtoAmericanandBrazilianstudentsaboutlatenessinbothaninformalandaformalsituation:lunchwithafriendandinauniversityclassrespectively.Hegavethemanexampleandaskedthemhowtheywould1iftheyhadalunchappointmentwithafriendtheaverageAmericanstudent2latenessas19minutesafterthe3time.OntheotherhandtheaverageBrazilianstudentfeltthefriendwaslateafter33minutes. InanAmericanuniversity.studentsareexpectedtoarriveattheappointed4Classesnotonlybeginbutalsoendatthe5timeintheUnitedStates.IntheBrazilianclassonlyafewstudentslefttheclassatnoon;many6past12:30todiscussquestions.7arrivinglatemaynotbeveryimportantinBrazil8isstayinglate.The9forthesedifferencesiscomplicated.PeoplefromBrazilianandNorthAmerican10havedifferentfeelingaboutlateness.InBrazilthestudentsbelievethatapersonwhousually11thanapersonwhoisalways12.Infact..Braziliansexpectapersonwith13orprestigetoarrivelatewhileintheUnitedStateslatenessisusually14disrespectfulandunacceptable.15ifaBrazilianislateforanappointmentwithaNorthAmericantheAmericanmaymisinterpretthe16andbecomeangry. AsaresultofhisstudytheprofessorlearnedthattheBrazilianstudentswerenotbeing17tohim.Insteadtheyweresimplybehavinginthe18wayforaBrazilianstudentinBrazil.Eventuallytheprofessorwasableto19hisownbehaviorsothathecouldfeel20inthenewculture. 15
Directions:Youhaveboughtabrand-newcomputerinadealer’soffice.Butmuchtoyourdisappointmentitcouldnotbenormallyoperatedwhenyougotitback.Writealettertothemanager1launchingyourcomplaints2specifyingitstroubles3andproposingsolutions.Writeyourletterinnolessthan100words.WriteitneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.DonotsignyourownnameattheendoftheletteruseLiMinginstead.Donotwritetheaddress.
UnitedStatesSenatorJohnGlennreturnedtoorbitaboardthespaceshuttleDiscoveryinlateOctober199836yearsafterhisfirstlift-offfromCapeCanaveralinFlorida.46The77-year-oldpoliticianwhoin1962becameAmerica’sfirstmantoorbittheEarthblastedoffwithsixotherastronautsonamissionthatwouldincluderesearchintoageing.Takingleaveofhimatthespacecenteralongwith3000mediarepresentatives20000invitedguestsandanestimatedhalfmillionpeoplewhocrowdedvantagepointsroundabouttowatchthelaunch--werehiswifeofmorethan50yearsAnniehistwochildrenandtwograndchildren. GlennfeverstruckFlorida’sspacecoastmonthsaheadofthelaunchwithhotelroomsbookeduphalfayearinadvance.Onelocalnewspapercalledthephenomenon"HurricaneGlenn"anironicreferencetothespateofdevastatinghurricanethathadalreadyhittheFloridacoastduring1998. TheOhiosenatorhadcampaignedforseveralyearstobeallowedthisreturntripintospace.47NASAadministersfinallyagreedtohisproposedstudyontheeffectsofweightlessnessonelderlypeopleandthepossibleparallelsbetweentheside-effectsofweightlessnessandtheageingprocessitself.48CriticshowevercomplainedthatthemissionwaslittlemorethanapublicrelationsexerciseaimedatraisingtheprofileofNASAandwoulddonothingtoadvanceresearchintothegeriatriccondition.Somewereevensayingthatthetriprepresentedtheultimatecongressionaljunket. Glenninsistedfromthebeginningthatthespacemissionwasaseriousonehowever.Hesubjectedhimself--andothers--toaseriesoftestsinaspeciallaboratorywhileinorbit.49Heswallowedaspecialthermometerbeforelift-offsothathistemperaturecouldbemonitoredandhadatubeimplantedinhisarmtofacilitatethetakingofbloodsampleswithouttheneedforfreshneedleseachtime.OthertestsconductedonhisreturntoEarthweredesignedtomeasurehisbonedensityandchangesinhisspinalcord. 50NASAofficialsfuelledsuspicionthatGlenn’striphaddubiouspracticalvaluehoweverbyannouncingthattherewerenoplanstotestanymoreelderlyastronautsafterhistrip.Thiswasdespitethefactthat67-year-oldJerrieCobboneof13womenwhotrainedfortheSpaceprogrammewithGlennintheearly1960sbutwhowereneverallowedtoflyexpressedherdeterminationtobecomethenextgeriatricguineapiginorbit. Thespaceexperiencehaschangedagreatdealinthe36yearssinceGlennwaslastinorbit.Unlikehisfive-hour1962tripthiswasnosolomission. NASAadministersfinallyagreedtohisproposedstudyontheeffectsofweightlessnessonelderlypeopleandthepossibleparallelsbetweentheside-effectsofweightlessnessandtheageingprocessitself.
TheprofessortalkedtoAmericanandBrazilianstudentsaboutlatenessinbothaninformalandaformalsituation:lunchwithafriendandinauniversityclassrespectively.Hegavethemanexampleandaskedthemhowtheywould1iftheyhadalunchappointmentwithafriendtheaverageAmericanstudent2latenessas19minutesafterthe3time.OntheotherhandtheaverageBrazilianstudentfeltthefriendwaslateafter33minutes. InanAmericanuniversity.studentsareexpectedtoarriveattheappointed4Classesnotonlybeginbutalsoendatthe5timeintheUnitedStates.IntheBrazilianclassonlyafewstudentslefttheclassatnoon;many6past12:30todiscussquestions.7arrivinglatemaynotbeveryimportantinBrazil8isstayinglate.The9forthesedifferencesiscomplicated.PeoplefromBrazilianandNorthAmerican10havedifferentfeelingaboutlateness.InBrazilthestudentsbelievethatapersonwhousually11thanapersonwhoisalways12.Infact..Braziliansexpectapersonwith13orprestigetoarrivelatewhileintheUnitedStateslatenessisusually14disrespectfulandunacceptable.15ifaBrazilianislateforanappointmentwithaNorthAmericantheAmericanmaymisinterpretthe16andbecomeangry. AsaresultofhisstudytheprofessorlearnedthattheBrazilianstudentswerenotbeing17tohim.Insteadtheyweresimplybehavinginthe18wayforaBrazilianstudentinBrazil.Eventuallytheprofessorwasableto19hisownbehaviorsothathecouldfeel20inthenewculture. 17
Text1 KarimNasserMiranlivesonabenchintheCharlesdeGaulleAirportontheoutskirtsofParis.Hehasbeenlivingtherefor11years.Amazinglythislittleseatbyabasementshoppingmallbetweenapizzeriaandafastfoodstandhasbeentheonlyplacehehasbeenallowedtostayforallthattime. Hispossessionsarecrammedintoanairporttrolleyswhichisalwaysbesidehim.Hehasasportsbagwhichholdshisfewclothesashoppingbagwithhiswashingsoapandotherbathroomgoodsandbooksandhisdiarieswhichhekeepsincardboardboxes. Foryearsthe54-year-oldMiranhasbeentryingtoleaveCharlesdeGaulleAirportbutauthoritieswillnotlethimoutoftheairport.Thisstrangesetofcircumstanceshascontinuedfor11years. MiranwasborninIranbutisstateless]becausehehasnodocumentstoprovehiscitizenry.Theyhavebeenlost.Forthisreasonhecannotgetapassport.MiransaysthathismotherisDanishorScottish.HisfatherdiedwhenMiranwasjustover20yearsoldsoheleftIranforBritainsearchingforhismother.HecouldnotfindherandreturnedtoIran.HelosthiscitizenshipandtriedtoreturntoBritain.WhentheBritishaskedhimaboutrelativeswhocouldguaranteehimajobhecouldnottelltheimmigrationofficialstheirnamesashewasstillsearchingfor.them. HetriedtoenterGermanyRussiaandHollandwithoutsuccess.HemanagedtogetintoBelgiumwherehewas’givenrefugeestatus.FiveyearslaterheleftforFrancebuthesaysthedocumentwhichgavehimrefugeestatusandtherighttotravelwasstolenfromhim.HecouldnotleavetheCharlesdeGaulleAirport.This;vasin1988.Elevenyearslaterhewasstillsearchingforthem. Tostartwithfriendlyairportworkersgavehimfreemealsandlethimusetheshowerandtoiletsthere.TheyevengavehimaccesstoaphoneandcalledtheairportdoctorwhenMirandidnotfeelwell. MiranbecamesuchapermanentfixtureofTerminalOnethatalltheworkersstartedtocallhimMonsieurAlfred.EachdaytheygreetedhimeachdayMiranwroteinhisdiaryinordertokeeptraceofhisownworldandeachdayhefailedtoreleasehimselffromhisgiantglass-and-concreteprison. Butin1999Miranbecameconfidentthathemightbeabletoleavetheairportterminalandstartanewlife.Officialstoldhimtheyfinallylocatedakeydocumentissuedin1981butlostin1988whichcouldbehistickettofreedom. EvenafterelevenyearsintheairportterminalMiransaidhehadnotlosthope.Hedidacorrespondencecoursetohelptoeducatehimself.Everydaytheairportpostofficecarefullysetaside’allthemailaddressedtohimwithhiswrittenlessonstobedone.Everydayhesetallalarmclocktoringat7a.m.andafterhisteaandfoodhewouldbeginstudying.TheambitionhebuiltupwastoreturntoBrusselstodoadegree. WhichofthefollowingstatementsisTRUEaccordingtothepassage
TheprofessortalkedtoAmericanandBrazilianstudentsaboutlatenessinbothaninformalandaformalsituation:lunchwithafriendandinauniversityclassrespectively.Hegavethemanexampleandaskedthemhowtheywould1iftheyhadalunchappointmentwithafriendtheaverageAmericanstudent2latenessas19minutesafterthe3time.OntheotherhandtheaverageBrazilianstudentfeltthefriendwaslateafter33minutes. InanAmericanuniversity.studentsareexpectedtoarriveattheappointed4Classesnotonlybeginbutalsoendatthe5timeintheUnitedStates.IntheBrazilianclassonlyafewstudentslefttheclassatnoon;many6past12:30todiscussquestions.7arrivinglatemaynotbeveryimportantinBrazil8isstayinglate.The9forthesedifferencesiscomplicated.PeoplefromBrazilianandNorthAmerican10havedifferentfeelingaboutlateness.InBrazilthestudentsbelievethatapersonwhousually11thanapersonwhoisalways12.Infact..Braziliansexpectapersonwith13orprestigetoarrivelatewhileintheUnitedStateslatenessisusually14disrespectfulandunacceptable.15ifaBrazilianislateforanappointmentwithaNorthAmericantheAmericanmaymisinterpretthe16andbecomeangry. AsaresultofhisstudytheprofessorlearnedthattheBrazilianstudentswerenotbeing17tohim.Insteadtheyweresimplybehavinginthe18wayforaBrazilianstudentinBrazil.Eventuallytheprofessorwasableto19hisownbehaviorsothathecouldfeel20inthenewculture. 9
TheprofessortalkedtoAmericanandBrazilianstudentsaboutlatenessinbothaninformalandaformalsituation:lunchwithafriendandinauniversityclassrespectively.Hegavethemanexampleandaskedthemhowtheywould1iftheyhadalunchappointmentwithafriendtheaverageAmericanstudent2latenessas19minutesafterthe3time.OntheotherhandtheaverageBrazilianstudentfeltthefriendwaslateafter33minutes. InanAmericanuniversity.studentsareexpectedtoarriveattheappointed4Classesnotonlybeginbutalsoendatthe5timeintheUnitedStates.IntheBrazilianclassonlyafewstudentslefttheclassatnoon;many6past12:30todiscussquestions.7arrivinglatemaynotbeveryimportantinBrazil8isstayinglate.The9forthesedifferencesiscomplicated.PeoplefromBrazilianandNorthAmerican10havedifferentfeelingaboutlateness.InBrazilthestudentsbelievethatapersonwhousually11thanapersonwhoisalways12.Infact..Braziliansexpectapersonwith13orprestigetoarrivelatewhileintheUnitedStateslatenessisusually14disrespectfulandunacceptable.15ifaBrazilianislateforanappointmentwithaNorthAmericantheAmericanmaymisinterpretthe16andbecomeangry. AsaresultofhisstudytheprofessorlearnedthattheBrazilianstudentswerenotbeing17tohim.Insteadtheyweresimplybehavinginthe18wayforaBrazilianstudentinBrazil.Eventuallytheprofessorwasableto19hisownbehaviorsothathecouldfeel20inthenewculture. 3
TheprofessortalkedtoAmericanandBrazilianstudentsaboutlatenessinbothaninformalandaformalsituation:lunchwithafriendandinauniversityclassrespectively.Hegavethemanexampleandaskedthemhowtheywould1iftheyhadalunchappointmentwithafriendtheaverageAmericanstudent2latenessas19minutesafterthe3time.OntheotherhandtheaverageBrazilianstudentfeltthefriendwaslateafter33minutes. InanAmericanuniversity.studentsareexpectedtoarriveattheappointed4Classesnotonlybeginbutalsoendatthe5timeintheUnitedStates.IntheBrazilianclassonlyafewstudentslefttheclassatnoon;many6past12:30todiscussquestions.7arrivinglatemaynotbeveryimportantinBrazil8isstayinglate.The9forthesedifferencesiscomplicated.PeoplefromBrazilianandNorthAmerican10havedifferentfeelingaboutlateness.InBrazilthestudentsbelievethatapersonwhousually11thanapersonwhoisalways12.Infact..Braziliansexpectapersonwith13orprestigetoarrivelatewhileintheUnitedStateslatenessisusually14disrespectfulandunacceptable.15ifaBrazilianislateforanappointmentwithaNorthAmericantheAmericanmaymisinterpretthe16andbecomeangry. AsaresultofhisstudytheprofessorlearnedthattheBrazilianstudentswerenotbeing17tohim.Insteadtheyweresimplybehavinginthe18wayforaBrazilianstudentinBrazil.Eventuallytheprofessorwasableto19hisownbehaviorsothathecouldfeel20inthenewculture. 7
Text2 Asthemerchantclassexpandedintheeighteenth-centuryNorthAmericancoloniesthesilversmithandthecoppersmithbusinessesrosetoserveit.OnlyafewsilversmithswereavailableinNewYorkorBostoninthelateseventeenthcenturybutintheeighteenth-centurytheycouldbefoundinallmajorcolonialcities.Noothercolonialartisansrivaledthesilversmiths’prestige.Theyhandledthemostexpensivematerialandposseddirectconnectionstoprosperouscolonialmerchants.Theirproductsprimarilysilverplatesandbowlsreflectedtheirexaltedstatusandtestifiedtotheircustomers’prominence. Silverstoodasoneofthesurestwaystostorewealthatatimebeforeneighborhoodbanksexisted.Unlikethesilvercoinsfromwhichtheyweremadesilverarticleswerereadilyidentifiable.Oftenformedtoindividualspecificationstheyalwayscarriedthesilversmith’sdistinctivemarkingsandconsequentlycouldbetracedandretrieved. Customersgenerallysecuredthesilverforthesilverobjectstheyordered.Theysavedcoinstookthemtosmithsanddiscussedthetypeofpiecestheydesired.Silversmithscompliedwiththeserequestsbymeltingthemoneyinasmallfurnaceaddingabitofcoppertoformastrongeralloyandcastingthealloyinrectangularblocks.Theyhammeredtheseingotstotheappropriatethicknessbyhandshapedthemandpresseddesignsintothemforadornment.Engravingwasalsodonebyhand.Inadditiontoplatesandbowlssomecustomerssoughtmoreintricateproductssuchassilverteapots.Theseweremadebyshapingorcastingpansseparatelyandthensolderingthemtogether. Colonialcoppersmithingalsocameofageintheearlyeighteenthcenturyandprosperedinnortherncities.12opper’sabilitytoconductheatefficientlyandtoresistcorrosion’contributedtoitsattractiveness.ButbecauseitwasexpensiveincolonialAmericacoppersmithswereneververynumerous.Virtuallyallcopperworkedbysmithswasimportedassheetsorobtainedbyrecyclingoldcoppergoods.Copperwasusedforpracticalitemsbutitwasnotadmiredforitsbeauty.Coppersmithsemployedittofashionpotsandkettlesforthehome.Theyshapeditinmuchthesamemannerassilverormelteditinafoundrywithleadortin.Theyalsomixeditwithzinctomakebrassformaritimeandscientificinstruments. AccordingtothepassagesilversmithsandcoppersmithsincolonialAmericaweresimilarinwhichofthefollowingways
Text1 KarimNasserMiranlivesonabenchintheCharlesdeGaulleAirportontheoutskirtsofParis.Hehasbeenlivingtherefor11years.Amazinglythislittleseatbyabasementshoppingmallbetweenapizzeriaandafastfoodstandhasbeentheonlyplacehehasbeenallowedtostayforallthattime. Hispossessionsarecrammedintoanairporttrolleyswhichisalwaysbesidehim.Hehasasportsbagwhichholdshisfewclothesashoppingbagwithhiswashingsoapandotherbathroomgoodsandbooksandhisdiarieswhichhekeepsincardboardboxes. Foryearsthe54-year-oldMiranhasbeentryingtoleaveCharlesdeGaulleAirportbutauthoritieswillnotlethimoutoftheairport.Thisstrangesetofcircumstanceshascontinuedfor11years. MiranwasborninIranbutisstateless]becausehehasnodocumentstoprovehiscitizenry.Theyhavebeenlost.Forthisreasonhecannotgetapassport.MiransaysthathismotherisDanishorScottish.HisfatherdiedwhenMiranwasjustover20yearsoldsoheleftIranforBritainsearchingforhismother.HecouldnotfindherandreturnedtoIran.HelosthiscitizenshipandtriedtoreturntoBritain.WhentheBritishaskedhimaboutrelativeswhocouldguaranteehimajobhecouldnottelltheimmigrationofficialstheirnamesashewasstillsearchingfor.them. HetriedtoenterGermanyRussiaandHollandwithoutsuccess.HemanagedtogetintoBelgiumwherehewas’givenrefugeestatus.FiveyearslaterheleftforFrancebuthesaysthedocumentwhichgavehimrefugeestatusandtherighttotravelwasstolenfromhim.HecouldnotleavetheCharlesdeGaulleAirport.This;vasin1988.Elevenyearslaterhewasstillsearchingforthem. Tostartwithfriendlyairportworkersgavehimfreemealsandlethimusetheshowerandtoiletsthere.TheyevengavehimaccesstoaphoneandcalledtheairportdoctorwhenMirandidnotfeelwell. MiranbecamesuchapermanentfixtureofTerminalOnethatalltheworkersstartedtocallhimMonsieurAlfred.EachdaytheygreetedhimeachdayMiranwroteinhisdiaryinordertokeeptraceofhisownworldandeachdayhefailedtoreleasehimselffromhisgiantglass-and-concreteprison. Butin1999Miranbecameconfidentthathemightbeabletoleavetheairportterminalandstartanewlife.Officialstoldhimtheyfinallylocatedakeydocumentissuedin1981butlostin1988whichcouldbehistickettofreedom. EvenafterelevenyearsintheairportterminalMiransaidhehadnotlosthope.Hedidacorrespondencecoursetohelptoeducatehimself.Everydaytheairportpostofficecarefullysetaside’allthemailaddressedtohimwithhiswrittenlessonstobedone.Everydayhesetallalarmclocktoringat7a.m.andafterhisteaandfoodhewouldbeginstudying.TheambitionhebuiltupwastoreturntoBrusselstodoadegree. WhyMiranwasnotallowedtoleavetheCharlesdeGaulleAirport
Biologicallythereisonlyonequalitywhichdistinguishesusfromanimals:theabilitytolaugh.Inauniversewhichappearstobeutterlydevoidofhumorweenjoythissupremeluxury.Anditisaluxuryforunlikeanyotherbodilyprocesslaughterdoesnotseemserveabiologicallyusefulpurpose.Inadividedworldalaughterisaunifyingforce.Humanbeingsopposeeachotheronagreatmanyissues.Nationsmaydisagreeaboutsystemsofgovernmentandhumanrelationsmaybeplaguedbyideologicalfactionsandpoliticalcampsbutweallsharetheabilitytolaugh.Andlaughterinturndependsonthemostcomplexandsubtleofall-humanqualities:asenseofhumor.Certaincomicstereotypeshaveauniversalappeal.Thiscanbestbeseenfromtheworld-widepopularityofCharlieChaplain’searlyfilms.Thelittlemanatoddswithsocietyneverfailstoamusenomatterwhichcountrywecomefrom.AsthatgreatcommentatoronhumanaffairsDr.SamuelJohnsononceremarkedMenhavebeenwiseinverydifferentmodes;buttheyhavealwayslaughedinthesameway.Asenseofhumormaytakevariousformsandlaughtermaybeanythingfromrefinedtinkletoanearthquakingroarbuttheeffectisalwaysthesame.Humorhelpsustomaintainacorrectsenseofvalues.Itistheonequalitywhichpoliticalfanaticsappeartolack.Ifwecanseethefunnysidewenevermakethemistakeoftakingourselvestooseriously.Wearealwaysremindedthattragedyisnotreallyfarremovedfromcomedysowenevergetalopsidedviewofthings.Thisisoneofthechieffunctionsofsatireandirony.Humanpainandsufferingaresogrim;wehoversooftenonthebrinkofwarpoliticalrealitiesareusuallyenoughtoplungeusintototaldespair.Insuchcircumstancescartoonsandsatiricalaccountsofsomberpoliticaleventsredressthebalance.Theytakethewindoutofpompousandarrogantpoliticianswhohavelosttheirsenseofproportion.Theyenableustoseethatmanyofourmostprofoundactionsaremerelycomicorabsurd.WelaughwhenagreatsatiristlikeSwiftwritesaboutwarsinGulliver’sTravels.TheLilliputiansandtheirneighborsattackeachotherbecausetheycan’tagreewhichendtobreakanegg.Welaughbecausewearemeanttolaugh;hutwearemeanttoweeptoo.ItisnowonderthatintotalitarianregimesanysatireagainsttheEstablishmentiswhollybanned.Itistoopowerfulweapontobeallowedtoflourish.Thesenseofhumormustbesingledoutasman’smostimportantqualitybecauseitisassociatedwithlaughter.Andlaughterinturnisassociatedwithhappiness.Couragedeterminationinitiative--thesearequalitieswesharewithotherformsoflife.Butthesenseofhumorisanuniquehumanquality.Ifhappinessisoneofthegreatgoalsoflifethenitisthesenseofhumorthatprovidesthekey.Thebesttitleforthetextmaybe
Populararthasanumberofmeaningsimpossibletodefinewithanyprecisionwhichrangefromfolkloretojunk.Thepolesareclearenoughbutthemiddletendstoblur.TheHollywoodWesternofthe1930’sforexamplehaselementsoffolklorebutisclosertojunkthantohighartorfolkart.Therecanbegreattrashjustasthereisbadhighart.ThemusicalsofGeorgeGershwinaregreatpopularartneveraspiringtohighart.SchubertandBrahmshoweverusedelementsofpopularmusic--folkthemes--inworksclearlyintendedashighart.ThecaseofVerdiisadifferentone:hetookapopulargenre-bourgeoismelodramasettomusicanaccuratedefinitionofnineteenth-centuryoperaandwithoutalteringitsfundamentalnaturetransmuteditintohighart.Thisremainsoneofthegreatestachievementsinmusicandonethatcannotbefullyappreciatedwithoutrecognizingtheessentialtrashinessofthegenre.AsanexampleofsuchatransmutationconsiderwhatVerdimadeofthetypicalpoliticalelementsofnineteenth-centuryopera.Generallyintheplotsoftheseoperasaheroorheroine--usuallyportrayedonlyasanindividualunfetteredbyclass--iscaughtbetweentheimmoralcorruptionofthearistocracyandthedoctrinairerigidityorsecretgreedoftheleadersoftheproletariat.Verditransformsthisnaiveandunlikelyformulationwithmusicofextraordinaryenergyandrhythmicvitalitymusicmoresubtlethanitseemsatfirsthearing.Therearescenesandariasthatstillsoundlikecallstoarmsandwereclearlyunderstoodassuchwhentheywerefirstperformed.Suchpieceslendanimmediacytotheotherwiseveiledpoliticalmessageoftheseoperasandcallupfeelingsbeyondthoseoftheoperaitself.OrconsiderVerdi’streatmentofcharacter.BeforeVerditherewererarelyanycharactersatallinmusicaldramaonlyaseriesofsituationswhichallowedthesingerstoexpressaseriesofemotionalstates.Anyattempttofindcoherentpsychologicalportrayalintheseoperasismisplacedingenuity.Theonlycoherencewasthesinger’svocaltechnique:whenthecastchangednewariaswerealmostalwayssubstitutedgenerallyadaptedfromotheroperas.Verdi’scharactersontheotherhandhavegenuineconsistencyandintegrity.Evenifinmanycasalstheconsistencyisthatofpasteboardmelodramatheintegrityofthecharacterisachievedthroughthemusic:oncehehadbecomeestablished.Verdididnotrewritehismusicfordifferenfsingersorcountenancealterationsorsubstitutionsofsomebodyelse’sariasinoneofhisoperasaseveryeighteenth-centurycomposerhaddone.Whenherevisedanoperaitwasonlyfordramaticeconomyandeffectiveness.Thewritermentionsthepoliticalelementsin19thcenturyoperatoillustrate
TheprofessortalkedtoAmericanandBrazilianstudentsaboutlatenessinbothaninformalandaformalsituation:lunchwithafriendandinauniversityclassrespectively.Hegavethemanexampleandaskedthemhowtheywould1iftheyhadalunchappointmentwithafriendtheaverageAmericanstudent2latenessas19minutesafterthe3time.OntheotherhandtheaverageBrazilianstudentfeltthefriendwaslateafter33minutes. InanAmericanuniversity.studentsareexpectedtoarriveattheappointed4Classesnotonlybeginbutalsoendatthe5timeintheUnitedStates.IntheBrazilianclassonlyafewstudentslefttheclassatnoon;many6past12:30todiscussquestions.7arrivinglatemaynotbeveryimportantinBrazil8isstayinglate.The9forthesedifferencesiscomplicated.PeoplefromBrazilianandNorthAmerican10havedifferentfeelingaboutlateness.InBrazilthestudentsbelievethatapersonwhousually11thanapersonwhoisalways12.Infact..Braziliansexpectapersonwith13orprestigetoarrivelatewhileintheUnitedStateslatenessisusually14disrespectfulandunacceptable.15ifaBrazilianislateforanappointmentwithaNorthAmericantheAmericanmaymisinterpretthe16andbecomeangry. AsaresultofhisstudytheprofessorlearnedthattheBrazilianstudentswerenotbeing17tohim.Insteadtheyweresimplybehavinginthe18wayforaBrazilianstudentinBrazil.Eventuallytheprofessorwasableto19hisownbehaviorsothathecouldfeel20inthenewculture. 5
TheprofessortalkedtoAmericanandBrazilianstudentsaboutlatenessinbothaninformalandaformalsituation:lunchwithafriendandinauniversityclassrespectively.Hegavethemanexampleandaskedthemhowtheywould1iftheyhadalunchappointmentwithafriendtheaverageAmericanstudent2latenessas19minutesafterthe3time.OntheotherhandtheaverageBrazilianstudentfeltthefriendwaslateafter33minutes. InanAmericanuniversity.studentsareexpectedtoarriveattheappointed4Classesnotonlybeginbutalsoendatthe5timeintheUnitedStates.IntheBrazilianclassonlyafewstudentslefttheclassatnoon;many6past12:30todiscussquestions.7arrivinglatemaynotbeveryimportantinBrazil8isstayinglate.The9forthesedifferencesiscomplicated.PeoplefromBrazilianandNorthAmerican10havedifferentfeelingaboutlateness.InBrazilthestudentsbelievethatapersonwhousually11thanapersonwhoisalways12.Infact..Braziliansexpectapersonwith13orprestigetoarrivelatewhileintheUnitedStateslatenessisusually14disrespectfulandunacceptable.15ifaBrazilianislateforanappointmentwithaNorthAmericantheAmericanmaymisinterpretthe16andbecomeangry. AsaresultofhisstudytheprofessorlearnedthattheBrazilianstudentswerenotbeing17tohim.Insteadtheyweresimplybehavinginthe18wayforaBrazilianstudentinBrazil.Eventuallytheprofessorwasableto19hisownbehaviorsothathecouldfeel20inthenewculture. 19
Biologicallythereisonlyonequalitywhichdistinguishesusfromanimals:theabilitytolaugh.Inauniversewhichappearstobeutterlydevoidofhumorweenjoythissupremeluxury.Anditisaluxuryforunlikeanyotherbodilyprocesslaughterdoesnotseemserveabiologicallyusefulpurpose.Inadividedworldalaughterisaunifyingforce.Humanbeingsopposeeachotheronagreatmanyissues.Nationsmaydisagreeaboutsystemsofgovernmentandhumanrelationsmaybeplaguedbyideologicalfactionsandpoliticalcampsbutweallsharetheabilitytolaugh.Andlaughterinturndependsonthemostcomplexandsubtleofall-humanqualities:asenseofhumor.Certaincomicstereotypeshaveauniversalappeal.Thiscanbestbeseenfromtheworld-widepopularityofCharlieChaplain’searlyfilms.Thelittlemanatoddswithsocietyneverfailstoamusenomatterwhichcountrywecomefrom.AsthatgreatcommentatoronhumanaffairsDr.SamuelJohnsononceremarkedMenhavebeenwiseinverydifferentmodes;buttheyhavealwayslaughedinthesameway.Asenseofhumormaytakevariousformsandlaughtermaybeanythingfromrefinedtinkletoanearthquakingroarbuttheeffectisalwaysthesame.Humorhelpsustomaintainacorrectsenseofvalues.Itistheonequalitywhichpoliticalfanaticsappeartolack.Ifwecanseethefunnysidewenevermakethemistakeoftakingourselvestooseriously.Wearealwaysremindedthattragedyisnotreallyfarremovedfromcomedysowenevergetalopsidedviewofthings.Thisisoneofthechieffunctionsofsatireandirony.Humanpainandsufferingaresogrim;wehoversooftenonthebrinkofwarpoliticalrealitiesareusuallyenoughtoplungeusintototaldespair.Insuchcircumstancescartoonsandsatiricalaccountsofsomberpoliticaleventsredressthebalance.Theytakethewindoutofpompousandarrogantpoliticianswhohavelosttheirsenseofproportion.Theyenableustoseethatmanyofourmostprofoundactionsaremerelycomicorabsurd.WelaughwhenagreatsatiristlikeSwiftwritesaboutwarsinGulliver’sTravels.TheLilliputiansandtheirneighborsattackeachotherbecausetheycan’tagreewhichendtobreakanegg.Welaughbecausewearemeanttolaugh;hutwearemeanttoweeptoo.ItisnowonderthatintotalitarianregimesanysatireagainsttheEstablishmentiswhollybanned.Itistoopowerfulweapontobeallowedtoflourish.Thesenseofhumormustbesingledoutasman’smostimportantqualitybecauseitisassociatedwithlaughter.Andlaughterinturnisassociatedwithhappiness.Couragedeterminationinitiative--thesearequalitieswesharewithotherformsoflife.Butthesenseofhumorisanuniquehumanquality.Ifhappinessisoneofthegreatgoalsoflifethenitisthesenseofhumorthatprovidesthekey.TheauthorquotesDr.SamuelJohnson’swordsto
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