首页
试卷库
试题库
当前位置：
X题卡
>
所有题目
>
题目详情
It is hard to predict how science is going to turn out, and if it is really good science it is im...
查看本题答案
包含此试题的试卷
国家统考科目《问答集》真题及答案
点击查看
你可能感兴趣的试题
Itriedto_______inmyspeech_______gratefulweallweref
convey; what
convey; how
predict; what
predict; how
—Lookatthefine_______ofart.Howwonderfultheyare!—Ye
work, hard works
works, hard work
work, a hard work
works, hard works
—________hardworkyouhavedone!—It'sverykindofyoutos
What
How
What a
How a
—__________hardworkyouhavedone!—It’sverykindofyout
What
How
What a
How a
Intheauthor'sopinionthefutureofTelekomcompanyproba
very promising.
definitely doomed.
all in Ricke's hand.
hard to predict.
Itishardtopredicthowscienceisgoingtoturnoutandifit
______badday!It’srainingharD.WehavetostayathomE.
How a
What a
How
What
Heworkstoohard.That's______iswrongwithhim.
why
how
where
what
—isittheQmolongma?—It’s8848meters.It’sveryhardtocl
How deep
How long
How far
How high
-______hardworkyouhavedone!-It’sverykindofyoutosay
What
How
What a
How a
Hiswritingissonconfusingthatit’shardtomakeout_____
that
how
who
what
—hardworkyouhavedone!—It'sverykindofyoutosayso.
What
How
What a
How a
________heavyrain!_______it’srainingsohardLet’ssta
What; Because
How ; As
What a ; Since
How a ; Though
Hiswritingissoconfusingthatit’shardtomakeout______
that
how
who
what
Heworkstoohard.That’siswrongwithhim.
how
where
why
what
---HowsoondoyouthinkChina’sdreamwill_______.---Itm
come true; hard work
come truly; hard work
come true; hard works
come truly; hard works
—___hardhouseworkMotherhasgottodotoday!—Yeslet’sgi
What a
How a
What
How
---______hardworkyouhavedone!---It’sverykindofyout
What
How
What a
How a
---_______isittheQmolongma?---It‟s8848meters.It‟sv
How deep
How long
How far
How high
—Howdoyoulikescience?—it’shardit’sveryinteresting.
But
Though
Because
So
热门试题
更多
Mostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Theproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Theprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—largenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandois17up.Twothirdsofthepopulation18coveredbymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent--abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. 12
Mostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Theproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Theprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—largenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandois17up.Twothirdsofthepopulation18coveredbymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent--abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. 8
Directions: Lookatthefollowingpictureandwrite’anarticleonhappiness.Yourarticleshouldcoverthepointsbelow: 1describethepicture 2interpretitsmeaningand 3giveyoursuggestionastothebestwaytofindhappiness. Youshouldneatlywrite160--200wordsonANSWERSHEET2.
Themid-sixtiessawthestartofaprojectthatalongwithothersimilarresearchwastoteachusagreatdealaboutthechimpanzeemind.ThiswasProjectWashoeconceivedbyTrixieandAllenGardner.TheypurchasedaninfantchimpanzeeandbegantoteachherthesignsofASLtheAmericanSignLanguageusedbythedeaf.TwentyyearsearlieranotherhusbandandwifeteamRichardandCathyHayeshadtriedwithanalmosttotallackofsuccesstoteachayoungchimpVikkitotalk.TheHayes*sundertakingtaughtusalotaboutthechimpanzeemindbutVikkialthoughshedidwellinIQtestsandwasclearlyanintelligentyoungstercouldnotlearnhumanspeech.TheGardnershoweverachievedspectacularsuccesswiththeirpupilWashoe.Notonlydidshelearnsignseasilybutshequicklybegantostringthemtogetherinmeaningfulways.Itwasclearthateachsignevokedinhermindamentalimageoftheobjectitrepresented.Ifforexampleshewasaskedinsignlanguagetofetchanappleshewouldgoandlocateanapplethatwasoutofsightinanotherroom.OtherchimpsenteredtheprojectsomestartingtheirlivesindeafsigningfamiliesbeforejoiningWashoe.AndfinallyWashoeadoptedaninfantLoulis.Hecamefromalabwherenothoughtofteachingsignshadeverpenetrated.WhenhewaswithWashoehewasgivennolessonsinlanguageacquisition—notbyhumansanyway.Yetbythetimehewaseightyearsoldhehadmadefifty-eightsignsintheircorrectcontexts.HowdidhelearnthemMostlyitseemsbyimitatingthebehaviorofWashoeandtheotherthreesigningchimpsDarMojaandTam.SometimesthoughhereceivedtuitionfromWashoeherself.Onedayforexampleshebegantoswaggeraboutbipedallyhairbristlingsigningfood!food!food!ingreatexcitement.Shehadseenahumanapproachingwithabarofchocolate.Loulisonlyeighteenmonthsoldwatchedpassively.SuddenlyWashoestoppedherswaggeringwentovertohimtookhishandandmouldedthesignforfoodfingerspointingtowardsmouth.Anothertimeinasimilarcontextshemadethesignforchewinggum—butwithherhandonhisbody.OnathirdoccasionWashoepickedupasmallchairtookitovertoLoulissetitdowninfrontofhimandverydistinctlymadethechairsignthreetimeswatchinghimcloselyasshedidso.ThetwofoodsignsbecameincorporatedintoLoulis’svocabularybutthesignforchairdidnot.Obviouslytheprioritiesofayoungchimparesimilartothoseofahumanchild!Chimpanzeeswhohavebeentaughtalanguagecancombinesignscreativelyinordertodescribeobjectsforwhichtheyhavenosymbol.Washoeforexamplepuzzledhercaretakersbyaskingrepeatedlyforarockberry.Eventuallyittranspiredthatshewasreferringtobrazilnutswhichshehadencounteredforthefirsttimeawhilebefore.Anotherlanguage-trainedchimpdescribedacucumberasagreenbanana.Theycaneveninventsigns.Lucyasshegotolderhadtobeputonaleashforheroutings.Onedayeagertosetoffbuthavingnosignforleashshesignaledherwishesbyholdingacrookedindexfingertotheringonhercollar.Thissignbecamepartofhervocabulary.Thebesttitleofthispassagecanbe______.
[A]Humanhistorycontainsgreatstoriesthatcanhelpusappreciatemoreaboutpastlife. [B]Thegreatachievementcanprovidemotivationforlearners. [C]Makingusmorehumanmorethananythingelseisthepurposeofstudyinghistory. [D]Learninghistorycanleadamorecolorfullife. [E]Historycantelluswhenweshouldgiveup. [F]Historycanteachusalessonfromitsmistakes. Thespeakerallegesthatstudyinghistoryisvaluableonlyinsofarasitisrelevanttoourdailylives.Ifindthisallegationtobespecious.Itwronglysuggeststhathistoryisnototherwiseinstructiveandthatitsrelevancetooureverydaylivesislimited.Tothecontrarystudyinghistoryprovidesinspirationinnumerablelessonsforlivingandusefulvalueclarificationandperspective—allofwhichhelpusdecidehowtoliveourlives. 41.______ Tobeginwithlearningaboutgreathumanachievementsofthepastprovidesinspiration.Forexampleastudentinspiredbythecourageandtenacityofhistory’sgreatexplorersmightdecideasaresulttopursueacareerinarcheologyoceanographyorastronomy.Thisdecisioncaninturnprofoundlyaffectthatstudent’severydaylife—inschoolandbeyond.Evenforstudentsnotinclinedtopursuethesesortsofcareersstudyinghistoricalexamplesofcourageinthefaceofadversitycanprovidemotivationtofacetheirownpersonalfearsinlife.Inshortlearningaboutgrandaccomplishmentsofthepastcanhelpusgetthroughtheeverydaybusinessoflivingwhateverthatbusinessmightbebyemboldeningusandliftingourspirits. 42.______ Inadditionmistakesofthepastcanteachusasasocietyhowtoavoidrepeatingthosemistakes.Forexamplehistorycanteachustheinappropriatenessofaddressingcertainsocialissuesparticularlymoralonesonasocietallevel.AttemptstolegislatemoralityinvariablyfailasaptlyillustratedbytheProhibitionexperimentintheU.S.duringthe1930s.Hopefullyasasocietywecanapplythislessonbyadoptingamoreenlightenedlegislativeapproachtowardsuchissuesasfreespeechcriminalizationofdrugusecriminaljusticeandequalrightsunderthelaw. 43.______ Studyinghumanhistorycanalsohelpusunderstandandappreciatethemoresvaluesandidealsofpastcultures.Aheightenedawarenessofculturalevolutioninturnhelpsusformulateinformedandreflectivevaluesandidealsforourselves.Basedonthesevaluesandidealsstudentscandeterminetheirauthenticlifepathaswellashowtheyshouldallottheirtimeandinteractwithothersonaday-to-daybasis. 44.______ Finallyitmightbetemptingtoimplyfromthespeaker’sallegationthatstudyinghistoryhaslittlerelevanceevenforthemundanechoresthatoccupysomuchofourtimeeachdayandthereforeisoflittlevalue.Howeverfromhistorywelearnnottotakeeverydayactivitiesandthingsforgranted.Byunderstandingthehistoryofmoneyandbankingwecantransformanotherwiseroutinetriptothebankintoanenlightenedexperienceoravisittothegrocerystoreintoanhomagetothemanyinventorsscientistsengineersandentrepreneursofthepastwhohavemadesuchconveniencepossibletoday.Andwecanfullyappreciateourfreedomtogoaboutourdaffyliveslargelyaswechooseonlybyunderstandingourpoliticalheritage.Inshortappreciatinghistorycanservetoelevateoureverydaychorestorichermoreinterestingandmoreenjoyableexperiences. 45.______ Insumthespeakerfailstorecognizethatinallouractivitiesanddecisions--fromourgrandesttoourmostrote--historycaninspireinformguideandnurture.Inthefinalanalysistostudyhistoryistogainthecapacitytobemorehuman--andIwouldbehard-pressedtoimagineaworthierend. 50
Mostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Theproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Theprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—largenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandois17up.Twothirdsofthepopulation18coveredbymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent--abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. 10
[A]Humanhistorycontainsgreatstoriesthatcanhelpusappreciatemoreaboutpastlife. [B]Thegreatachievementcanprovidemotivationforlearners. [C]Makingusmorehumanmorethananythingelseisthepurposeofstudyinghistory. [D]Learninghistorycanleadamorecolorfullife. [E]Historycantelluswhenweshouldgiveup. [F]Historycanteachusalessonfromitsmistakes. Thespeakerallegesthatstudyinghistoryisvaluableonlyinsofarasitisrelevanttoourdailylives.Ifindthisallegationtobespecious.Itwronglysuggeststhathistoryisnototherwiseinstructiveandthatitsrelevancetooureverydaylivesislimited.Tothecontrarystudyinghistoryprovidesinspirationinnumerablelessonsforlivingandusefulvalueclarificationandperspective—allofwhichhelpusdecidehowtoliveourlives. 41.______ Tobeginwithlearningaboutgreathumanachievementsofthepastprovidesinspiration.Forexampleastudentinspiredbythecourageandtenacityofhistory’sgreatexplorersmightdecideasaresulttopursueacareerinarcheologyoceanographyorastronomy.Thisdecisioncaninturnprofoundlyaffectthatstudent’severydaylife—inschoolandbeyond.Evenforstudentsnotinclinedtopursuethesesortsofcareersstudyinghistoricalexamplesofcourageinthefaceofadversitycanprovidemotivationtofacetheirownpersonalfearsinlife.Inshortlearningaboutgrandaccomplishmentsofthepastcanhelpusgetthroughtheeverydaybusinessoflivingwhateverthatbusinessmightbebyemboldeningusandliftingourspirits. 42.______ Inadditionmistakesofthepastcanteachusasasocietyhowtoavoidrepeatingthosemistakes.Forexamplehistorycanteachustheinappropriatenessofaddressingcertainsocialissuesparticularlymoralonesonasocietallevel.AttemptstolegislatemoralityinvariablyfailasaptlyillustratedbytheProhibitionexperimentintheU.S.duringthe1930s.Hopefullyasasocietywecanapplythislessonbyadoptingamoreenlightenedlegislativeapproachtowardsuchissuesasfreespeechcriminalizationofdrugusecriminaljusticeandequalrightsunderthelaw. 43.______ Studyinghumanhistorycanalsohelpusunderstandandappreciatethemoresvaluesandidealsofpastcultures.Aheightenedawarenessofculturalevolutioninturnhelpsusformulateinformedandreflectivevaluesandidealsforourselves.Basedonthesevaluesandidealsstudentscandeterminetheirauthenticlifepathaswellashowtheyshouldallottheirtimeandinteractwithothersonaday-to-daybasis. 44.______ Finallyitmightbetemptingtoimplyfromthespeaker’sallegationthatstudyinghistoryhaslittlerelevanceevenforthemundanechoresthatoccupysomuchofourtimeeachdayandthereforeisoflittlevalue.Howeverfromhistorywelearnnottotakeeverydayactivitiesandthingsforgranted.Byunderstandingthehistoryofmoneyandbankingwecantransformanotherwiseroutinetriptothebankintoanenlightenedexperienceoravisittothegrocerystoreintoanhomagetothemanyinventorsscientistsengineersandentrepreneursofthepastwhohavemadesuchconveniencepossibletoday.Andwecanfullyappreciateourfreedomtogoaboutourdaffyliveslargelyaswechooseonlybyunderstandingourpoliticalheritage.Inshortappreciatinghistorycanservetoelevateoureverydaychorestorichermoreinterestingandmoreenjoyableexperiences. 45.______ Insumthespeakerfailstorecognizethatinallouractivitiesanddecisions--fromourgrandesttoourmostrote--historycaninspireinformguideandnurture.Inthefinalanalysistostudyhistoryistogainthecapacitytobemorehuman--andIwouldbehard-pressedtoimagineaworthierend. 44
Istronglyagreewiththecontentionthatabsenceofchoiceisararecircumstanceprimarilybecausethiscontentionaccordswithcommonsenseandoureverydayexperienceashumanbeings.Besidesthereverseclaim-thatwedonothavefreechoice-servestounderminethenotionsofmoralaccountabilityandhumanequalitywhicharecriticaltothesurvivalofanydemocraticsociety. 41.Theroleoffreewillofhumansinchoice Commonsensedictatesthathumanshavefreewillandthereforethetrueabsenceofchoiceisveryrare.Theonlypossibleexceptionswouldinvolveextremeandrarecircumstancessuchassolitaryimprisonmentoraseverementalorphysicaldeficiency—anyofwhichmightpotentiallystripapersonofhisorherabilitytomakeconsciouschoices.Yetevenunderthesecircumstancesapersonstillretainschoicesaboutvoluntarybodilyfunctionsandmovement.Thusthecompleteabsenceofchoicewouldseemtobepossibleonlyinacomatosestateorindeath. 42.Thenatureofabsenceofchoice Peopleoftenclaimthatlife’scircumstancesleavethemwith"nochoice."Onemightfeeltrappedinajoboramarriage.Underfinancialduressapersonmightclaimthatheorshehas"nochoice"buttodeclarebankruptcytakeademeaningjoborevenlieorstealtoobtainmoney.Thefundamentalproblemwiththesesortsofclaimsisthattheclaimantsareonlyconsideringthosechoicesthatarenotviableorattractive.Thatispeopleinsituationssuchasthesehaveaninfinitenumberofchoices;it’sjustthatmanyofthechoicesareunappealingevenself-defeating. 43.Choiceisbeyondourcontrol Besidesthecontentionthatwearealmostinvariablyfreetochooseisfarmoreappealingfromasociopoliticalstandpointthantheoppositeclaim.Acompletetackofchoiceimpliesthateveryperson’sfateisdeterminedandthatwealllackfreewill.Accordingtothephilosophicalschoolof"strictdeterminism"everyeventincludinghumanactionsandChoicesthatoccursisphysicallynecessarygiventhelawsofnatureandeventsthatprecededthateventorchoice.Inotherwordsthe"choices"thatseempartoftheessenceofourbeingareactuallybeyondourcontrol. 44.Thelogicalresultofstrictdeterminismandofthenew"scientificdeterminism" Howeverthelogicalresultofstrictdeterminismandofthenew"scientificdeterminism"isthatwearenotmorallyaccountableforouractionsandchoiceseventhosethatharmotherindividualsorsociety.Moreoverthroughouthistorymonarchsanddictatorshaveembraceddeterminismatleastostensiblytobolstertheirclaimthatcertainindividualsarepreordainedtoassumepositionsofauthorityortorisetothetoplevelsofthesocioeconomicinfrastructure.Finallythenotionofscientificdeterminismopensthedoorforgeneticengineeringwhichposesapotentialthreattoequalityinsocioeconomicopportunityandcouldleadtothedevelopmentofaso-called"masterrace."Admittedlythesedisturbingimplicationsneitherprovenordisprovethedeterminists’claims. 45.Insistenceoftreewill Iwouldconcedethatsciencemighteventuallydisprovetheverynotionoffreewill.HoweveruntilthattimeI’lltrustmystrongintuitionthatfreewillisanessentialpartofourbeingashumansandaccordinglythathumansareresponsiblefortheirownchoicesandactions. [A]Forexamplealmosteverypersonwhoclaimstobetrappedinajobissimplychoosingtoretainacertainmeasureoffinancialsecurity.Thechoicetoforegothissecurityisalwaysavailablealthoughitmightcarryunpleasantconsequences. [B]Ourcollectivelifeexperienceisthatwemakechoicesanddecisionseverydayonacontinualbasis. [C]HoweverthedilemmaseamstobeunavoidablewhichgivespeoplealotofPainfullyexperiencewithit. [D]Insumdespitethefactthatweallexperienceoccasionalfeelingsofbeingtrappedandhavingnochoicethestatementisfundamentallycorrect. [E]Recentadvancesinmolecularbiologyandgeneticslendsomecredencetothedeterminists’positionthatasphysicalbeingsouractionsaredeterminedbyphysicalforcesbeyondourcontrol.Newresearchsuggeststhatthesephysicalforcesincludeourownindividualgeneticmakeup. [F]Assumingthatneitherfreewillnordeterminismhasbeenproventobethecorrectpositiontheformeristobepreferredbyanyhumanistandinanydemocraticsociety. 44
AmericanandJapaneseresearchersaredevelopingasmartcarthatwillhelpdriversavoidaccidentsbypredictingwhentheyareabouttomakeadangerousmove. Thesmartcarofthefuturewillbeabletotellifdriversaregoingtoturnchangelanesspeedupslowdownorpassanothercar. Ifthedriver’sintendedactioncouldleadtoanaccidentthecarwillactivateawarningsystemoroverridethemove. 46"Byshiftingtheemphasisofcarsafetyawayfromdesignofthevehicleitselfandlookingmoretowardthedriver’sbehaviorthedevelopersbelievethattheycanstarttobuildcarsthatadapttosuitpeople’sneeds"NewScientistmagazinesaid.AlexPentlandoftheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologycollaboratedontheprojectwithAndrewLiuwhoworksfortheJapanesecarmakerNissan. 47Testsoftheirsmartcarusingadrivingsimulatorhaveshownthatitis95percentaccurateinpredictingadriver’smove12secondsinadvance. 48Thesystemisbasedondrivingbehaviorwhichtheresearcherssaycanbedividedintochainsofsub-actionswhichincludepreparatorymoves. Itmonitorsthedriver’sbehaviorpatternstopredictthenextmove. "TomakeitspredictionsNissan’ssmartcarusesacomputerandsensorsonthesteeringwheelacceleratorandbraketomonitoraperson’sdrivingpatterns.49Abrieftrainingsessioninwhichthedriverisaskedtoperformcertainmaneuversallowsthesystemtocalculatetheprobabilityofparticularactionsoccurringintwo-secondtimesegments"themagazinesaid. Liuhasalsodoneworkontrackingeyemovementtopredictdrivingbehavior.50Hesaidthesmartcarcouldbeadaptedtomonitoreyemovementwhichcouldgiveevenearlierpredictionsofwhenadriverisabouttomakeawrongmove. 46
Whetherworkshouldbeplacedamongthecausesofhappinessoramongthecausesofunhappinessmayperhapsberegardedasadoubtfulquestion.Thereiscertainlymuchworkwhichisexceedinglywearyandanexcessofworkisalwaysverypainful.Ithinkhoweverthatprovidedworkisnotexcessiveinamounteventhedullestworkistomostpeoplelesspainfulthanidleness.Thereareinworkallgradesfrommerereliefoftediumuptotheprofoundestdelightsaccordingtothenatureoftheworkandtheabilitiesoftheworker.Mostoftheworkthatmostpeoplehavetodoisnotinitselfinterestingbutevensuchworkhascertaingreatadvantages.Tobeginwithitfillsagoodmanyhoursofthedaywithouttheneedofdecidingwhatoneshalldo.Mostpeoplewhentheyareleftfreetofilltheirowntimeaccordingtotheirownchoiceareatalosstothinkofanythingsufficientlypleasanttobeworthdoing.Andwhatevertheydecidetheyaretroubledbythefeelingthatsomethingelsewouldhavebeenpleasanter.Tobeabletofillleisureintelligentlyisthelastproductofcivilizationandatpresentveryfewpeoplehavereachedthislevel.Moreovertheexerciseofchoiceisinitselftiresome.Excepttopeoplewithunusualinitiativeitispositivelyagreeabletobetoldwhattodoateachhourofthedayprovidedtheordersarenottoounpleasant.Mostoftheidlerichsufferunspeakableboredomasthepriceoftheirfreedomfromtoil.AttimestheymayfindreliefbyhuntingbiggameinAfricaorbyflyingroundtheworldbutthenumberofsuchsensationsislimitedespeciallyafteryouthispastAccordinglythemoreintelligentrichmenworknearlyashardasiftheywerepoorwhilerichwomenforthemostpartkeepthemselvesbusywithinnumerabletriflesofthoseearth-shakingimportancetheyarefirmlypersuaded.Workthereforeisdesirablefirstandforemostasapreventiveofboredomfortheboredomthatamanfeelswhenheisdoingnecessarythoughuninterestingworkisasnothingincomparisonwiththeboredomthathefeelswhenhehasnothingtodowithhisdays.Withthisadvantageofworkanotherisassociatednamelythatitmakesholidaysmuchmoredeliciouswhentheycome.Providedamandoesnothavetoworksohardastoimpairhisvigorheislikelytofindfarmorezestinhisfreetimethananidlemancouldpossiblyfind.Thesecondadvantageofmostpaidworkandofsomeunpaidworkisthatitgiveschancesofsuccessandopportunitiesforambition.Inmostworksuccessismeasuredbyincomeandwhileourcapitalisticsocietycontinuesthisisinevitable.Itisonlywherethebestworkisconcernedthatthismeasureceasestobethenaturalonetoapply.Thedesirethanmenfeeltoincreasetheirincomeisquiteasmuchadesireforsuccessasfortheextracomfortsthatahigherincomecanacquire.Howeverdullworkmaybeitbecomesbearableifitisameansofbuildingupareputationwhetherintheworldatlargeoronlyinone’sowncircle.Accordingtothepassagetobetoldtodosomethingisgenerally______.
Mostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Theproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Theprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—largenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandois17up.Twothirdsofthepopulation18coveredbymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent--abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. 2
Mostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Theproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Theprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—largenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandois17up.Twothirdsofthepopulation18coveredbymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent--abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. 18
AmericanandJapaneseresearchersaredevelopingasmartcarthatwillhelpdriversavoidaccidentsbypredictingwhentheyareabouttomakeadangerousmove. Thesmartcarofthefuturewillbeabletotellifdriversaregoingtoturnchangelanesspeedupslowdownorpassanothercar. Ifthedriver’sintendedactioncouldleadtoanaccidentthecarwillactivateawarningsystemoroverridethemove. 46"Byshiftingtheemphasisofcarsafetyawayfromdesignofthevehicleitselfandlookingmoretowardthedriver’sbehaviorthedevelopersbelievethattheycanstarttobuildcarsthatadapttosuitpeople’sneeds"NewScientistmagazinesaid.AlexPentlandoftheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologycollaboratedontheprojectwithAndrewLiuwhoworksfortheJapanesecarmakerNissan. 47Testsoftheirsmartcarusingadrivingsimulatorhaveshownthatitis95percentaccurateinpredictingadriver’smove12secondsinadvance. 48Thesystemisbasedondrivingbehaviorwhichtheresearcherssaycanbedividedintochainsofsub-actionswhichincludepreparatorymoves. Itmonitorsthedriver’sbehaviorpatternstopredictthenextmove. "TomakeitspredictionsNissan’ssmartcarusesacomputerandsensorsonthesteeringwheelacceleratorandbraketomonitoraperson’sdrivingpatterns.49Abrieftrainingsessioninwhichthedriverisaskedtoperformcertainmaneuversallowsthesystemtocalculatetheprobabilityofparticularactionsoccurringintwo-secondtimesegments"themagazinesaid. Liuhasalsodoneworkontrackingeyemovementtopredictdrivingbehavior.50Hesaidthesmartcarcouldbeadaptedtomonitoreyemovementwhichcouldgiveevenearlierpredictionsofwhenadriverisabouttomakeawrongmove. 50
Askanyemployeeatanlevelinanycompanywhattheydislikeabouttheirjobandsomewhereonthelistyouwillfindacomplaintaboutthesystemofperformanceappraisals.Itdoesseemstrangethatanideawhichwassupposedtobenefitbothindividualsandthecompanyshouldbesouniversallydislikedbutthestaffappraisalisnowoneofthebiggestcausesofdissatisfactionatwork.IntheUnitedStatestherehaveevenbeencasesofunhappyworkerstakingtheiremployerstocourtoverappraisalinterviews.Itisinacompany’sinteresttocombatthissituationbutbeforereversingtheappraisal’snegativeassociationsanorganizationneedstopinpointtheunderlyingreasonswhichhavecontributedtothem.Problemswithappraisalscanfallintotwomainareas--thosearisingfromtheschemeitselfandthosearisingfromtheimplementationandunderstandingofthatscheme.Naturallyitiseasiertotacklethoseintheformercategory;indeedsomecompanieshavedevelopedschemesfollowinglegalguidelines.Theseguidelinessuggestthatasuccessfulschemeshouldhaveaclearappealprocessthatanynegativefeedbackshouldbeaccompaniedbyevidencesuchasdatestimesandoutcomesandthatmostimportantlyratingsshouldreflectspecificmeasurableelementsofthejobrequirements.Itisnotalwaysnecessarytoresorttolegaladvicehowever.Somechangestocurrentschemesaresimplyamatteroflogic.Forinstanceifemployeesareconstantlyencouragedtoworkinteamsandtoassumejointresponsibilityfortheirsuccessesandfailuresitmakeslittlesensefortheappraisalstofocusonindividualsasthismayleadtoresentmentsandcreatedivisionswithinthegroup.Itispossibleandinsomecasesmoresuitabletoarrangeappraisalswhereperformanceisratedforthegroup.Staffalsoneedtobeeducatedaboutthebestwaytoapproachappraisals.Managersoftenfindthattheyareuncomfortablebeingaskedtotakeonamoresupportiverolethantheyareusedtowithouthavinghadanytraining.Thosebeingappraisedmayseeitasachancetoairtheirgrievancesandhighlightthecompany’sfailingsratherthanconsidertheirownrole.Bothpartiesviewtheprocessasanecessaryeviltobegonethroughonceortwiceayearandthenforgottenabout.Theimportancegiventotheappraisalstemsfromthefactthatdespiteallthetalkoftheinterviewbeingachanceformanagementandemployeestocometogetherandexchangeideassetjointtargetsandimprovethewaydecisionsarereachedtherealityisthattheyareoftennothingmorethanthepretextonwhichpayrisesaregivenornotgiven.Payisofcourseasubjectthatalwaysleadstoproblems.GiventheproblemsassociatedwithstaffappraisalswhyisitthatwithnolegalrequirementcompaniescontinuetorunthemTheanswerissimpleitisimpossibletomanagesomethingyouknownothingabout.AsanyHumanResourcesmanagercantellyouthebestwaytolearnaboutsomeoneistotalktothem.Effectivepeoplemanagementreliesonknowledgeandappraisalsarestillthebestwaytobuildupthatbankofknowledge.Individualappraisalsarenotalwaysveryeffectivebecause______.
Whetherworkshouldbeplacedamongthecausesofhappinessoramongthecausesofunhappinessmayperhapsberegardedasadoubtfulquestion.Thereiscertainlymuchworkwhichisexceedinglywearyandanexcessofworkisalwaysverypainful.Ithinkhoweverthatprovidedworkisnotexcessiveinamounteventhedullestworkistomostpeoplelesspainfulthanidleness.Thereareinworkallgradesfrommerereliefoftediumuptotheprofoundestdelightsaccordingtothenatureoftheworkandtheabilitiesoftheworker.Mostoftheworkthatmostpeoplehavetodoisnotinitselfinterestingbutevensuchworkhascertaingreatadvantages.Tobeginwithitfillsagoodmanyhoursofthedaywithouttheneedofdecidingwhatoneshalldo.Mostpeoplewhentheyareleftfreetofilltheirowntimeaccordingtotheirownchoiceareatalosstothinkofanythingsufficientlypleasanttobeworthdoing.Andwhatevertheydecidetheyaretroubledbythefeelingthatsomethingelsewouldhavebeenpleasanter.Tobeabletofillleisureintelligentlyisthelastproductofcivilizationandatpresentveryfewpeoplehavereachedthislevel.Moreovertheexerciseofchoiceisinitselftiresome.Excepttopeoplewithunusualinitiativeitispositivelyagreeabletobetoldwhattodoateachhourofthedayprovidedtheordersarenottoounpleasant.Mostoftheidlerichsufferunspeakableboredomasthepriceoftheirfreedomfromtoil.AttimestheymayfindreliefbyhuntingbiggameinAfricaorbyflyingroundtheworldbutthenumberofsuchsensationsislimitedespeciallyafteryouthispastAccordinglythemoreintelligentrichmenworknearlyashardasiftheywerepoorwhilerichwomenforthemostpartkeepthemselvesbusywithinnumerabletriflesofthoseearth-shakingimportancetheyarefirmlypersuaded.Workthereforeisdesirablefirstandforemostasapreventiveofboredomfortheboredomthatamanfeelswhenheisdoingnecessarythoughuninterestingworkisasnothingincomparisonwiththeboredomthathefeelswhenhehasnothingtodowithhisdays.Withthisadvantageofworkanotherisassociatednamelythatitmakesholidaysmuchmoredeliciouswhentheycome.Providedamandoesnothavetoworksohardastoimpairhisvigorheislikelytofindfarmorezestinhisfreetimethananidlemancouldpossiblyfind.Thesecondadvantageofmostpaidworkandofsomeunpaidworkisthatitgiveschancesofsuccessandopportunitiesforambition.Inmostworksuccessismeasuredbyincomeandwhileourcapitalisticsocietycontinuesthisisinevitable.Itisonlywherethebestworkisconcernedthatthismeasureceasestobethenaturalonetoapply.Thedesirethanmenfeeltoincreasetheirincomeisquiteasmuchadesireforsuccessasfortheextracomfortsthatahigherincomecanacquire.Howeverdullworkmaybeitbecomesbearableifitisameansofbuildingupareputationwhetherintheworldatlargeoronlyinone’sowncircle.Asputbytheauthormostoftheworkthatmostpeoplehavetodois______.
[A]Humanhistorycontainsgreatstoriesthatcanhelpusappreciatemoreaboutpastlife. [B]Thegreatachievementcanprovidemotivationforlearners. [C]Makingusmorehumanmorethananythingelseisthepurposeofstudyinghistory. [D]Learninghistorycanleadamorecolorfullife. [E]Historycantelluswhenweshouldgiveup. [F]Historycanteachusalessonfromitsmistakes. Thespeakerallegesthatstudyinghistoryisvaluableonlyinsofarasitisrelevanttoourdailylives.Ifindthisallegationtobespecious.Itwronglysuggeststhathistoryisnototherwiseinstructiveandthatitsrelevancetooureverydaylivesislimited.Tothecontrarystudyinghistoryprovidesinspirationinnumerablelessonsforlivingandusefulvalueclarificationandperspective—allofwhichhelpusdecidehowtoliveourlives. 41.______ Tobeginwithlearningaboutgreathumanachievementsofthepastprovidesinspiration.Forexampleastudentinspiredbythecourageandtenacityofhistory’sgreatexplorersmightdecideasaresulttopursueacareerinarcheologyoceanographyorastronomy.Thisdecisioncaninturnprofoundlyaffectthatstudent’severydaylife—inschoolandbeyond.Evenforstudentsnotinclinedtopursuethesesortsofcareersstudyinghistoricalexamplesofcourageinthefaceofadversitycanprovidemotivationtofacetheirownpersonalfearsinlife.Inshortlearningaboutgrandaccomplishmentsofthepastcanhelpusgetthroughtheeverydaybusinessoflivingwhateverthatbusinessmightbebyemboldeningusandliftingourspirits. 42.______ Inadditionmistakesofthepastcanteachusasasocietyhowtoavoidrepeatingthosemistakes.Forexamplehistorycanteachustheinappropriatenessofaddressingcertainsocialissuesparticularlymoralonesonasocietallevel.AttemptstolegislatemoralityinvariablyfailasaptlyillustratedbytheProhibitionexperimentintheU.S.duringthe1930s.Hopefullyasasocietywecanapplythislessonbyadoptingamoreenlightenedlegislativeapproachtowardsuchissuesasfreespeechcriminalizationofdrugusecriminaljusticeandequalrightsunderthelaw. 43.______ Studyinghumanhistorycanalsohelpusunderstandandappreciatethemoresvaluesandidealsofpastcultures.Aheightenedawarenessofculturalevolutioninturnhelpsusformulateinformedandreflectivevaluesandidealsforourselves.Basedonthesevaluesandidealsstudentscandeterminetheirauthenticlifepathaswellashowtheyshouldallottheirtimeandinteractwithothersonaday-to-daybasis. 44.______ Finallyitmightbetemptingtoimplyfromthespeaker’sallegationthatstudyinghistoryhaslittlerelevanceevenforthemundanechoresthatoccupysomuchofourtimeeachdayandthereforeisoflittlevalue.Howeverfromhistorywelearnnottotakeeverydayactivitiesandthingsforgranted.Byunderstandingthehistoryofmoneyandbankingwecantransformanotherwiseroutinetriptothebankintoanenlightenedexperienceoravisittothegrocerystoreintoanhomagetothemanyinventorsscientistsengineersandentrepreneursofthepastwhohavemadesuchconveniencepossibletoday.Andwecanfullyappreciateourfreedomtogoaboutourdaffyliveslargelyaswechooseonlybyunderstandingourpoliticalheritage.Inshortappreciatinghistorycanservetoelevateoureverydaychorestorichermoreinterestingandmoreenjoyableexperiences. 45.______ Insumthespeakerfailstorecognizethatinallouractivitiesanddecisions--fromourgrandesttoourmostrote--historycaninspireinformguideandnurture.Inthefinalanalysistostudyhistoryistogainthecapacitytobemorehuman--andIwouldbehard-pressedtoimagineaworthierend. 48
Mostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Theproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Theprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—largenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandois17up.Twothirdsofthepopulation18coveredbymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent--abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. 14
Whetherworkshouldbeplacedamongthecausesofhappinessoramongthecausesofunhappinessmayperhapsberegardedasadoubtfulquestion.Thereiscertainlymuchworkwhichisexceedinglywearyandanexcessofworkisalwaysverypainful.Ithinkhoweverthatprovidedworkisnotexcessiveinamounteventhedullestworkistomostpeoplelesspainfulthanidleness.Thereareinworkallgradesfrommerereliefoftediumuptotheprofoundestdelightsaccordingtothenatureoftheworkandtheabilitiesoftheworker.Mostoftheworkthatmostpeoplehavetodoisnotinitselfinterestingbutevensuchworkhascertaingreatadvantages.Tobeginwithitfillsagoodmanyhoursofthedaywithouttheneedofdecidingwhatoneshalldo.Mostpeoplewhentheyareleftfreetofilltheirowntimeaccordingtotheirownchoiceareatalosstothinkofanythingsufficientlypleasanttobeworthdoing.Andwhatevertheydecidetheyaretroubledbythefeelingthatsomethingelsewouldhavebeenpleasanter.Tobeabletofillleisureintelligentlyisthelastproductofcivilizationandatpresentveryfewpeoplehavereachedthislevel.Moreovertheexerciseofchoiceisinitselftiresome.Excepttopeoplewithunusualinitiativeitispositivelyagreeabletobetoldwhattodoateachhourofthedayprovidedtheordersarenottoounpleasant.Mostoftheidlerichsufferunspeakableboredomasthepriceoftheirfreedomfromtoil.AttimestheymayfindreliefbyhuntingbiggameinAfricaorbyflyingroundtheworldbutthenumberofsuchsensationsislimitedespeciallyafteryouthispastAccordinglythemoreintelligentrichmenworknearlyashardasiftheywerepoorwhilerichwomenforthemostpartkeepthemselvesbusywithinnumerabletriflesofthoseearth-shakingimportancetheyarefirmlypersuaded.Workthereforeisdesirablefirstandforemostasapreventiveofboredomfortheboredomthatamanfeelswhenheisdoingnecessarythoughuninterestingworkisasnothingincomparisonwiththeboredomthathefeelswhenhehasnothingtodowithhisdays.Withthisadvantageofworkanotherisassociatednamelythatitmakesholidaysmuchmoredeliciouswhentheycome.Providedamandoesnothavetoworksohardastoimpairhisvigorheislikelytofindfarmorezestinhisfreetimethananidlemancouldpossiblyfind.Thesecondadvantageofmostpaidworkandofsomeunpaidworkisthatitgiveschancesofsuccessandopportunitiesforambition.Inmostworksuccessismeasuredbyincomeandwhileourcapitalisticsocietycontinuesthisisinevitable.Itisonlywherethebestworkisconcernedthatthismeasureceasestobethenaturalonetoapply.Thedesirethanmenfeeltoincreasetheirincomeisquiteasmuchadesireforsuccessasfortheextracomfortsthatahigherincomecanacquire.Howeverdullworkmaybeitbecomesbearableifitisameansofbuildingupareputationwhetherintheworldatlargeoronlyinone’sowncircle.Whatistheauthor’sopinionaboutwork
Askanyemployeeatanlevelinanycompanywhattheydislikeabouttheirjobandsomewhereonthelistyouwillfindacomplaintaboutthesystemofperformanceappraisals.Itdoesseemstrangethatanideawhichwassupposedtobenefitbothindividualsandthecompanyshouldbesouniversallydislikedbutthestaffappraisalisnowoneofthebiggestcausesofdissatisfactionatwork.IntheUnitedStatestherehaveevenbeencasesofunhappyworkerstakingtheiremployerstocourtoverappraisalinterviews.Itisinacompany’sinteresttocombatthissituationbutbeforereversingtheappraisal’snegativeassociationsanorganizationneedstopinpointtheunderlyingreasonswhichhavecontributedtothem.Problemswithappraisalscanfallintotwomainareas--thosearisingfromtheschemeitselfandthosearisingfromtheimplementationandunderstandingofthatscheme.Naturallyitiseasiertotacklethoseintheformercategory;indeedsomecompanieshavedevelopedschemesfollowinglegalguidelines.Theseguidelinessuggestthatasuccessfulschemeshouldhaveaclearappealprocessthatanynegativefeedbackshouldbeaccompaniedbyevidencesuchasdatestimesandoutcomesandthatmostimportantlyratingsshouldreflectspecificmeasurableelementsofthejobrequirements.Itisnotalwaysnecessarytoresorttolegaladvicehowever.Somechangestocurrentschemesaresimplyamatteroflogic.Forinstanceifemployeesareconstantlyencouragedtoworkinteamsandtoassumejointresponsibilityfortheirsuccessesandfailuresitmakeslittlesensefortheappraisalstofocusonindividualsasthismayleadtoresentmentsandcreatedivisionswithinthegroup.Itispossibleandinsomecasesmoresuitabletoarrangeappraisalswhereperformanceisratedforthegroup.Staffalsoneedtobeeducatedaboutthebestwaytoapproachappraisals.Managersoftenfindthattheyareuncomfortablebeingaskedtotakeonamoresupportiverolethantheyareusedtowithouthavinghadanytraining.Thosebeingappraisedmayseeitasachancetoairtheirgrievancesandhighlightthecompany’sfailingsratherthanconsidertheirownrole.Bothpartiesviewtheprocessasanecessaryeviltobegonethroughonceortwiceayearandthenforgottenabout.Theimportancegiventotheappraisalstemsfromthefactthatdespiteallthetalkoftheinterviewbeingachanceformanagementandemployeestocometogetherandexchangeideassetjointtargetsandimprovethewaydecisionsarereachedtherealityisthattheyareoftennothingmorethanthepretextonwhichpayrisesaregivenornotgiven.Payisofcourseasubjectthatalwaysleadstoproblems.GiventheproblemsassociatedwithstaffappraisalswhyisitthatwithnolegalrequirementcompaniescontinuetorunthemTheanswerissimpleitisimpossibletomanagesomethingyouknownothingabout.AsanyHumanResourcesmanagercantellyouthebestwaytolearnaboutsomeoneistotalktothem.Effectivepeoplemanagementreliesonknowledgeandappraisalsarestillthebestwaytobuildupthatbankofknowledge.Inanidealworldanappraisalisanopportunityto______.
Istronglyagreewiththecontentionthatabsenceofchoiceisararecircumstanceprimarilybecausethiscontentionaccordswithcommonsenseandoureverydayexperienceashumanbeings.Besidesthereverseclaim-thatwedonothavefreechoice-servestounderminethenotionsofmoralaccountabilityandhumanequalitywhicharecriticaltothesurvivalofanydemocraticsociety. 41.Theroleoffreewillofhumansinchoice Commonsensedictatesthathumanshavefreewillandthereforethetrueabsenceofchoiceisveryrare.Theonlypossibleexceptionswouldinvolveextremeandrarecircumstancessuchassolitaryimprisonmentoraseverementalorphysicaldeficiency—anyofwhichmightpotentiallystripapersonofhisorherabilitytomakeconsciouschoices.Yetevenunderthesecircumstancesapersonstillretainschoicesaboutvoluntarybodilyfunctionsandmovement.Thusthecompleteabsenceofchoicewouldseemtobepossibleonlyinacomatosestateorindeath. 42.Thenatureofabsenceofchoice Peopleoftenclaimthatlife’scircumstancesleavethemwith"nochoice."Onemightfeeltrappedinajoboramarriage.Underfinancialduressapersonmightclaimthatheorshehas"nochoice"buttodeclarebankruptcytakeademeaningjoborevenlieorstealtoobtainmoney.Thefundamentalproblemwiththesesortsofclaimsisthattheclaimantsareonlyconsideringthosechoicesthatarenotviableorattractive.Thatispeopleinsituationssuchasthesehaveaninfinitenumberofchoices;it’sjustthatmanyofthechoicesareunappealingevenself-defeating. 43.Choiceisbeyondourcontrol Besidesthecontentionthatwearealmostinvariablyfreetochooseisfarmoreappealingfromasociopoliticalstandpointthantheoppositeclaim.Acompletetackofchoiceimpliesthateveryperson’sfateisdeterminedandthatwealllackfreewill.Accordingtothephilosophicalschoolof"strictdeterminism"everyeventincludinghumanactionsandChoicesthatoccursisphysicallynecessarygiventhelawsofnatureandeventsthatprecededthateventorchoice.Inotherwordsthe"choices"thatseempartoftheessenceofourbeingareactuallybeyondourcontrol. 44.Thelogicalresultofstrictdeterminismandofthenew"scientificdeterminism" Howeverthelogicalresultofstrictdeterminismandofthenew"scientificdeterminism"isthatwearenotmorallyaccountableforouractionsandchoiceseventhosethatharmotherindividualsorsociety.Moreoverthroughouthistorymonarchsanddictatorshaveembraceddeterminismatleastostensiblytobolstertheirclaimthatcertainindividualsarepreordainedtoassumepositionsofauthorityortorisetothetoplevelsofthesocioeconomicinfrastructure.Finallythenotionofscientificdeterminismopensthedoorforgeneticengineeringwhichposesapotentialthreattoequalityinsocioeconomicopportunityandcouldleadtothedevelopmentofaso-called"masterrace."Admittedlythesedisturbingimplicationsneitherprovenordisprovethedeterminists’claims. 45.Insistenceoftreewill Iwouldconcedethatsciencemighteventuallydisprovetheverynotionoffreewill.HoweveruntilthattimeI’lltrustmystrongintuitionthatfreewillisanessentialpartofourbeingashumansandaccordinglythathumansareresponsiblefortheirownchoicesandactions. [A]Forexamplealmosteverypersonwhoclaimstobetrappedinajobissimplychoosingtoretainacertainmeasureoffinancialsecurity.Thechoicetoforegothissecurityisalwaysavailablealthoughitmightcarryunpleasantconsequences. [B]Ourcollectivelifeexperienceisthatwemakechoicesanddecisionseverydayonacontinualbasis. [C]HoweverthedilemmaseamstobeunavoidablewhichgivespeoplealotofPainfullyexperiencewithit. [D]Insumdespitethefactthatweallexperienceoccasionalfeelingsofbeingtrappedandhavingnochoicethestatementisfundamentallycorrect. [E]Recentadvancesinmolecularbiologyandgeneticslendsomecredencetothedeterminists’positionthatasphysicalbeingsouractionsaredeterminedbyphysicalforcesbeyondourcontrol.Newresearchsuggeststhatthesephysicalforcesincludeourownindividualgeneticmakeup. [F]Assumingthatneitherfreewillnordeterminismhasbeenproventobethecorrectpositiontheformeristobepreferredbyanyhumanistandinanydemocraticsociety. 42
[A]Humanhistorycontainsgreatstoriesthatcanhelpusappreciatemoreaboutpastlife. [B]Thegreatachievementcanprovidemotivationforlearners. [C]Makingusmorehumanmorethananythingelseisthepurposeofstudyinghistory. [D]Learninghistorycanleadamorecolorfullife. [E]Historycantelluswhenweshouldgiveup. [F]Historycanteachusalessonfromitsmistakes. Thespeakerallegesthatstudyinghistoryisvaluableonlyinsofarasitisrelevanttoourdailylives.Ifindthisallegationtobespecious.Itwronglysuggeststhathistoryisnototherwiseinstructiveandthatitsrelevancetooureverydaylivesislimited.Tothecontrarystudyinghistoryprovidesinspirationinnumerablelessonsforlivingandusefulvalueclarificationandperspective—allofwhichhelpusdecidehowtoliveourlives. 41.______ Tobeginwithlearningaboutgreathumanachievementsofthepastprovidesinspiration.Forexampleastudentinspiredbythecourageandtenacityofhistory’sgreatexplorersmightdecideasaresulttopursueacareerinarcheologyoceanographyorastronomy.Thisdecisioncaninturnprofoundlyaffectthatstudent’severydaylife—inschoolandbeyond.Evenforstudentsnotinclinedtopursuethesesortsofcareersstudyinghistoricalexamplesofcourageinthefaceofadversitycanprovidemotivationtofacetheirownpersonalfearsinlife.Inshortlearningaboutgrandaccomplishmentsofthepastcanhelpusgetthroughtheeverydaybusinessoflivingwhateverthatbusinessmightbebyemboldeningusandliftingourspirits. 42.______ Inadditionmistakesofthepastcanteachusasasocietyhowtoavoidrepeatingthosemistakes.Forexamplehistorycanteachustheinappropriatenessofaddressingcertainsocialissuesparticularlymoralonesonasocietallevel.AttemptstolegislatemoralityinvariablyfailasaptlyillustratedbytheProhibitionexperimentintheU.S.duringthe1930s.Hopefullyasasocietywecanapplythislessonbyadoptingamoreenlightenedlegislativeapproachtowardsuchissuesasfreespeechcriminalizationofdrugusecriminaljusticeandequalrightsunderthelaw. 43.______ Studyinghumanhistorycanalsohelpusunderstandandappreciatethemoresvaluesandidealsofpastcultures.Aheightenedawarenessofculturalevolutioninturnhelpsusformulateinformedandreflectivevaluesandidealsforourselves.Basedonthesevaluesandidealsstudentscandeterminetheirauthenticlifepathaswellashowtheyshouldallottheirtimeandinteractwithothersonaday-to-daybasis. 44.______ Finallyitmightbetemptingtoimplyfromthespeaker’sallegationthatstudyinghistoryhaslittlerelevanceevenforthemundanechoresthatoccupysomuchofourtimeeachdayandthereforeisoflittlevalue.Howeverfromhistorywelearnnottotakeeverydayactivitiesandthingsforgranted.Byunderstandingthehistoryofmoneyandbankingwecantransformanotherwiseroutinetriptothebankintoanenlightenedexperienceoravisittothegrocerystoreintoanhomagetothemanyinventorsscientistsengineersandentrepreneursofthepastwhohavemadesuchconveniencepossibletoday.Andwecanfullyappreciateourfreedomtogoaboutourdaffyliveslargelyaswechooseonlybyunderstandingourpoliticalheritage.Inshortappreciatinghistorycanservetoelevateoureverydaychorestorichermoreinterestingandmoreenjoyableexperiences. 45.______ Insumthespeakerfailstorecognizethatinallouractivitiesanddecisions--fromourgrandesttoourmostrote--historycaninspireinformguideandnurture.Inthefinalanalysistostudyhistoryistogainthecapacitytobemorehuman--andIwouldbehard-pressedtoimagineaworthierend. 46
Mostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Theproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Theprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—largenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandois17up.Twothirdsofthepopulation18coveredbymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent--abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. 4
Themid-sixtiessawthestartofaprojectthatalongwithothersimilarresearchwastoteachusagreatdealaboutthechimpanzeemind.ThiswasProjectWashoeconceivedbyTrixieandAllenGardner.TheypurchasedaninfantchimpanzeeandbegantoteachherthesignsofASLtheAmericanSignLanguageusedbythedeaf.TwentyyearsearlieranotherhusbandandwifeteamRichardandCathyHayeshadtriedwithanalmosttotallackofsuccesstoteachayoungchimpVikkitotalk.TheHayes*sundertakingtaughtusalotaboutthechimpanzeemindbutVikkialthoughshedidwellinIQtestsandwasclearlyanintelligentyoungstercouldnotlearnhumanspeech.TheGardnershoweverachievedspectacularsuccesswiththeirpupilWashoe.Notonlydidshelearnsignseasilybutshequicklybegantostringthemtogetherinmeaningfulways.Itwasclearthateachsignevokedinhermindamentalimageoftheobjectitrepresented.Ifforexampleshewasaskedinsignlanguagetofetchanappleshewouldgoandlocateanapplethatwasoutofsightinanotherroom.OtherchimpsenteredtheprojectsomestartingtheirlivesindeafsigningfamiliesbeforejoiningWashoe.AndfinallyWashoeadoptedaninfantLoulis.Hecamefromalabwherenothoughtofteachingsignshadeverpenetrated.WhenhewaswithWashoehewasgivennolessonsinlanguageacquisition—notbyhumansanyway.Yetbythetimehewaseightyearsoldhehadmadefifty-eightsignsintheircorrectcontexts.HowdidhelearnthemMostlyitseemsbyimitatingthebehaviorofWashoeandtheotherthreesigningchimpsDarMojaandTam.SometimesthoughhereceivedtuitionfromWashoeherself.Onedayforexampleshebegantoswaggeraboutbipedallyhairbristlingsigningfood!food!food!ingreatexcitement.Shehadseenahumanapproachingwithabarofchocolate.Loulisonlyeighteenmonthsoldwatchedpassively.SuddenlyWashoestoppedherswaggeringwentovertohimtookhishandandmouldedthesignforfoodfingerspointingtowardsmouth.Anothertimeinasimilarcontextshemadethesignforchewinggum—butwithherhandonhisbody.OnathirdoccasionWashoepickedupasmallchairtookitovertoLoulissetitdowninfrontofhimandverydistinctlymadethechairsignthreetimeswatchinghimcloselyasshedidso.ThetwofoodsignsbecameincorporatedintoLoulis’svocabularybutthesignforchairdidnot.Obviouslytheprioritiesofayoungchimparesimilartothoseofahumanchild!Chimpanzeeswhohavebeentaughtalanguagecancombinesignscreativelyinordertodescribeobjectsforwhichtheyhavenosymbol.Washoeforexamplepuzzledhercaretakersbyaskingrepeatedlyforarockberry.Eventuallyittranspiredthatshewasreferringtobrazilnutswhichshehadencounteredforthefirsttimeawhilebefore.Anotherlanguage-trainedchimpdescribedacucumberasagreenbanana.Theycaneveninventsigns.Lucyasshegotolderhadtobeputonaleashforheroutings.Onedayeagertosetoffbuthavingnosignforleashshesignaledherwishesbyholdingacrookedindexfingertotheringonhercollar.Thissignbecamepartofhervocabulary.ThewordtranspireinParagraph3canprobablymean______.
Mostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Theproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Theprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—largenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandois17up.Twothirdsofthepopulation18coveredbymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent--abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. 16
Mostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Theproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Theprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—largenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandois17up.Twothirdsofthepopulation18coveredbymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent--abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. 20
Mostpeoplewouldbe1bythehighqualityofmedicine2tomostAmericans.Thereisalotofspecializationagreatdealof3totheindividuala4amountofadvancedtechnicalequipmentand5effortnottomakemistakesbecauseofthefinancialriskwhichdoctorsandhospitalsmust6inthecourtsifthey7thingsbadly. ButtheAmericansareinamess.Theproblemisthewayin8healthcareisorganizedand9.10topubicbeliefitisnotjustafreecompetitionsystem.Theprivatesystemhasbeenjoinedalargepublicsystembecauseprivatecarewassimplynot11thelessfortunateandtheelderly. Butevenwiththishugepublicpartofthesystem12thisyearwilleatup84.5billiondollars—morethan10percentoftheU.S.Budget—largenumberofAmericansareleft13.Theseincludeabouthalfthe11millionunemployedandthosewhofailtomeetthestrictlimits14incomefixedbyagovernmenttryingtomakesavingswhereitcan. Thebasicproblemhoweveristhatthereisnocentralcontrol15thehealthsystem.Thereisno16towhatdoctorsandhospitalschargefortheirservicesotherthanwhatthepublicisabletopay.Thenumberofdoctorshasshotupandpriceshaveclimbed.Whenfacedwithtoothacheasickchildoraheartattackalltheunfortunatepersonsconcernedcandois17up.Twothirdsofthepopulation18coveredbymedicalinsurance.Doctorschargeasmuchastheywant19thattheinsurancecompanywillpaythebill. TherisingcostofmedicineintheU.S.A.isamongthemostworryingproblemsfacingthecountry.In1981thecountry’shealthbillclimbed15.9percent--abouttwiceasfastasprices20general. 6
Themid-sixtiessawthestartofaprojectthatalongwithothersimilarresearchwastoteachusagreatdealaboutthechimpanzeemind.ThiswasProjectWashoeconceivedbyTrixieandAllenGardner.TheypurchasedaninfantchimpanzeeandbegantoteachherthesignsofASLtheAmericanSignLanguageusedbythedeaf.TwentyyearsearlieranotherhusbandandwifeteamRichardandCathyHayeshadtriedwithanalmosttotallackofsuccesstoteachayoungchimpVikkitotalk.TheHayes*sundertakingtaughtusalotaboutthechimpanzeemindbutVikkialthoughshedidwellinIQtestsandwasclearlyanintelligentyoungstercouldnotlearnhumanspeech.TheGardnershoweverachievedspectacularsuccesswiththeirpupilWashoe.Notonlydidshelearnsignseasilybutshequicklybegantostringthemtogetherinmeaningfulways.Itwasclearthateachsignevokedinhermindamentalimageoftheobjectitrepresented.Ifforexampleshewasaskedinsignlanguagetofetchanappleshewouldgoandlocateanapplethatwasoutofsightinanotherroom.OtherchimpsenteredtheprojectsomestartingtheirlivesindeafsigningfamiliesbeforejoiningWashoe.AndfinallyWashoeadoptedaninfantLoulis.Hecamefromalabwherenothoughtofteachingsignshadeverpenetrated.WhenhewaswithWashoehewasgivennolessonsinlanguageacquisition—notbyhumansanyway.Yetbythetimehewaseightyearsoldhehadmadefifty-eightsignsintheircorrectcontexts.HowdidhelearnthemMostlyitseemsbyimitatingthebehaviorofWashoeandtheotherthreesigningchimpsDarMojaandTam.SometimesthoughhereceivedtuitionfromWashoeherself.Onedayforexampleshebegantoswaggeraboutbipedallyhairbristlingsigningfood!food!food!ingreatexcitement.Shehadseenahumanapproachingwithabarofchocolate.Loulisonlyeighteenmonthsoldwatchedpassively.SuddenlyWashoestoppedherswaggeringwentovertohimtookhishandandmouldedthesignforfoodfingerspointingtowardsmouth.Anothertimeinasimilarcontextshemadethesignforchewinggum—butwithherhandonhisbody.OnathirdoccasionWashoepickedupasmallchairtookitovertoLoulissetitdowninfrontofhimandverydistinctlymadethechairsignthreetimeswatchinghimcloselyasshedidso.ThetwofoodsignsbecameincorporatedintoLoulis’svocabularybutthesignforchairdidnot.Obviouslytheprioritiesofayoungchimparesimilartothoseofahumanchild!Chimpanzeeswhohavebeentaughtalanguagecancombinesignscreativelyinordertodescribeobjectsforwhichtheyhavenosymbol.Washoeforexamplepuzzledhercaretakersbyaskingrepeatedlyforarockberry.Eventuallyittranspiredthatshewasreferringtobrazilnutswhichshehadencounteredforthefirsttimeawhilebefore.Anotherlanguage-trainedchimpdescribedacucumberasagreenbanana.Theycaneveninventsigns.Lucyasshegotolderhadtobeputonaleashforheroutings.Onedayeagertosetoffbuthavingnosignforleashshesignaledherwishesbyholdingacrookedindexfingertotheringonhercollar.Thissignbecamepartofhervocabulary.TheexampleofWashoebeingsenttofetchanapplewhichisinanotherroomindicatesthat______.
AmericanandJapaneseresearchersaredevelopingasmartcarthatwillhelpdriversavoidaccidentsbypredictingwhentheyareabouttomakeadangerousmove. Thesmartcarofthefuturewillbeabletotellifdriversaregoingtoturnchangelanesspeedupslowdownorpassanothercar. Ifthedriver’sintendedactioncouldleadtoanaccidentthecarwillactivateawarningsystemoroverridethemove. 46"Byshiftingtheemphasisofcarsafetyawayfromdesignofthevehicleitselfandlookingmoretowardthedriver’sbehaviorthedevelopersbelievethattheycanstarttobuildcarsthatadapttosuitpeople’sneeds"NewScientistmagazinesaid.AlexPentlandoftheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologycollaboratedontheprojectwithAndrewLiuwhoworksfortheJapanesecarmakerNissan. 47Testsoftheirsmartcarusingadrivingsimulatorhaveshownthatitis95percentaccurateinpredictingadriver’smove12secondsinadvance. 48Thesystemisbasedondrivingbehaviorwhichtheresearcherssaycanbedividedintochainsofsub-actionswhichincludepreparatorymoves. Itmonitorsthedriver’sbehaviorpatternstopredictthenextmove. "TomakeitspredictionsNissan’ssmartcarusesacomputerandsensorsonthesteeringwheelacceleratorandbraketomonitoraperson’sdrivingpatterns.49Abrieftrainingsessioninwhichthedriverisaskedtoperformcertainmaneuversallowsthesystemtocalculatetheprobabilityofparticularactionsoccurringintwo-secondtimesegments"themagazinesaid. Liuhasalsodoneworkontrackingeyemovementtopredictdrivingbehavior.50Hesaidthesmartcarcouldbeadaptedtomonitoreyemovementwhichcouldgiveevenearlierpredictionsofwhenadriverisabouttomakeawrongmove. 48
ThehistoryofEnglishisconventionallyifperhapstooneatlydividedintothreeperiodsusuallycalledoldorAnglo-SaxonEnglishMiddleEnglishandModernEnglish.TheearliestperiodbeginswiththemigrationofcertainGermanictribesfromthecontinenttoBritaininthefifthcenturyA.Dthoughnorecordsoftheirlanguagesurvivefrombeforetheseventhcenturyanditcontinuesuntiltheendoftheseventhcenturyorabitlater.BythattimeLatinOldNorsethelanguageoftheVikinginvadersandespeciallytheAnglo-NormanFrenchofthedominantclassaftertheNormanConquestin1066hadbeguntohaveasubstantialimpactonthevocabularyandthewell-developedinflectionalsystemthattypifiesthegrammarofOldEnglishhadbeguntobreakdown.TheperiodofMiddleEnglishextendsroughlyformthetwelfthcenturythroughthefifteenth.TheinfluenceofFrenchandLatinoftenbywayofFrenchuponthevocabularycontinuedthroughouttheperiodthelossofsomeinflectionsandthereductionofothersacceleratedandmanychangestookplacewithinthegrammaticalsystemsofthelanguage.AtypicalprosepassagespeciallyonefromthelaterpartoftheperiodwillnothavesuchaforeignlooktousastheproseofOldEnglishbutitwillnotbemistakenforcontemporarywritingeither.TheperiodofModernEnglishextendsfromthesixteenthcenturytoourownday.TheearlypartofthisperiodsawthecompletionofarevolutioninvoweldistributionthathadbeguninlateMiddleEnglishandthateffectivelybroughtthelanguagetosomethingresemblingitspresentpattern.OtherimportantearlydevelopmentsincludethestabilizingeffectonspellingoftheprintingpressandthebeginningofthedirectinfluenceofLatinandtoalesserextentGreekonthevocabulary.LaterasEnglishcameintocontactwithotherculturesaroundtheworldanddistinctivedialectsofEnglishdevelopedinthemanyareaswhichBritainhadcolonizednumerousotherlanguagesmadesmallbutinterestingcontributionstoourword-stock.WhatisthemainfeatureofthegrammarofOldEnglish
ThehistoryofEnglishisconventionallyifperhapstooneatlydividedintothreeperiodsusuallycalledoldorAnglo-SaxonEnglishMiddleEnglishandModernEnglish.TheearliestperiodbeginswiththemigrationofcertainGermanictribesfromthecontinenttoBritaininthefifthcenturyA.Dthoughnorecordsoftheirlanguagesurvivefrombeforetheseventhcenturyanditcontinuesuntiltheendoftheseventhcenturyorabitlater.BythattimeLatinOldNorsethelanguageoftheVikinginvadersandespeciallytheAnglo-NormanFrenchofthedominantclassaftertheNormanConquestin1066hadbeguntohaveasubstantialimpactonthevocabularyandthewell-developedinflectionalsystemthattypifiesthegrammarofOldEnglishhadbeguntobreakdown.TheperiodofMiddleEnglishextendsroughlyformthetwelfthcenturythroughthefifteenth.TheinfluenceofFrenchandLatinoftenbywayofFrenchuponthevocabularycontinuedthroughouttheperiodthelossofsomeinflectionsandthereductionofothersacceleratedandmanychangestookplacewithinthegrammaticalsystemsofthelanguage.AtypicalprosepassagespeciallyonefromthelaterpartoftheperiodwillnothavesuchaforeignlooktousastheproseofOldEnglishbutitwillnotbemistakenforcontemporarywritingeither.TheperiodofModernEnglishextendsfromthesixteenthcenturytoourownday.TheearlypartofthisperiodsawthecompletionofarevolutioninvoweldistributionthathadbeguninlateMiddleEnglishandthateffectivelybroughtthelanguagetosomethingresemblingitspresentpattern.OtherimportantearlydevelopmentsincludethestabilizingeffectonspellingoftheprintingpressandthebeginningofthedirectinfluenceofLatinandtoalesserextentGreekonthevocabulary.LaterasEnglishcameintocontactwithotherculturesaroundtheworldanddistinctivedialectsofEnglishdevelopedinthemanyareaswhichBritainhadcolonizednumerousotherlanguagesmadesmallbutinterestingcontributionstoourword-stock.WhichofthefollowingisNOTmentioned
热门题库
更多
高考历史
国家统考科目
香港法概论
反间谍法
__学
合同法
证据学
民事诉讼法学
民法学
刑法学
消费者权益保护法
法理学
竞争法
国际公法
国际经济法
农村政策法规
湘公网安备 43130202000226号