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PartB Directions: Studythefollowingdrawingcareful
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AllSumeriancitiesrecognizedanumberofgodsincommonincludingtheskygodthelordofstormsandthemorningandeveningstar.1theSumerianworshippedthegoddessoffertilityloveandwarshewasevidentlylower2statusthanthemalegodsindicatingthatinamoreurbanizedsocietythe3thatthepeoplesofprevioustimeshadpaidtotheearthmothergoddesshad4.Thegodsseemedhopelesslyviolentand5andone’slifeaperiodofslaveryattheireasywill.TheepicpoemTheCreationemphasizesthat6werecreatedtoenablethegodsto7upworking.Eachcitymoreoverhaditsowngodwhowasconsideredto8thetempleliterallyandwhowasintheorytheownerofallpropertywithinthecity.9thepriestswhointerpretedthewillofthegodandcontrolledthe10oftheeconomicproduceofthecitywerefavored11theirsupernaturalandmaterialfunctions12.Whenafter3000B.C.growingwarfareamongthecitiesmademilitaryleadership13theheadofthearmywhobecamekingassumedan14positionbetweenthegodwhoseagenthewasandthepriestlyclasswhomhehadbothtouseandto15Thuskingandpriestsrepresentedtheupperclassinahierarchicalsociety.16themwerethescribesthesecularattendantsofthetemplewho17everyaspectofthecity’seconomiclifeandwhodevelopedaroughjudicialsystem.18thetempleofficialssocietywasdividedamonganeliteor19groupoflargelandownersandmilitaryleaders;amixedgroupofmerchantsartisansandcraftsmenfreepeasantswho20themajorityofthepopulation;andslaves. 2
UntilabouttwomillionyearsagoAfrica’svegetationhadalwaysbeencontrolledbytheinteractionsofclimate;geologysoilandgroundwaterconditions;andtheactivitiesofanimals.Theadditionofhumanstothelattergrouphoweverhasincreasinglyrenderedunrealtheconceptofafullydeveloped"natural"vegetation--i.e.oneapproximatingtheidealofavegetationalclimax.41_____________________.EarlyattemptsatmappingandclassifyingAfrica’svegetationstressedthisrelationship:sometimesthenamesofplantzoneswerederiveddirectlyfromclimates.Inthisdiscussiontheideaofzonesisretainedonlyinabroaddescriptivesense. 42_____________________.Inadditionovertimemorefloralregionsofvaryingshapeandsizehavebeenrecognized.Manyschemeshavearisensuccessivelyallofwhichhavehadtotakeviewsontwoimportantaspects:thegeneralscaleoftreatmenttobeadoptedandthedegreetowhichhumanmodificationistobecomprehendedordiscounted. 43_____________________.Quitetheoppositeassumptionisnowfrequentlyadvanced.Anintimatecombinationofmanyspecies--incomplexassociationsandrelatedtolocalizedsoilsslopesanddrainage--hasbeendetailedinmanystudiesoftheAfricantropics.InafewsquaremilestheremaybeavisiblesuccessionfromswampwithpapyrusthegrassofwhichtheancientEgyptiansmadepaperandfromwhichtheword"paper"originatedthroughswampygrasslandandbroad-leavedwoodlandandgrasstoapatchofforestonricherhillsidesoilandfinallytojuicyfleshyplantsonanearlynakedrocksummit. 44_____________________.Correspondinglyclassificationshavedifferedgreatlyintheirprinciplesfornaminggroupinganddescribingformations:somehavechosentermssuchasforestwoodlandthornbushthicketandshrubformuchofthesamebroadtractsthatothershavegroupedaswoodedsavannatreelessgrassyplainandsteppegrassyplainwithfewtrees.ThisisbestseeninthenomenclaturenamingofplantsadoptedbytwoofthemostcomprehensiveandauthoritativemapsofAfrica’svegetationthathavebeenpublished:R.W.J.Keay’sVegetationMapofAfricaSouthoftheTropicofCanceranditsmorewidelybasedsuccessorTheVegetationMapofAfricacompiledbyFrankWhite.IntheKeaymaptheterms"savanna"and"steppe"wereadoptedasprecisedefinitionofformationsbasedontheherblayerandthecoverageofwoodyvegetation;theWhitemaphoweverdiscardedthesetwocategoriesasspecificclassifications.Yetanyrapidabsenceofsavannaasinitspopularandmoregeneralsenseisdoubtful. 45_____________________.Howeversome100specifictypesofvegetationidentifiedonthesourcemaphavebeencompressedinto14broaderclassifications. [A]AsmorehasbecomeknownofthemanythousandsofAfricanplantspeciesandtheircomplexecologynamingclassificationandmappinghavealsobee0memoreparticularstressingwhatwasactuallypresentratherthanpostulatingaboutclimaticpotential. [B]InregionsofhigherrainfallsuchaseasternAfricasavannavegetationismaintainedbyperiodicfires.Consumingdrygrassattheendoftherainyseasonthefiresburnbacktheforestvegetationchecktheinvasionoftreesandshrubsandstimulatenewgrassgrowth. [C]OnceaswiththescientifictreatmentofAfricansoilsamuchgreateruniformitywasattributedtothevegetationthanwouldhavebeengenerallyacceptedinthesameperiodfortreatmentsofthelandsofwesternEuropeortheUnitedStates. [D]ThevegetationalmapofAfricaandgeneralvegetationgroupingsusedherefollowtheWhitemapanditsextensiveannotations. [E]Africanvegetationzonesarecloselylinkedtoclimaticzoneswiththesamezonesoccurringbothnorthandsouthoftheequatorinbroadlysimilarpatterns.Aswithclimaticzonesdifferencesintheamountandseasonaldistributionofprecipitationconstitutethemostimportantinfluenceonthedevelopmentofvegetation. [F]Neverthelessinbroadtermsclimateremainsthedominantcontrolovervegetation.ZonalbeltsofprecipitationreflectionlatitudeandcontrastingexposuretotheAtlanticandIndianoceansandtheircurrentsgivesomerealitytorelatedbeltsofvegetation. [G]ThespanofhumanoccupationinAfricaisbelievedtoexceedthatofanyothercontinent.Alltheresultantactivitieshavetendedonbalancetoreducetreecoverandincreasegrassland;buttherehasbeenconsiderabledisputeamongscholarsconcerningthenaturalversushuman-causeddevelopmentofmostAfricangrasslandsattheregionallevel. 44
AllSumeriancitiesrecognizedanumberofgodsincommonincludingtheskygodthelordofstormsandthemorningandeveningstar.1theSumerianworshippedthegoddessoffertilityloveandwarshewasevidentlylower2statusthanthemalegodsindicatingthatinamoreurbanizedsocietythe3thatthepeoplesofprevioustimeshadpaidtotheearthmothergoddesshad4.Thegodsseemedhopelesslyviolentand5andone’slifeaperiodofslaveryattheireasywill.TheepicpoemTheCreationemphasizesthat6werecreatedtoenablethegodsto7upworking.Eachcitymoreoverhaditsowngodwhowasconsideredto8thetempleliterallyandwhowasintheorytheownerofallpropertywithinthecity.9thepriestswhointerpretedthewillofthegodandcontrolledthe10oftheeconomicproduceofthecitywerefavored11theirsupernaturalandmaterialfunctions12.Whenafter3000B.C.growingwarfareamongthecitiesmademilitaryleadership13theheadofthearmywhobecamekingassumedan14positionbetweenthegodwhoseagenthewasandthepriestlyclasswhomhehadbothtouseandto15Thuskingandpriestsrepresentedtheupperclassinahierarchicalsociety.16themwerethescribesthesecularattendantsofthetemplewho17everyaspectofthecity’seconomiclifeandwhodevelopedaroughjudicialsystem.18thetempleofficialssocietywasdividedamonganeliteor19groupoflargelandownersandmilitaryleaders;amixedgroupofmerchantsartisansandcraftsmenfreepeasantswho20themajorityofthepopulation;andslaves. 16
AllSumeriancitiesrecognizedanumberofgodsincommonincludingtheskygodthelordofstormsandthemorningandeveningstar.1theSumerianworshippedthegoddessoffertilityloveandwarshewasevidentlylower2statusthanthemalegodsindicatingthatinamoreurbanizedsocietythe3thatthepeoplesofprevioustimeshadpaidtotheearthmothergoddesshad4.Thegodsseemedhopelesslyviolentand5andone’slifeaperiodofslaveryattheireasywill.TheepicpoemTheCreationemphasizesthat6werecreatedtoenablethegodsto7upworking.Eachcitymoreoverhaditsowngodwhowasconsideredto8thetempleliterallyandwhowasintheorytheownerofallpropertywithinthecity.9thepriestswhointerpretedthewillofthegodandcontrolledthe10oftheeconomicproduceofthecitywerefavored11theirsupernaturalandmaterialfunctions12.Whenafter3000B.C.growingwarfareamongthecitiesmademilitaryleadership13theheadofthearmywhobecamekingassumedan14positionbetweenthegodwhoseagenthewasandthepriestlyclasswhomhehadbothtouseandto15Thuskingandpriestsrepresentedtheupperclassinahierarchicalsociety.16themwerethescribesthesecularattendantsofthetemplewho17everyaspectofthecity’seconomiclifeandwhodevelopedaroughjudicialsystem.18thetempleofficialssocietywasdividedamonganeliteor19groupoflargelandownersandmilitaryleaders;amixedgroupofmerchantsartisansandcraftsmenfreepeasantswho20themajorityofthepopulation;andslaves. 12
Scholasticthinkersheldawidevarietyofdoctrinesinbothphilosophyandtheologythestudyofreligion.WhatgivesunitytothewholeScholasticmovementtheacademicpracticeinEuropefromthe9thtothe17thcenturiesarethecommonaimsattitudesandmethodsgenerallyacceptedbyallitsmembers.ThechiefconcernoftheScholasticswasnettodiscovernewfactsbuttointegratetheknowledgealreadyacquiredseparatelybyGreekreasoningandChristianrevelation.ThisconcernisoneofthemostcharacteristicdifferencesbetweenScholasticismandmodernthoughtsincetheRenaissance.ThebasicaimoftheScholasticsdeterminedcertaincommonattitudesthemostimportantofwhichwastheirconvictionofthefundamentalharmonybetweenreasonandrevelation.TheScholasticsmaintainedthatbecausethesameGodwasthesourceofbothtypesofknowledgeandtruthwasoneofhischiefattributeshecouldnotcontradicthimselfinthesetwowaysofspeaking.Anyapparentoppositionbetweenrevelationandreasoncouldbetracedeithertoanincorrectuseofreasonortoaninaccurateinterpretationofthewordsofrevelation.BecausetheScholasticsbelievedthatrevelationwasthedirectteachingofGoditpossessedforthemahigherdegreeoftruthandcertaintythandidnaturalreason.Inapparentconflictsbetweenreligiousfaithandphilosophicreasoningfaithwasthusalwaysthesupremearbiter;thetheologian’sdecisionoverruledthatofthephilosopher.Aftertheearly13thcenturyScholasticthoughtemphasizedmoretheindependenceofphilosophywithinitsowndomain.NonethelessthroughouttheScholasticperiodphilosophywascalledtheservantoftheologynotonlybecausethetruthofphilosophywassubordinatedtothatoftheologybutalsobecausethetheologianusedphilosophytounderstandandexplainrevelation.ThisattitudeofScholasticismstandsinsharpcontrasttotheso-calleddouble-truththeoryoftheSpanishArabphilosopherandphysicianAverroes.HistheoryassumedthattruthwasaccessibletobothphilosophyandIslamictheologybutthatonlyphilosophycouldattainitperfectly.Theso-calledtruthsoftheologyservedhenceasimperfectimaginativeexpressionsforthecommonpeopleoftheauthentictruthaccessibleonlytophilosophy.Averroe’smaintainedthatphilosophictruthcouldevencontradictatleastverballytheteachingsofIslamictheology.AsaresultoftheirbeliefintheharmonybetweenfaithandreasontheScholasticsattemptedtodeterminetheprecisescopeandcompetenceofeachofthesefaculties.ManyearlyScholasticssuchastheItalianecclesiasticandphilosopherSt.Anselmdidnotclearlydistinguishthetwoandwereoverconfidentthatreasoncouldprovecertaindoctrinesofrevelation.LaterattheheightofthematureperiodofScholasticismtheItaliantheologianandphilosopherSt.ThomasAquinasworkedoutabalancebetweenreasonandrevelation.Averroesheldthat
AllSumeriancitiesrecognizedanumberofgodsincommonincludingtheskygodthelordofstormsandthemorningandeveningstar.1theSumerianworshippedthegoddessoffertilityloveandwarshewasevidentlylower2statusthanthemalegodsindicatingthatinamoreurbanizedsocietythe3thatthepeoplesofprevioustimeshadpaidtotheearthmothergoddesshad4.Thegodsseemedhopelesslyviolentand5andone’slifeaperiodofslaveryattheireasywill.TheepicpoemTheCreationemphasizesthat6werecreatedtoenablethegodsto7upworking.Eachcitymoreoverhaditsowngodwhowasconsideredto8thetempleliterallyandwhowasintheorytheownerofallpropertywithinthecity.9thepriestswhointerpretedthewillofthegodandcontrolledthe10oftheeconomicproduceofthecitywerefavored11theirsupernaturalandmaterialfunctions12.Whenafter3000B.C.growingwarfareamongthecitiesmademilitaryleadership13theheadofthearmywhobecamekingassumedan14positionbetweenthegodwhoseagenthewasandthepriestlyclasswhomhehadbothtouseandto15Thuskingandpriestsrepresentedtheupperclassinahierarchicalsociety.16themwerethescribesthesecularattendantsofthetemplewho17everyaspectofthecity’seconomiclifeandwhodevelopedaroughjudicialsystem.18thetempleofficialssocietywasdividedamonganeliteor19groupoflargelandownersandmilitaryleaders;amixedgroupofmerchantsartisansandcraftsmenfreepeasantswho20themajorityofthepopulation;andslaves. 10
AtthestartoftheyearTheIndependentonSundayarguedthattherewerethreeoverwhelmingreasonswhyIraqshouldnotbeinvaded:therewasnoproofthatSaddamposedanimminentthreat;Iraqwouldbeevenmoreunstableasaresultofitsliberation;andaconflictwouldincreasethethreatposedbyterrorists.WhatwedidnotknowwasthatTonyBlairhadreceivedintelligenceandadvicethatraisedtheverysamepoints.Lastweek’sreportfromtheIntelligenceandSecurityCommitteeincludedtherevelationthatsomeoftheintelligencehadwarnedthatawaragainstIraqriskedanincreasedthreatofterrorism.WhydidMr.BlairnotmakethisevidenceavailabletothepublicinthewaythatsomuchofthealarmistintelligenceonSaddam’sweaponswaspublishedWhydidhechoosetoignoretheintelligenceandargueinsteadthatthewarwasnecessarypreciselybecauseofthethreatposedbyinternationalterrorismTherehavebeentwoparliamentaryinvestigationsintothiswarandtheHuttoninquirywillreopentomorrow.Intheirdifferentwaystheyhavebeenilluminatingbutnoneofthemhasaddressedthemainissuesrelatingtothewar.TheForeignAffairsCommitteehadthescopetorangewidelybutchosetobecomeentangledinthedisputebetweentheGovernmentandtheBBC.TheIntelligenceCommitteereachedtheconclusionthattheGovernment’sfileonSaddam’sweaponswasnotmixedupbutfailedtoexplainwhytheintelligencewassohopelesslywrong.TheHuttoninquiryisinvestigatingthedeathofDr.DavidKellyapersonaltragedyofmarginalrelevancetothewaragainstIraq.TonyBlairhasstilltocomeundercloseexaminationabouthisconductinthebuilding-uptowar.InsteadtheDefenceSecretaryGeoffHoonisbeingfingeredasifheweremaster-mindingthewarbehindeveryone’sbacksfromtheMinistry’ofDefence.Mr.HoonisnotaministerwhodarestothinkwithoutconsultingDowningStreetfirst.AtalltimeshewouldhavebeendancingtoDowningStreet’stunesMr.BlairwouldbewrongtoassumethathecandrawalineunderallofthisbymakingMr.Hoonthefall-guy.ItwasMr.BlairwhodecidedtotakeBritaintowarandaCabinetoflargelyskepticalministersthatbackedhim.ItwasMr.BlairwhotoldMPsthatunlessSaddamwasremovedterroristswouldposeagreaterglobalthreat--eventhoughhehadreceivedintelligencethatsuggestedawarwouldleadtoanincreaseinterrorism.ParliamentshouldbetheforuminwhichthePrimeMinisteriscalledmorefullytoaccountbutlainDuncanSmith’ssupportforthewarhasneuteredanalreadyineptopposition.IntheabsenceofproperparliamentaryscrutinyitislefttonewspaperslikethisonetokeepaskingthemostimportantquestionsuntilthePrimeMinisteranswersthem.Welearnfromthefirsttwoparagraphsthat
AllSumeriancitiesrecognizedanumberofgodsincommonincludingtheskygodthelordofstormsandthemorningandeveningstar.1theSumerianworshippedthegoddessoffertilityloveandwarshewasevidentlylower2statusthanthemalegodsindicatingthatinamoreurbanizedsocietythe3thatthepeoplesofprevioustimeshadpaidtotheearthmothergoddesshad4.Thegodsseemedhopelesslyviolentand5andone’slifeaperiodofslaveryattheireasywill.TheepicpoemTheCreationemphasizesthat6werecreatedtoenablethegodsto7upworking.Eachcitymoreoverhaditsowngodwhowasconsideredto8thetempleliterallyandwhowasintheorytheownerofallpropertywithinthecity.9thepriestswhointerpretedthewillofthegodandcontrolledthe10oftheeconomicproduceofthecitywerefavored11theirsupernaturalandmaterialfunctions12.Whenafter3000B.C.growingwarfareamongthecitiesmademilitaryleadership13theheadofthearmywhobecamekingassumedan14positionbetweenthegodwhoseagenthewasandthepriestlyclasswhomhehadbothtouseandto15Thuskingandpriestsrepresentedtheupperclassinahierarchicalsociety.16themwerethescribesthesecularattendantsofthetemplewho17everyaspectofthecity’seconomiclifeandwhodevelopedaroughjudicialsystem.18thetempleofficialssocietywasdividedamonganeliteor19groupoflargelandownersandmilitaryleaders;amixedgroupofmerchantsartisansandcraftsmenfreepeasantswho20themajorityofthepopulation;andslaves. 18
AtthestartoftheyearTheIndependentonSundayarguedthattherewerethreeoverwhelmingreasonswhyIraqshouldnotbeinvaded:therewasnoproofthatSaddamposedanimminentthreat;Iraqwouldbeevenmoreunstableasaresultofitsliberation;andaconflictwouldincreasethethreatposedbyterrorists.WhatwedidnotknowwasthatTonyBlairhadreceivedintelligenceandadvicethatraisedtheverysamepoints.Lastweek’sreportfromtheIntelligenceandSecurityCommitteeincludedtherevelationthatsomeoftheintelligencehadwarnedthatawaragainstIraqriskedanincreasedthreatofterrorism.WhydidMr.BlairnotmakethisevidenceavailabletothepublicinthewaythatsomuchofthealarmistintelligenceonSaddam’sweaponswaspublishedWhydidhechoosetoignoretheintelligenceandargueinsteadthatthewarwasnecessarypreciselybecauseofthethreatposedbyinternationalterrorismTherehavebeentwoparliamentaryinvestigationsintothiswarandtheHuttoninquirywillreopentomorrow.Intheirdifferentwaystheyhavebeenilluminatingbutnoneofthemhasaddressedthemainissuesrelatingtothewar.TheForeignAffairsCommitteehadthescopetorangewidelybutchosetobecomeentangledinthedisputebetweentheGovernmentandtheBBC.TheIntelligenceCommitteereachedtheconclusionthattheGovernment’sfileonSaddam’sweaponswasnotmixedupbutfailedtoexplainwhytheintelligencewassohopelesslywrong.TheHuttoninquiryisinvestigatingthedeathofDr.DavidKellyapersonaltragedyofmarginalrelevancetothewaragainstIraq.TonyBlairhasstilltocomeundercloseexaminationabouthisconductinthebuilding-uptowar.InsteadtheDefenceSecretaryGeoffHoonisbeingfingeredasifheweremaster-mindingthewarbehindeveryone’sbacksfromtheMinistry’ofDefence.Mr.HoonisnotaministerwhodarestothinkwithoutconsultingDowningStreetfirst.AtalltimeshewouldhavebeendancingtoDowningStreet’stunesMr.BlairwouldbewrongtoassumethathecandrawalineunderallofthisbymakingMr.Hoonthefall-guy.ItwasMr.BlairwhodecidedtotakeBritaintowarandaCabinetoflargelyskepticalministersthatbackedhim.ItwasMr.BlairwhotoldMPsthatunlessSaddamwasremovedterroristswouldposeagreaterglobalthreat--eventhoughhehadreceivedintelligencethatsuggestedawarwouldleadtoanincreaseinterrorism.ParliamentshouldbetheforuminwhichthePrimeMinisteriscalledmorefullytoaccountbutlainDuncanSmith’ssupportforthewarhasneuteredanalreadyineptopposition.IntheabsenceofproperparliamentaryscrutinyitislefttonewspaperslikethisonetokeepaskingthemostimportantquestionsuntilthePrimeMinisteranswersthem.BychosetobecomeentangledLine3Para.3theauthorimpliesthat
AllSumeriancitiesrecognizedanumberofgodsincommonincludingtheskygodthelordofstormsandthemorningandeveningstar.1theSumerianworshippedthegoddessoffertilityloveandwarshewasevidentlylower2statusthanthemalegodsindicatingthatinamoreurbanizedsocietythe3thatthepeoplesofprevioustimeshadpaidtotheearthmothergoddesshad4.Thegodsseemedhopelesslyviolentand5andone’slifeaperiodofslaveryattheireasywill.TheepicpoemTheCreationemphasizesthat6werecreatedtoenablethegodsto7upworking.Eachcitymoreoverhaditsowngodwhowasconsideredto8thetempleliterallyandwhowasintheorytheownerofallpropertywithinthecity.9thepriestswhointerpretedthewillofthegodandcontrolledthe10oftheeconomicproduceofthecitywerefavored11theirsupernaturalandmaterialfunctions12.Whenafter3000B.C.growingwarfareamongthecitiesmademilitaryleadership13theheadofthearmywhobecamekingassumedan14positionbetweenthegodwhoseagenthewasandthepriestlyclasswhomhehadbothtouseandto15Thuskingandpriestsrepresentedtheupperclassinahierarchicalsociety.16themwerethescribesthesecularattendantsofthetemplewho17everyaspectofthecity’seconomiclifeandwhodevelopedaroughjudicialsystem.18thetempleofficialssocietywasdividedamonganeliteor19groupoflargelandownersandmilitaryleaders;amixedgroupofmerchantsartisansandcraftsmenfreepeasantswho20themajorityofthepopulation;andslaves. 4
Scholasticthinkersheldawidevarietyofdoctrinesinbothphilosophyandtheologythestudyofreligion.WhatgivesunitytothewholeScholasticmovementtheacademicpracticeinEuropefromthe9thtothe17thcenturiesarethecommonaimsattitudesandmethodsgenerallyacceptedbyallitsmembers.ThechiefconcernoftheScholasticswasnettodiscovernewfactsbuttointegratetheknowledgealreadyacquiredseparatelybyGreekreasoningandChristianrevelation.ThisconcernisoneofthemostcharacteristicdifferencesbetweenScholasticismandmodernthoughtsincetheRenaissance.ThebasicaimoftheScholasticsdeterminedcertaincommonattitudesthemostimportantofwhichwastheirconvictionofthefundamentalharmonybetweenreasonandrevelation.TheScholasticsmaintainedthatbecausethesameGodwasthesourceofbothtypesofknowledgeandtruthwasoneofhischiefattributeshecouldnotcontradicthimselfinthesetwowaysofspeaking.Anyapparentoppositionbetweenrevelationandreasoncouldbetracedeithertoanincorrectuseofreasonortoaninaccurateinterpretationofthewordsofrevelation.BecausetheScholasticsbelievedthatrevelationwasthedirectteachingofGoditpossessedforthemahigherdegreeoftruthandcertaintythandidnaturalreason.Inapparentconflictsbetweenreligiousfaithandphilosophicreasoningfaithwasthusalwaysthesupremearbiter;thetheologian’sdecisionoverruledthatofthephilosopher.Aftertheearly13thcenturyScholasticthoughtemphasizedmoretheindependenceofphilosophywithinitsowndomain.NonethelessthroughouttheScholasticperiodphilosophywascalledtheservantoftheologynotonlybecausethetruthofphilosophywassubordinatedtothatoftheologybutalsobecausethetheologianusedphilosophytounderstandandexplainrevelation.ThisattitudeofScholasticismstandsinsharpcontrasttotheso-calleddouble-truththeoryoftheSpanishArabphilosopherandphysicianAverroes.HistheoryassumedthattruthwasaccessibletobothphilosophyandIslamictheologybutthatonlyphilosophycouldattainitperfectly.Theso-calledtruthsoftheologyservedhenceasimperfectimaginativeexpressionsforthecommonpeopleoftheauthentictruthaccessibleonlytophilosophy.Averroe’smaintainedthatphilosophictruthcouldevencontradictatleastverballytheteachingsofIslamictheology.AsaresultoftheirbeliefintheharmonybetweenfaithandreasontheScholasticsattemptedtodeterminetheprecisescopeandcompetenceofeachofthesefaculties.ManyearlyScholasticssuchastheItalianecclesiasticandphilosopherSt.Anselmdidnotclearlydistinguishthetwoandwereoverconfidentthatreasoncouldprovecertaindoctrinesofrevelation.LaterattheheightofthematureperiodofScholasticismtheItaliantheologianandphilosopherSt.ThomasAquinasworkedoutabalancebetweenreasonandrevelation.Whichofthefollowingbestillustratetherelationbetweenreasonandrevelation
UntilabouttwomillionyearsagoAfrica’svegetationhadalwaysbeencontrolledbytheinteractionsofclimate;geologysoilandgroundwaterconditions;andtheactivitiesofanimals.Theadditionofhumanstothelattergrouphoweverhasincreasinglyrenderedunrealtheconceptofafullydeveloped"natural"vegetation--i.e.oneapproximatingtheidealofavegetationalclimax.41_____________________.EarlyattemptsatmappingandclassifyingAfrica’svegetationstressedthisrelationship:sometimesthenamesofplantzoneswerederiveddirectlyfromclimates.Inthisdiscussiontheideaofzonesisretainedonlyinabroaddescriptivesense. 42_____________________.Inadditionovertimemorefloralregionsofvaryingshapeandsizehavebeenrecognized.Manyschemeshavearisensuccessivelyallofwhichhavehadtotakeviewsontwoimportantaspects:thegeneralscaleoftreatmenttobeadoptedandthedegreetowhichhumanmodificationistobecomprehendedordiscounted. 43_____________________.Quitetheoppositeassumptionisnowfrequentlyadvanced.Anintimatecombinationofmanyspecies--incomplexassociationsandrelatedtolocalizedsoilsslopesanddrainage--hasbeendetailedinmanystudiesoftheAfricantropics.InafewsquaremilestheremaybeavisiblesuccessionfromswampwithpapyrusthegrassofwhichtheancientEgyptiansmadepaperandfromwhichtheword"paper"originatedthroughswampygrasslandandbroad-leavedwoodlandandgrasstoapatchofforestonricherhillsidesoilandfinallytojuicyfleshyplantsonanearlynakedrocksummit. 44_____________________.Correspondinglyclassificationshavedifferedgreatlyintheirprinciplesfornaminggroupinganddescribingformations:somehavechosentermssuchasforestwoodlandthornbushthicketandshrubformuchofthesamebroadtractsthatothershavegroupedaswoodedsavannatreelessgrassyplainandsteppegrassyplainwithfewtrees.ThisisbestseeninthenomenclaturenamingofplantsadoptedbytwoofthemostcomprehensiveandauthoritativemapsofAfrica’svegetationthathavebeenpublished:R.W.J.Keay’sVegetationMapofAfricaSouthoftheTropicofCanceranditsmorewidelybasedsuccessorTheVegetationMapofAfricacompiledbyFrankWhite.IntheKeaymaptheterms"savanna"and"steppe"wereadoptedasprecisedefinitionofformationsbasedontheherblayerandthecoverageofwoodyvegetation;theWhitemaphoweverdiscardedthesetwocategoriesasspecificclassifications.Yetanyrapidabsenceofsavannaasinitspopularandmoregeneralsenseisdoubtful. 45_____________________.Howeversome100specifictypesofvegetationidentifiedonthesourcemaphavebeencompressedinto14broaderclassifications. [A]AsmorehasbecomeknownofthemanythousandsofAfricanplantspeciesandtheircomplexecologynamingclassificationandmappinghavealsobee0memoreparticularstressingwhatwasactuallypresentratherthanpostulatingaboutclimaticpotential. [B]InregionsofhigherrainfallsuchaseasternAfricasavannavegetationismaintainedbyperiodicfires.Consumingdrygrassattheendoftherainyseasonthefiresburnbacktheforestvegetationchecktheinvasionoftreesandshrubsandstimulatenewgrassgrowth. [C]OnceaswiththescientifictreatmentofAfricansoilsamuchgreateruniformitywasattributedtothevegetationthanwouldhavebeengenerallyacceptedinthesameperiodfortreatmentsofthelandsofwesternEuropeortheUnitedStates. [D]ThevegetationalmapofAfricaandgeneralvegetationgroupingsusedherefollowtheWhitemapanditsextensiveannotations. [E]Africanvegetationzonesarecloselylinkedtoclimaticzoneswiththesamezonesoccurringbothnorthandsouthoftheequatorinbroadlysimilarpatterns.Aswithclimaticzonesdifferencesintheamountandseasonaldistributionofprecipitationconstitutethemostimportantinfluenceonthedevelopmentofvegetation. [F]Neverthelessinbroadtermsclimateremainsthedominantcontrolovervegetation.ZonalbeltsofprecipitationreflectionlatitudeandcontrastingexposuretotheAtlanticandIndianoceansandtheircurrentsgivesomerealitytorelatedbeltsofvegetation. [G]ThespanofhumanoccupationinAfricaisbelievedtoexceedthatofanyothercontinent.Alltheresultantactivitieshavetendedonbalancetoreducetreecoverandincreasegrassland;buttherehasbeenconsiderabledisputeamongscholarsconcerningthenaturalversushuman-causeddevelopmentofmostAfricangrasslandsattheregionallevel. 42
AtthestartoftheyearTheIndependentonSundayarguedthattherewerethreeoverwhelmingreasonswhyIraqshouldnotbeinvaded:therewasnoproofthatSaddamposedanimminentthreat;Iraqwouldbeevenmoreunstableasaresultofitsliberation;andaconflictwouldincreasethethreatposedbyterrorists.WhatwedidnotknowwasthatTonyBlairhadreceivedintelligenceandadvicethatraisedtheverysamepoints.Lastweek’sreportfromtheIntelligenceandSecurityCommitteeincludedtherevelationthatsomeoftheintelligencehadwarnedthatawaragainstIraqriskedanincreasedthreatofterrorism.WhydidMr.BlairnotmakethisevidenceavailabletothepublicinthewaythatsomuchofthealarmistintelligenceonSaddam’sweaponswaspublishedWhydidhechoosetoignoretheintelligenceandargueinsteadthatthewarwasnecessarypreciselybecauseofthethreatposedbyinternationalterrorismTherehavebeentwoparliamentaryinvestigationsintothiswarandtheHuttoninquirywillreopentomorrow.Intheirdifferentwaystheyhavebeenilluminatingbutnoneofthemhasaddressedthemainissuesrelatingtothewar.TheForeignAffairsCommitteehadthescopetorangewidelybutchosetobecomeentangledinthedisputebetweentheGovernmentandtheBBC.TheIntelligenceCommitteereachedtheconclusionthattheGovernment’sfileonSaddam’sweaponswasnotmixedupbutfailedtoexplainwhytheintelligencewassohopelesslywrong.TheHuttoninquiryisinvestigatingthedeathofDr.DavidKellyapersonaltragedyofmarginalrelevancetothewaragainstIraq.TonyBlairhasstilltocomeundercloseexaminationabouthisconductinthebuilding-uptowar.InsteadtheDefenceSecretaryGeoffHoonisbeingfingeredasifheweremaster-mindingthewarbehindeveryone’sbacksfromtheMinistry’ofDefence.Mr.HoonisnotaministerwhodarestothinkwithoutconsultingDowningStreetfirst.AtalltimeshewouldhavebeendancingtoDowningStreet’stunesMr.BlairwouldbewrongtoassumethathecandrawalineunderallofthisbymakingMr.Hoonthefall-guy.ItwasMr.BlairwhodecidedtotakeBritaintowarandaCabinetoflargelyskepticalministersthatbackedhim.ItwasMr.BlairwhotoldMPsthatunlessSaddamwasremovedterroristswouldposeagreaterglobalthreat--eventhoughhehadreceivedintelligencethatsuggestedawarwouldleadtoanincreaseinterrorism.ParliamentshouldbetheforuminwhichthePrimeMinisteriscalledmorefullytoaccountbutlainDuncanSmith’ssupportforthewarhasneuteredanalreadyineptopposition.IntheabsenceofproperparliamentaryscrutinyitislefttonewspaperslikethisonetokeepaskingthemostimportantquestionsuntilthePrimeMinisteranswersthem.Whatistheauthor’sattitudetowardstheParliament
Despitethegeneralnegativefindingsitisimportanttorememberthatallchildrenwholivethroughadivorcedonotbehaveinthesameway.Thespecificbehaviordependsonthechild’sindividualpersonalitycharacteristicsageatthetimeofdivorceandgender.Intermsofpersonalitywhencomparedtothoseratedasrelaxedandeasygoingchildrendescribedastemperamentalandirritablehavemoredifficultycopingwithparentaldivorceasindeedtheyhavemoredifficultyadaptingtolifechangeingeneral.Stresssuchasthatfoundindisruptedfamiliesseemstoimpairtheabilityoftemperamentalchildrentoadapttotheirsurroundingsthegreatertheamountofstressthelesswelltheyadapt.Incontrastamoderateamountofstressmayactuallyhelpaneasygoingrelaxedchildlearntocopewithadversity.Thereissomerelationshipbetweenageandchildren’scharacteristicreactiontodivorce.AsthechildgrowsolderthegreateristhelikelihoodofafreeexpressionofavarietyofcomplexfeelingsanunderstandingofthosefeelingsandarealizationthatthedecisiontodivorcecannotbeattributedtoanyonesimplecauseSelf-blamevirtuallydisappearsaftertheageof6fearofabandonmentdiminishesaftertheageof8andtheconfusionandfearoftheyoungchildisreplacedintheolderchildbyshameangerandself-reflection.GenderofthechildisalsoafactorthatpredictsthenatureofreactiontodivorceTheimpactofdivorceisinitiallygreateronboysthanongirls.Theyaremoreaggressivelesscomplianthavegreaterdifficultiesininterpersonalrelationshipsandexhibitproblembehaviorsbothathomeandatschool.Furthermoretheadjustmentproblemsofboysarestillnoticeableeventwoyearsafterthedivorce.Girls’adjustmentproblemsareusuallyinternalizedratherthanactedoutandareoftenresolvedbythesecondyearafterthedivorce.Howevernewproblemsmaysurfaceforgirlsastheyenteradolescenceandadulthood.HowcantherelativelygreaterimpactofdivorceonboysthanongirlsbeexplainedThegreatermaleaggressionandnoncompliancemayreflectthefactthatsuchbehaviorsaretoleratedandevenencouragedinmalesinourculturemorethantheyareinfemales.Furthermoreboysmayhaveaparticularneedforastrongmalemodelofself-controlaswellasforastrongdisciplinarianparent.Finallyboysaremorelikelytobeexposedtotheirparents’fightsthangirlsareandafterthebreakupboysarelesslikelythangirlstoreceivesympathyandsupportfrommothersteachersorpeers.Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheimpactofdivorce
Directions: Enormouschangestookplaceinthelasttwodecadesofthe20thcenturywhichisrevealedinthechangesondinertables.Herearetwopairsofpictures.Youarerequiredto 1describethepictures 2interpretthepicturesand 3makeacommentuponit. Youshouldwriteabout200wordsneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.
Oneofthemostimportantresultsofresearchintoageinghasbeentopinpointthesignificanceofshort-termmemory.Thisfacultyiseasily1asageingadvances.Whatseemsto2isthatinformationisreceivedbythebrain3scansitformeaninginordertodecodeitatsomefuturetime.Itlooksasiftheactual4oftheshort-termmemoryitselfmaynotchangetoomuch5age.Ayoungmanandamaninhislatefiftiesmay6beabletorememberandrepeatan7ofeightnumbersrecitedtothem.Butwhat8changeisthatwhentheoldermanisaskedtorememberanything9betweenthetimeheisfirstgiventhenumberstomemoriseandthetimeheisaskedto10themhewillbemuchlesslikelytorememberthe11numbersthantheyoungman.Thisisbecausethescanningstageismoreeasily12byotheractivitiesin13people. In14livingoneexperiencesthisasafairlyminor15--atelephonenumberforgottenwhileonelooks16anareacodeorthefirstpartof17streetdirectionsconfusedwiththelastbecausethelast’turnlefts’and’turnrights’haveinterfered18rememberingthefirstdirections.Inmoreformallearninghoweverthe19ofshort-termmemoryismorethanjustamildsocialembarrassment.Itcanbeaseriousbartofurther20orindeedtoanyprogressatall. 2
Itwasthebiggestscientificgrudgematchsincethespacerace.TheGenomeWarshadeverything:twogroupswithappealingleadersreadytofightinascientificdeadheatpushingthelimitsoftechnologyandrhetoricastheybattledtobecomethefirsttoreadeverylastoneofthe3billionDNAlettersinthehumanbody.Thescientificimportanceoftheworkisunquestionable.ThecompletedDNAsequenceisexpectedtogivescientistsunprecedentedinsightsintotheworkingsofthehumanbodyrevolutionizingmedicineandbiology.Buttheraceitselfbetweenthegovernment’sHumanGenomeProjectandRockvilleMd.biotechnologycompanyCeleraGenomicswasatleastpartlysymbolicthepublic/privateconflictplayedoutinageneticlab.Nowtheraceisover.Afteryearsofpublicattacksandseveralfailedattemptsatreconciliationthetwosidesaretakingasteptowardaperiodofcalm.HOPheadFrancisCollinsand.AriPatrinosoftheDepartmentofEnergyanimportantallyonthegovernmentsideandCraigVenterthefounderofCeleraagreedtoholdajointpressconferenceinWashingtonthisMondaytodeclarethattheracewasoversortofthatbothsideshadwonkindofandthatthehostilitieswereresolvedforthetimebeing.Nooneisexactlysurehowthingswillbedifferentnow.Neithersidewillbeturningoffitssequencingmachinesanytimesoon--thefinishlineseachhascrossedarelargelyarbitrarypointsfirstdraftsratherthanthedefinitiveversion.AndwhilethejointannouncementbringstheformerGenomeWarriorsclosertogetherthanthey’vebeeninyearsinsiderssayIthatfutureagreementsaremorelikelytotaketheformofcoordinationratherthanoutrightcollaboration.TheconflictblewupthisFebruarywhenBritain’sWelcomeTrustanHGPparticipantreleasedaconfidentiallettertoCeleraoutliningtheHGP’scomplaints.Ventercalledthemovealowlifethingtodobutbyspringtherewerethefirstsignsofathaw.TheattacksandnastinessarebadforscienceandourinvestorsVentertoldNewsweekinMarchandfightingbackisprobablynothelpful.AtacancermeetingearlierthismonthVenterandCollinspraisedeachother’sapproachesandexpressedhopethatallofthescientistsinvolvedinsequencingthehumangenomewouldbeabletosharethecreditBylatelastweekthathopewasbecomingarealityasdetailsforMonday’sjointannouncementwerehammeredout.Scientistsinbothcampswelcomedanendtothehostilities.Ifthisendsthehorseracesciencewins.Withtheirdifferencebehindthemoratleastsetasidethescientistsshouldnowbeabletogetdowntotheinterestingstufffiguringhowtomakeuseofallthatdata.ThetoneoftheauthorinreportingthejointpressconferencethisMondayis
Thereisnoquestionthatscience-fictionwritershavebecomemoreambitiousstylisticallyandthematicallyinrecentyears.46Butthismayhavelesstodowiththeluringcallofacademicsurroundingsthanwithchangingmarketconditions--afactorthatacademiccriticsrarelytakeintoaccount.RobertSilverbergaformerpresidentofTheScienceFictionWritersofAmericaisoneofthemostprolificprofessionalsinafielddominatedbypeoplewhoactuallywriteforaliving.UnlikemysteryorWesternwritersmostsciencefictionwriterscannotexpecttocashinonfatmoviesalesorTVtie-ins.47StillinhislatethirtiesSilverberghaspublishedmorethanahundredbooksandheisdisarminglyfrankabouttherelationshipbetweenthequalityofgenuineproseandthequalityofavailableoutlet.Byhisownaccounthewas"anannoyinglyverbalyoungman"fromBrooklynwhopickeduphisfirstscience-fictionbookattheageoftenstartedwritingseriouslyattheageofthirteenandatseventeennearlygaveupindespairoverhisinabilitytobreakintothepulpmagazines.48Athisparents’urgingheenrolledinColumbiaUniversitysothatifworsecametoworsthecouldalwaysgototheSchoolofJournalismand"getanicesteadyjobsomewhere".Duringhissophomoreyearhesoldhisfirstscience-fictionsstorytoaScottishmagazinenamedNebula.Bytheendofhisjunioryearhehadsoldanovelandtwentymorestories.49Bytheendofhissenioryearhewasearningtwohundreddollarsaweekwritingsciencefictionandhisparentswerereconciledtohispursuitoftheliterarylife."Ibecameverycynicalveryquickly"hesays."FirstIcouldn’tsellanythingthenIcouldselleverything.Themarketplayedtomyworstcharacteristics.Aneditorofaschlockmagazinewouldcalluptotellmehehadaten-thousand-wordholetofillinhisnextissueI’dfillitovernightforahundredandfiftydollars.Ifoundthatrewritingmadenodifference.50IknewIcouldnotpossiblywritethekindsofthingsIadmiredasareader--JoyceKafkaMann--soIdetachedmyselffrommywork.Iwasaphenomenonamongmyfriendsincollegeapublishedsellingauthor.Buttheyalwaysasked’Whenareyougoingtodosomethingserious’--meaningsomethingthatwasn’tsciencefiction--andIkepttellingthem"WhenI’mfinanciallysecure../ IknewIcouldnotpossiblywritethekindsofthingsIadmiredasareader--JoyceKafkaMann--soIdetachedmyselffrommywork
Despitethegeneralnegativefindingsitisimportanttorememberthatallchildrenwholivethroughadivorcedonotbehaveinthesameway.Thespecificbehaviordependsonthechild’sindividualpersonalitycharacteristicsageatthetimeofdivorceandgender.Intermsofpersonalitywhencomparedtothoseratedasrelaxedandeasygoingchildrendescribedastemperamentalandirritablehavemoredifficultycopingwithparentaldivorceasindeedtheyhavemoredifficultyadaptingtolifechangeingeneral.Stresssuchasthatfoundindisruptedfamiliesseemstoimpairtheabilityoftemperamentalchildrentoadapttotheirsurroundingsthegreatertheamountofstressthelesswelltheyadapt.Incontrastamoderateamountofstressmayactuallyhelpaneasygoingrelaxedchildlearntocopewithadversity.Thereissomerelationshipbetweenageandchildren’scharacteristicreactiontodivorce.AsthechildgrowsolderthegreateristhelikelihoodofafreeexpressionofavarietyofcomplexfeelingsanunderstandingofthosefeelingsandarealizationthatthedecisiontodivorcecannotbeattributedtoanyonesimplecauseSelf-blamevirtuallydisappearsaftertheageof6fearofabandonmentdiminishesaftertheageof8andtheconfusionandfearoftheyoungchildisreplacedintheolderchildbyshameangerandself-reflection.GenderofthechildisalsoafactorthatpredictsthenatureofreactiontodivorceTheimpactofdivorceisinitiallygreateronboysthanongirls.Theyaremoreaggressivelesscomplianthavegreaterdifficultiesininterpersonalrelationshipsandexhibitproblembehaviorsbothathomeandatschool.Furthermoretheadjustmentproblemsofboysarestillnoticeableeventwoyearsafterthedivorce.Girls’adjustmentproblemsareusuallyinternalizedratherthanactedoutandareoftenresolvedbythesecondyearafterthedivorce.Howevernewproblemsmaysurfaceforgirlsastheyenteradolescenceandadulthood.HowcantherelativelygreaterimpactofdivorceonboysthanongirlsbeexplainedThegreatermaleaggressionandnoncompliancemayreflectthefactthatsuchbehaviorsaretoleratedandevenencouragedinmalesinourculturemorethantheyareinfemales.Furthermoreboysmayhaveaparticularneedforastrongmalemodelofself-controlaswellasforastrongdisciplinarianparent.Finallyboysaremorelikelytobeexposedtotheirparents’fightsthangirlsareandafterthebreakupboysarelesslikelythangirlstoreceivesympathyandsupportfrommothersteachersorpeers.Temperamentalirritablekidshavedifficultyadaptingtoparentaldivorcebecause
AllSumeriancitiesrecognizedanumberofgodsincommonincludingtheskygodthelordofstormsandthemorningandeveningstar.1theSumerianworshippedthegoddessoffertilityloveandwarshewasevidentlylower2statusthanthemalegodsindicatingthatinamoreurbanizedsocietythe3thatthepeoplesofprevioustimeshadpaidtotheearthmothergoddesshad4.Thegodsseemedhopelesslyviolentand5andone’slifeaperiodofslaveryattheireasywill.TheepicpoemTheCreationemphasizesthat6werecreatedtoenablethegodsto7upworking.Eachcitymoreoverhaditsowngodwhowasconsideredto8thetempleliterallyandwhowasintheorytheownerofallpropertywithinthecity.9thepriestswhointerpretedthewillofthegodandcontrolledthe10oftheeconomicproduceofthecitywerefavored11theirsupernaturalandmaterialfunctions12.Whenafter3000B.C.growingwarfareamongthecitiesmademilitaryleadership13theheadofthearmywhobecamekingassumedan14positionbetweenthegodwhoseagenthewasandthepriestlyclasswhomhehadbothtouseandto15Thuskingandpriestsrepresentedtheupperclassinahierarchicalsociety.16themwerethescribesthesecularattendantsofthetemplewho17everyaspectofthecity’seconomiclifeandwhodevelopedaroughjudicialsystem.18thetempleofficialssocietywasdividedamonganeliteor19groupoflargelandownersandmilitaryleaders;amixedgroupofmerchantsartisansandcraftsmenfreepeasantswho20themajorityofthepopulation;andslaves. 8
Economicsasweknowitisthesocialscienceconcernedwiththeproductiondistributionexchangeandconsumptionofgoodsandservices.Economistsfocusonthewayinwhichindividualsgroupsbusinessenterprisesandgovernmentsseektoachieveefficientlyanyeconomicobjectivetheyselect.46Otherfieldsofstudyalsocontributetothisknowledge:Psychologyandethicstrytoexplainhowobjectivesareformedhistoryrecordschangesinhumanobjectivesandsociologyinterpretshumanbehaviorinsocialcontexts. Standardeconomicscanbedividedintotwomajorfields.47Thefirstpricetheoryormicroeconomicsexplainshowtheinterplayofsupplyanddemandincompetitivemarketscreatesamultitudeofindividualpriceswageratesprofitmarginsandrentalchanges.Microeconomicsassumesthatpeoplebehaverationally.Consumerstrytospendtheirincomeinwaysthatgivethemasmuchpleasureaspossible.Aseconomistssaytheymaximizeutility.Fortheirpartentrepreneursseekasmuchprofitastheycanextractfromtheiroperations. Thesecondfieldmacroeconomicsdealswithmodernexplanationsofnationalincomeandemployment.MacroeconomicsdatesfromthebookTheGeneralTheoryofEmploymentInterestandMoney1935bytheBritisheconomistJohnMaynardKeynes.Hisexplanationofprosperityanddepressioncentersonthetotaloraggregatedemandforgoodsandservicesbyconsumersbusinessinvestorsandgovernments.48BecauseaccordingtoKeynesinadequatetotaldemandincreasesunemploymenttheindicatedcureiseithermoreinvestmentbybusinessesormorespendingandconsequentlylargerbudgetdeficitsbygovernment. Economicissueshaveoccupiedpeople’smindsthroughouttheages.49AristotleandPlatoinancientGreecewroteaboutproblemsofwealthpropertyandtradebothofwhomwereprejudicedagainstcommercefeelingthattolivebytradewasundesirable.TheRomansborrowedtheireconomicideasfromtheGreeksandshowedthesamecontemptfortrade.50DuringtheMiddleAgestheeconomicideasoftheRomanCatholicchurchwereexpressedinthelawofthechurchwhichcondemnedthetakingofinterestformoneyloanedandregardedcommerceasinferiortoagriculture. EconomicsasasubjectofmodernstudydistinguishablefrommoralphilosophyandpoliticsdatesfromtheworkInquiryintotheNatureandCausesoftheWealthofNations1776bytheScottishphilosopherandeconomistAdamSmith.MercantilismandphysiocracywereprecursorsoftheclassicaleconomicsofSmithandhis19th-centurysuccessors. 46
AllSumeriancitiesrecognizedanumberofgodsincommonincludingtheskygodthelordofstormsandthemorningandeveningstar.1theSumerianworshippedthegoddessoffertilityloveandwarshewasevidentlylower2statusthanthemalegodsindicatingthatinamoreurbanizedsocietythe3thatthepeoplesofprevioustimeshadpaidtotheearthmothergoddesshad4.Thegodsseemedhopelesslyviolentand5andone’slifeaperiodofslaveryattheireasywill.TheepicpoemTheCreationemphasizesthat6werecreatedtoenablethegodsto7upworking.Eachcitymoreoverhaditsowngodwhowasconsideredto8thetempleliterallyandwhowasintheorytheownerofallpropertywithinthecity.9thepriestswhointerpretedthewillofthegodandcontrolledthe10oftheeconomicproduceofthecitywerefavored11theirsupernaturalandmaterialfunctions12.Whenafter3000B.C.growingwarfareamongthecitiesmademilitaryleadership13theheadofthearmywhobecamekingassumedan14positionbetweenthegodwhoseagenthewasandthepriestlyclasswhomhehadbothtouseandto15Thuskingandpriestsrepresentedtheupperclassinahierarchicalsociety.16themwerethescribesthesecularattendantsofthetemplewho17everyaspectofthecity’seconomiclifeandwhodevelopedaroughjudicialsystem.18thetempleofficialssocietywasdividedamonganeliteor19groupoflargelandownersandmilitaryleaders;amixedgroupofmerchantsartisansandcraftsmenfreepeasantswho20themajorityofthepopulation;andslaves. 6
Itwasthebiggestscientificgrudgematchsincethespacerace.TheGenomeWarshadeverything:twogroupswithappealingleadersreadytofightinascientificdeadheatpushingthelimitsoftechnologyandrhetoricastheybattledtobecomethefirsttoreadeverylastoneofthe3billionDNAlettersinthehumanbody.Thescientificimportanceoftheworkisunquestionable.ThecompletedDNAsequenceisexpectedtogivescientistsunprecedentedinsightsintotheworkingsofthehumanbodyrevolutionizingmedicineandbiology.Buttheraceitselfbetweenthegovernment’sHumanGenomeProjectandRockvilleMd.biotechnologycompanyCeleraGenomicswasatleastpartlysymbolicthepublic/privateconflictplayedoutinageneticlab.Nowtheraceisover.Afteryearsofpublicattacksandseveralfailedattemptsatreconciliationthetwosidesaretakingasteptowardaperiodofcalm.HOPheadFrancisCollinsand.AriPatrinosoftheDepartmentofEnergyanimportantallyonthegovernmentsideandCraigVenterthefounderofCeleraagreedtoholdajointpressconferenceinWashingtonthisMondaytodeclarethattheracewasoversortofthatbothsideshadwonkindofandthatthehostilitieswereresolvedforthetimebeing.Nooneisexactlysurehowthingswillbedifferentnow.Neithersidewillbeturningoffitssequencingmachinesanytimesoon--thefinishlineseachhascrossedarelargelyarbitrarypointsfirstdraftsratherthanthedefinitiveversion.AndwhilethejointannouncementbringstheformerGenomeWarriorsclosertogetherthanthey’vebeeninyearsinsiderssayIthatfutureagreementsaremorelikelytotaketheformofcoordinationratherthanoutrightcollaboration.TheconflictblewupthisFebruarywhenBritain’sWelcomeTrustanHGPparticipantreleasedaconfidentiallettertoCeleraoutliningtheHGP’scomplaints.Ventercalledthemovealowlifethingtodobutbyspringtherewerethefirstsignsofathaw.TheattacksandnastinessarebadforscienceandourinvestorsVentertoldNewsweekinMarchandfightingbackisprobablynothelpful.AtacancermeetingearlierthismonthVenterandCollinspraisedeachother’sapproachesandexpressedhopethatallofthescientistsinvolvedinsequencingthehumangenomewouldbeabletosharethecreditBylatelastweekthathopewasbecomingarealityasdetailsforMonday’sjointannouncementwerehammeredout.Scientistsinbothcampswelcomedanendtothehostilities.Ifthisendsthehorseracesciencewins.Withtheirdifferencebehindthemoratleastsetasidethescientistsshouldnowbeabletogetdowntotheinterestingstufffiguringhowtomakeuseofallthatdata.ThewordthawLine3Para.4mostprobablymeans
Directions: Studythefollowingdrawingcarefullyandwriteanessayinwhichyoushould 1describethedrawing 2interpretitsmeaningandimplicationsand 3giveyourcomments. Youshouldwrite160-200wordsneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.
Despitethegeneralnegativefindingsitisimportanttorememberthatallchildrenwholivethroughadivorcedonotbehaveinthesameway.Thespecificbehaviordependsonthechild’sindividualpersonalitycharacteristicsageatthetimeofdivorceandgender.Intermsofpersonalitywhencomparedtothoseratedasrelaxedandeasygoingchildrendescribedastemperamentalandirritablehavemoredifficultycopingwithparentaldivorceasindeedtheyhavemoredifficultyadaptingtolifechangeingeneral.Stresssuchasthatfoundindisruptedfamiliesseemstoimpairtheabilityoftemperamentalchildrentoadapttotheirsurroundingsthegreatertheamountofstressthelesswelltheyadapt.Incontrastamoderateamountofstressmayactuallyhelpaneasygoingrelaxedchildlearntocopewithadversity.Thereissomerelationshipbetweenageandchildren’scharacteristicreactiontodivorce.AsthechildgrowsolderthegreateristhelikelihoodofafreeexpressionofavarietyofcomplexfeelingsanunderstandingofthosefeelingsandarealizationthatthedecisiontodivorcecannotbeattributedtoanyonesimplecauseSelf-blamevirtuallydisappearsaftertheageof6fearofabandonmentdiminishesaftertheageof8andtheconfusionandfearoftheyoungchildisreplacedintheolderchildbyshameangerandself-reflection.GenderofthechildisalsoafactorthatpredictsthenatureofreactiontodivorceTheimpactofdivorceisinitiallygreateronboysthanongirls.Theyaremoreaggressivelesscomplianthavegreaterdifficultiesininterpersonalrelationshipsandexhibitproblembehaviorsbothathomeandatschool.Furthermoretheadjustmentproblemsofboysarestillnoticeableeventwoyearsafterthedivorce.Girls’adjustmentproblemsareusuallyinternalizedratherthanactedoutandareoftenresolvedbythesecondyearafterthedivorce.Howevernewproblemsmaysurfaceforgirlsastheyenteradolescenceandadulthood.HowcantherelativelygreaterimpactofdivorceonboysthanongirlsbeexplainedThegreatermaleaggressionandnoncompliancemayreflectthefactthatsuchbehaviorsaretoleratedandevenencouragedinmalesinourculturemorethantheyareinfemales.Furthermoreboysmayhaveaparticularneedforastrongmalemodelofself-controlaswellasforastrongdisciplinarianparent.Finallyboysaremorelikelytobeexposedtotheirparents’fightsthangirlsareandafterthebreakupboysarelesslikelythangirlstoreceivesympathyandsupportfrommothersteachersorpeers.Whatisthemainideaofthepassage
AllSumeriancitiesrecognizedanumberofgodsincommonincludingtheskygodthelordofstormsandthemorningandeveningstar.1theSumerianworshippedthegoddessoffertilityloveandwarshewasevidentlylower2statusthanthemalegodsindicatingthatinamoreurbanizedsocietythe3thatthepeoplesofprevioustimeshadpaidtotheearthmothergoddesshad4.Thegodsseemedhopelesslyviolentand5andone’slifeaperiodofslaveryattheireasywill.TheepicpoemTheCreationemphasizesthat6werecreatedtoenablethegodsto7upworking.Eachcitymoreoverhaditsowngodwhowasconsideredto8thetempleliterallyandwhowasintheorytheownerofallpropertywithinthecity.9thepriestswhointerpretedthewillofthegodandcontrolledthe10oftheeconomicproduceofthecitywerefavored11theirsupernaturalandmaterialfunctions12.Whenafter3000B.C.growingwarfareamongthecitiesmademilitaryleadership13theheadofthearmywhobecamekingassumedan14positionbetweenthegodwhoseagenthewasandthepriestlyclasswhomhehadbothtouseandto15Thuskingandpriestsrepresentedtheupperclassinahierarchicalsociety.16themwerethescribesthesecularattendantsofthetemplewho17everyaspectofthecity’seconomiclifeandwhodevelopedaroughjudicialsystem.18thetempleofficialssocietywasdividedamonganeliteor19groupoflargelandownersandmilitaryleaders;amixedgroupofmerchantsartisansandcraftsmenfreepeasantswho20themajorityofthepopulation;andslaves. 14
Thereisnoquestionthatscience-fictionwritershavebecomemoreambitiousstylisticallyandthematicallyinrecentyears.46Butthismayhavelesstodowiththeluringcallofacademicsurroundingsthanwithchangingmarketconditions--afactorthatacademiccriticsrarelytakeintoaccount.RobertSilverbergaformerpresidentofTheScienceFictionWritersofAmericaisoneofthemostprolificprofessionalsinafielddominatedbypeoplewhoactuallywriteforaliving.UnlikemysteryorWesternwritersmostsciencefictionwriterscannotexpecttocashinonfatmoviesalesorTVtie-ins.47StillinhislatethirtiesSilverberghaspublishedmorethanahundredbooksandheisdisarminglyfrankabouttherelationshipbetweenthequalityofgenuineproseandthequalityofavailableoutlet.Byhisownaccounthewas"anannoyinglyverbalyoungman"fromBrooklynwhopickeduphisfirstscience-fictionbookattheageoftenstartedwritingseriouslyattheageofthirteenandatseventeennearlygaveupindespairoverhisinabilitytobreakintothepulpmagazines.48Athisparents’urgingheenrolledinColumbiaUniversitysothatifworsecametoworsthecouldalwaysgototheSchoolofJournalismand"getanicesteadyjobsomewhere".Duringhissophomoreyearhesoldhisfirstscience-fictionsstorytoaScottishmagazinenamedNebula.Bytheendofhisjunioryearhehadsoldanovelandtwentymorestories.49Bytheendofhissenioryearhewasearningtwohundreddollarsaweekwritingsciencefictionandhisparentswerereconciledtohispursuitoftheliterarylife."Ibecameverycynicalveryquickly"hesays."FirstIcouldn’tsellanythingthenIcouldselleverything.Themarketplayedtomyworstcharacteristics.Aneditorofaschlockmagazinewouldcalluptotellmehehadaten-thousand-wordholetofillinhisnextissueI’dfillitovernightforahundredandfiftydollars.Ifoundthatrewritingmadenodifference.50IknewIcouldnotpossiblywritethekindsofthingsIadmiredasareader--JoyceKafkaMann--soIdetachedmyselffrommywork.Iwasaphenomenonamongmyfriendsincollegeapublishedsellingauthor.Buttheyalwaysasked’Whenareyougoingtodosomethingserious’--meaningsomethingthatwasn’tsciencefiction--andIkepttellingthem"WhenI’mfinanciallysecure../ Athisparents’urgingheenrolledinColumbiaUniversitysothatifworsecametoworsthecouldalwaysgototheSchoolofJournalismandgetanicesteadyjobsomewhere.
Economicsasweknowitisthesocialscienceconcernedwiththeproductiondistributionexchangeandconsumptionofgoodsandservices.Economistsfocusonthewayinwhichindividualsgroupsbusinessenterprisesandgovernmentsseektoachieveefficientlyanyeconomicobjectivetheyselect.46Otherfieldsofstudyalsocontributetothisknowledge:Psychologyandethicstrytoexplainhowobjectivesareformedhistoryrecordschangesinhumanobjectivesandsociologyinterpretshumanbehaviorinsocialcontexts. Standardeconomicscanbedividedintotwomajorfields.47Thefirstpricetheoryormicroeconomicsexplainshowtheinterplayofsupplyanddemandincompetitivemarketscreatesamultitudeofindividualpriceswageratesprofitmarginsandrentalchanges.Microeconomicsassumesthatpeoplebehaverationally.Consumerstrytospendtheirincomeinwaysthatgivethemasmuchpleasureaspossible.Aseconomistssaytheymaximizeutility.Fortheirpartentrepreneursseekasmuchprofitastheycanextractfromtheiroperations. Thesecondfieldmacroeconomicsdealswithmodernexplanationsofnationalincomeandemployment.MacroeconomicsdatesfromthebookTheGeneralTheoryofEmploymentInterestandMoney1935bytheBritisheconomistJohnMaynardKeynes.Hisexplanationofprosperityanddepressioncentersonthetotaloraggregatedemandforgoodsandservicesbyconsumersbusinessinvestorsandgovernments.48BecauseaccordingtoKeynesinadequatetotaldemandincreasesunemploymenttheindicatedcureiseithermoreinvestmentbybusinessesormorespendingandconsequentlylargerbudgetdeficitsbygovernment. Economicissueshaveoccupiedpeople’smindsthroughouttheages.49AristotleandPlatoinancientGreecewroteaboutproblemsofwealthpropertyandtradebothofwhomwereprejudicedagainstcommercefeelingthattolivebytradewasundesirable.TheRomansborrowedtheireconomicideasfromtheGreeksandshowedthesamecontemptfortrade.50DuringtheMiddleAgestheeconomicideasoftheRomanCatholicchurchwereexpressedinthelawofthechurchwhichcondemnedthetakingofinterestformoneyloanedandregardedcommerceasinferiortoagriculture. EconomicsasasubjectofmodernstudydistinguishablefrommoralphilosophyandpoliticsdatesfromtheworkInquiryintotheNatureandCausesoftheWealthofNations1776bytheScottishphilosopherandeconomistAdamSmith.MercantilismandphysiocracywereprecursorsoftheclassicaleconomicsofSmithandhis19th-centurysuccessors. 50
AllSumeriancitiesrecognizedanumberofgodsincommonincludingtheskygodthelordofstormsandthemorningandeveningstar.1theSumerianworshippedthegoddessoffertilityloveandwarshewasevidentlylower2statusthanthemalegodsindicatingthatinamoreurbanizedsocietythe3thatthepeoplesofprevioustimeshadpaidtotheearthmothergoddesshad4.Thegodsseemedhopelesslyviolentand5andone’slifeaperiodofslaveryattheireasywill.TheepicpoemTheCreationemphasizesthat6werecreatedtoenablethegodsto7upworking.Eachcitymoreoverhaditsowngodwhowasconsideredto8thetempleliterallyandwhowasintheorytheownerofallpropertywithinthecity.9thepriestswhointerpretedthewillofthegodandcontrolledthe10oftheeconomicproduceofthecitywerefavored11theirsupernaturalandmaterialfunctions12.Whenafter3000B.C.growingwarfareamongthecitiesmademilitaryleadership13theheadofthearmywhobecamekingassumedan14positionbetweenthegodwhoseagenthewasandthepriestlyclasswhomhehadbothtouseandto15Thuskingandpriestsrepresentedtheupperclassinahierarchicalsociety.16themwerethescribesthesecularattendantsofthetemplewho17everyaspectofthecity’seconomiclifeandwhodevelopedaroughjudicialsystem.18thetempleofficialssocietywasdividedamonganeliteor19groupoflargelandownersandmilitaryleaders;amixedgroupofmerchantsartisansandcraftsmenfreepeasantswho20themajorityofthepopulation;andslaves. 20
Economicsasweknowitisthesocialscienceconcernedwiththeproductiondistributionexchangeandconsumptionofgoodsandservices.Economistsfocusonthewayinwhichindividualsgroupsbusinessenterprisesandgovernmentsseektoachieveefficientlyanyeconomicobjectivetheyselect.46Otherfieldsofstudyalsocontributetothisknowledge:Psychologyandethicstrytoexplainhowobjectivesareformedhistoryrecordschangesinhumanobjectivesandsociologyinterpretshumanbehaviorinsocialcontexts. Standardeconomicscanbedividedintotwomajorfields.47Thefirstpricetheoryormicroeconomicsexplainshowtheinterplayofsupplyanddemandincompetitivemarketscreatesamultitudeofindividualpriceswageratesprofitmarginsandrentalchanges.Microeconomicsassumesthatpeoplebehaverationally.Consumerstrytospendtheirincomeinwaysthatgivethemasmuchpleasureaspossible.Aseconomistssaytheymaximizeutility.Fortheirpartentrepreneursseekasmuchprofitastheycanextractfromtheiroperations. Thesecondfieldmacroeconomicsdealswithmodernexplanationsofnationalincomeandemployment.MacroeconomicsdatesfromthebookTheGeneralTheoryofEmploymentInterestandMoney1935bytheBritisheconomistJohnMaynardKeynes.Hisexplanationofprosperityanddepressioncentersonthetotaloraggregatedemandforgoodsandservicesbyconsumersbusinessinvestorsandgovernments.48BecauseaccordingtoKeynesinadequatetotaldemandincreasesunemploymenttheindicatedcureiseithermoreinvestmentbybusinessesormorespendingandconsequentlylargerbudgetdeficitsbygovernment. Economicissueshaveoccupiedpeople’smindsthroughouttheages.49AristotleandPlatoinancientGreecewroteaboutproblemsofwealthpropertyandtradebothofwhomwereprejudicedagainstcommercefeelingthattolivebytradewasundesirable.TheRomansborrowedtheireconomicideasfromtheGreeksandshowedthesamecontemptfortrade.50DuringtheMiddleAgestheeconomicideasoftheRomanCatholicchurchwereexpressedinthelawofthechurchwhichcondemnedthetakingofinterestformoneyloanedandregardedcommerceasinferiortoagriculture. EconomicsasasubjectofmodernstudydistinguishablefrommoralphilosophyandpoliticsdatesfromtheworkInquiryintotheNatureandCausesoftheWealthofNations1776bytheScottishphilosopherandeconomistAdamSmith.MercantilismandphysiocracywereprecursorsoftheclassicaleconomicsofSmithandhis19th-centurysuccessors. 48
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