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下列传统蒙学教材中，重在培养儿童道德行为习惯的是 ( )
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道德养成通过模仿培养的行为要给予良好的榜样能够使道德行为习惯的养成更有效
道德行为包括
道德行为技能
道德行为习惯
道德行为认知
道德行为情感
道德行为体验
养成良好的教师道德行为习惯是师德修养的重要保障
小学生道德行为习惯的培养靠来实现的
讲
练
批评
带
表扬
道德行为习惯
职业道德实践行为的培训内容是
职业道德实践
职业道德行为
职业道德行为习惯
职业道德技能
培养道德行为习惯具体的途径和方法
儿童品德形成的关键是
道德认知水平的提高
道德行为习惯的养成
道德动机的激发
道德动机与道德行为的稳固联系
培养儿童道德行为习惯的最佳时期是
婴儿期
幼儿期
小学时期
少年时期
如何培养学生良好的道德行为习惯请举例说明
小学生道德行为习惯培养的中心环节是
“讲”
“带”
“表扬”
“练”
行动操练法按性质和特点一般分为三类
审美技能练习、动作技能练习、道德行为习惯练习
心智技能练习、审美技能练习、道德行为习惯练习
心智技能练习、动作技能练习、道德行为习惯练习
心智技能练习、动作技能练习、审美技能练习
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Scholarsandstudentshavealwaysbeengreattravellers.Theofficialcasefor"academicmobility"isnowoftenstatedinimpressivetermsasafundamentalnecessityforeconomicandsocialprogressintheworldanddebatedinthecorridorsofEuropebutitiscertainlynothingnew.Seriousstudentswerealwaysreadytogoabroadinsearchofthemoststimulatingteachersandthemostfamousacademies;insearchofthepurestphilosophythemosteffectivemedicinethelikeliestroadtogold. Mobilityofthiskindmeantalsomobilityofideasltheirtransferenceacrossfrontierstheirsimultaneousimpactuponmanygroupsofpeople.Thepointoflearningistoshareitwhetherwithstudentsorwithcolleagues;onepresumesthatonlyeccentricshavenointerestinbeingcreditedwithastartlingdiscoveryoranewtechnique.Itmustalsohavebeenreassuringtoknowthatotherpeopleinotherpartsoftheworldwereabouttomakethesamediscoveryorwerethinkingalongthesamelinesandthatonewasnotquitealoneconfrontedbyinquisitionridiculeorneglect. Inthetwentiethcenturyandparticularlyinthelast20yearstheoldfootpathsofthewanderingscholarshavebecomevasthighways.Thevehiclewhichhasmadethispossiblehasofcoursebeentheaeroplanemakingcontactbetweenscholarseveninthemostdistantplacesimmediatelyfeasibleandprovidingfortheveryrapidtransmissionofknowledge. Apartfromthevehicleitselfitisfairlyeasytoidentifythemainfactorswhichhavebroughtabouttherecentexplosioninacademicmovement.Someofthesearepurelyquantitativeandrequirenofurthermention:therearefarmorecentresoflearningandafargreaternumberofscholarsandstudents. Inadditiononemustrecognisetheveryconsiderablemultiplicationofdisciplinesparticularlyinthescienceswhichbywideningthetotalareaofadvancedstudieshasproducedanenormousnumberofspecialistswhoseparticularinterestsarepreciselydefined.Thesepeoplewouldworkinsomeisolationiftheywerenotabletokeepintouchwithsimilarisolatedgroupsinothercountries. Frequentlythesespecialisationslieinareaswhereveryrapiddevelopmentsaretakingplaceandalsowheretheresearchneededfordevelopmentsisextremelycostlyandtakesalongtime.Itispreciselyintheseareasthattheadvantagesofcollaborationandsharingofexpertiseappearmostevident.Associatedwiththisisthegrowthofspecialistperiodicalswhichenablescholarstobecomeawareofwhatishappeningindifferentcentresofresearchandtomeeteachotherinconferencesandsymposia.Fromthesemeetingscomethepersonalrelationshipswhichareatthebottomofalmostallformalizedschemesofcooperationandprovidethemwiththeirmostsatisfactorystimulus. Butasthespecialisationshaveincreasedinnumberandnarrowedinrangetherehadbeenanoppositemovementtowardsinterdisciplinarystudies.Theseowemuchtothebeliefthatonecannotproperlyinvestigatetheincrediblycomplexproblemsthrownupbythemodernworldandbyrecentadvancesinourknowledgealongthenarrowfrontofasinglediscipline.Thistrendhasledtoagreatdealofacademiccontactbetweendisciplinesandafargreateremphasisonthepoolingofspecialistknowledgereflectedinthebroadsubjectschoseninmanyinternationalconferences. Thewriterthinksthatthegrowthofspecialistsocietiesandperiodicalshashelpedscholarsto
Tounderstandhowastrologyworksweshouldfirsttakeaquicklookatthesky.Althoughthestarsareatenormousdistancestheydoindeedgivetheimpressionofbeingaffixedtotheinnersurfaceofagreathollowspheresurroundingtheearth.Ancientpeopleinfactliterallybelievedintheexistenceofsuchacelestialsphere.Astheearthspinsonitsaxisthecelestialsphereappearstoturnaboutuseachdaypivotingatpointsonalinewiththeearth’saxisofrotation.ThisdailyturningofthespherecarriesthestarsaroundtheskycausingmostofthemtoriseandsetbuttheyandconstellationstheydefinemaintainsfixedpatternsonthespherejustasthecontinentofAustralianmaintainsitsshapeonaspinningglobeoftheearth.Thusthestarswerecalledfixedstars. Themotionofthesunalongtheeclipticisofcoursemerelyareflectionoftherevolutionoftheeartharoundthesunbuttheancientsbelievedtheearthwasfixedandthesunhadanindependentmotionofitsowneastwardamongthestars.Theglareofsunlighthidesthestarsindaytimebuttheancientswereawarethatthestarswereupthereevenatnightandthesloweastwardmotionofthesunaroundtheskyattherateofaboutthirtydegreeseachmonthcauseddifferentstarstobevisibleatnightatdifferenttimesoftheyear. Themoonrevolvingaroundtheeartheachmonthalsohasanindependentmotioninthesky.Themoonhoweverchangesitspositionrelativelyrapidly.Althoughitappearstoriseandseteachdayasdoesnearlyeverythingelseintheskywecanseethemoonchangingpositionduringasshortanintervalasanhourorso.Themoon’spatharoundtheearthliesnearlyinthesameplaneastheearth’spatharoundthesunsothemoonisneverseenveryfarfromtheeclipticinthesky.Therearefiveotherobjectsvisibletothenakedeyethatalsoappeartomoveinrespecttothefixedbackgroundofstarsonthecelestialsphere.ThesearetheplanetsMercuryVenusMarsJupiterandtheSaturn.Allofthemrevolvearoundthesuninnearlythesameplaneastheearthdoessotheylikethemoonalwaysappearneartheecliptic.Becauseweseetheplanetsfromthemovingearthhowevertheybehaveinacomplicatedwaywiththeirapparentmotions’onthecelestialspherereflectingboththeirownindependentmotionsaroundthesunandourmotionaswell. Itisstatedinastrologythat
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Extraordinarycreativeactivityhasbeencharacterizedasrevolutionaryflyinginthefaceofwhatisestablishedandproducingnotwhatisacceptablebutwhatwillbecomeaccepted.Accordingtothisformulationhighlycreativeactivitytranscendsthelimitsofanexistingformandestablishesanewprincipleoforganization.Howevertheideathatextraordinarycreativitytranscendsestablishedlimitsismisleadingwhenitisappliedtotheartseventhoughitmaybevalidforthescience;Differencesbetweenhighlycreativeartandhighlycreativescienceariseinpartfromadifferenceintheirgoal.Forthesciencesanewtheoryisthegoalandendresultofthecreativeact.Innovativescienceproducesnewpropositionsintermsofwhichdiversephenomenacanberelatedtooneanotherinmorecoherentways.Suchphenomenaasabrilliantdiamondoranestingbirdarerelegatedtotheroleofdateservingasthemeansforformulatingortestinganewtheory.Thegoalofhighlycreativeartisdifferent:thephenomenonitselfbecomesthedirectproductofthecreativeact.Shakespeare’sHamletisnotatractaboutthebehaviorofindecisiveprincesortheusesofpoliticalpowernorisPicasso’spaintingGuernicaprimarilyaprepositionalstatementabouttheSpanishCivilWarortheevilsoffascism.What’highlycreativeactivityproducesisnotanewgeneralizationthat’transcendsestablishedlimitsbutratheranaestheticparticular.Aestheticparticularsproducedbythehighlycreativeartistextendorexploitratherthantranscendthatform. Thisisnottodenythatahighlycreativeartistsometimesestablishesanewprincipleoforganizationinthehistoryofanartisticfield;thecomposerMonteverdiwhocreatedmusicofthehighestaestheticvaluecomestomind.Moregenerallyhoweverwhetherornotacompositionestablishesanewprincipleinthehistoryofmusichasnobearingonitsaestheticworth.BecausetheyembodyanewprincipleoforganizationsomemusicalworkssuchastheoperasoftheFlorentineCamerataareofsignalhistoricalimportancebutfewlistenersormusicologistswouldincludetheseamongthegreatworksofmusic.OntheotherhandMozart’sTheMarriageofFigaro费加罗的婚礼issurelyamongthemasterpieceofmusiceventhoughitsmodestinnovationsareconfinedtoextendingexistingmeans.IthasbeensaidofBeethoventhathetoppledtherulesandfreedmusicfromthestiflingconfinesofconvention.ButaclosestudyofhiscompositionrevealsthatBeethovenoverturnednofundamentalrules.RatherhewasanincomparablestrategistwhoexploitedlimitsoftherulesformsandconventionsthatheinheritedfrompredecessorssuchasHaydnandMozartHandelandBach—instrikinglyoriginalways. Thepassageimpliesthatanoriginalcontributioninscienceisonethat
Extraordinarycreativeactivityhasbeencharacterizedasrevolutionaryflyinginthefaceofwhatisestablishedandproducingnotwhatisacceptablebutwhatwillbecomeaccepted.Accordingtothisformulationhighlycreativeactivitytranscendsthelimitsofanexistingformandestablishesanewprincipleoforganization.Howevertheideathatextraordinarycreativitytranscendsestablishedlimitsismisleadingwhenitisappliedtotheartseventhoughitmaybevalidforthescience;Differencesbetweenhighlycreativeartandhighlycreativescienceariseinpartfromadifferenceintheirgoal.Forthesciencesanewtheoryisthegoalandendresultofthecreativeact.Innovativescienceproducesnewpropositionsintermsofwhichdiversephenomenacanberelatedtooneanotherinmorecoherentways.Suchphenomenaasabrilliantdiamondoranestingbirdarerelegatedtotheroleofdateservingasthemeansforformulatingortestinganewtheory.Thegoalofhighlycreativeartisdifferent:thephenomenonitselfbecomesthedirectproductofthecreativeact.Shakespeare’sHamletisnotatractaboutthebehaviorofindecisiveprincesortheusesofpoliticalpowernorisPicasso’spaintingGuernicaprimarilyaprepositionalstatementabouttheSpanishCivilWarortheevilsoffascism.What’highlycreativeactivityproducesisnotanewgeneralizationthat’transcendsestablishedlimitsbutratheranaestheticparticular.Aestheticparticularsproducedbythehighlycreativeartistextendorexploitratherthantranscendthatform. Thisisnottodenythatahighlycreativeartistsometimesestablishesanewprincipleoforganizationinthehistoryofanartisticfield;thecomposerMonteverdiwhocreatedmusicofthehighestaestheticvaluecomestomind.Moregenerallyhoweverwhetherornotacompositionestablishesanewprincipleinthehistoryofmusichasnobearingonitsaestheticworth.BecausetheyembodyanewprincipleoforganizationsomemusicalworkssuchastheoperasoftheFlorentineCamerataareofsignalhistoricalimportancebutfewlistenersormusicologistswouldincludetheseamongthegreatworksofmusic.OntheotherhandMozart’sTheMarriageofFigaro费加罗的婚礼issurelyamongthemasterpieceofmusiceventhoughitsmodestinnovationsareconfinedtoextendingexistingmeans.IthasbeensaidofBeethoventhathetoppledtherulesandfreedmusicfromthestiflingconfinesofconvention.ButaclosestudyofhiscompositionrevealsthatBeethovenoverturnednofundamentalrules.RatherhewasanincomparablestrategistwhoexploitedlimitsoftherulesformsandconventionsthatheinheritedfrompredecessorssuchasHaydnandMozartHandelandBach—instrikinglyoriginalways. Accordingtotheauthordistinctionsbetweenthoseengagedinthecreativeartsandinnaturalsciencescaninpartbeexplainedby
Extraordinarycreativeactivityhasbeencharacterizedasrevolutionaryflyinginthefaceofwhatisestablishedandproducingnotwhatisacceptablebutwhatwillbecomeaccepted.Accordingtothisformulationhighlycreativeactivitytranscendsthelimitsofanexistingformandestablishesanewprincipleoforganization.Howevertheideathatextraordinarycreativitytranscendsestablishedlimitsismisleadingwhenitisappliedtotheartseventhoughitmaybevalidforthescience;Differencesbetweenhighlycreativeartandhighlycreativescienceariseinpartfromadifferenceintheirgoal.Forthesciencesanewtheoryisthegoalandendresultofthecreativeact.Innovativescienceproducesnewpropositionsintermsofwhichdiversephenomenacanberelatedtooneanotherinmorecoherentways.Suchphenomenaasabrilliantdiamondoranestingbirdarerelegatedtotheroleofdateservingasthemeansforformulatingortestinganewtheory.Thegoalofhighlycreativeartisdifferent:thephenomenonitselfbecomesthedirectproductofthecreativeact.Shakespeare’sHamletisnotatractaboutthebehaviorofindecisiveprincesortheusesofpoliticalpowernorisPicasso’spaintingGuernicaprimarilyaprepositionalstatementabouttheSpanishCivilWarortheevilsoffascism.What’highlycreativeactivityproducesisnotanewgeneralizationthat’transcendsestablishedlimitsbutratheranaestheticparticular.Aestheticparticularsproducedbythehighlycreativeartistextendorexploitratherthantranscendthatform. Thisisnottodenythatahighlycreativeartistsometimesestablishesanewprincipleoforganizationinthehistoryofanartisticfield;thecomposerMonteverdiwhocreatedmusicofthehighestaestheticvaluecomestomind.Moregenerallyhoweverwhetherornotacompositionestablishesanewprincipleinthehistoryofmusichasnobearingonitsaestheticworth.BecausetheyembodyanewprincipleoforganizationsomemusicalworkssuchastheoperasoftheFlorentineCamerataareofsignalhistoricalimportancebutfewlistenersormusicologistswouldincludetheseamongthegreatworksofmusic.OntheotherhandMozart’sTheMarriageofFigaro费加罗的婚礼issurelyamongthemasterpieceofmusiceventhoughitsmodestinnovationsareconfinedtoextendingexistingmeans.IthasbeensaidofBeethoventhathetoppledtherulesandfreedmusicfromthestiflingconfinesofconvention.ButaclosestudyofhiscompositionrevealsthatBeethovenoverturnednofundamentalrules.RatherhewasanincomparablestrategistwhoexploitedlimitsoftherulesformsandconventionsthatheinheritedfrompredecessorssuchasHaydnandMozartHandelandBach—instrikinglyoriginalways. What’sthebesttitleofthepassage
Itishardtopredicthowscienceisgoingtoturnoutandifitisreallygoodscienceitisimpossibletopredict.Ifthethingstobefoundareactuallynewtheyarebydefinitionunknowninadvance.Youcannotmakechoicesinthismatter.46Youeitherhavescienceoryoudon’tandifyouhaveityouareobligedtoacceptthesurprisinganddisturbingpiecesofinformationalongwiththeneatandpromptlyusefulbits. TheonlysolidpieceofscientifictruthaboutwhichIfeeltotallyconfidentisthatweareprofoundlyignorantaboutnature.IndeedIregardthisasthemajordiscoveryofthepasthundredyearsofbiology.Itisinitswayanilluminatingpieceofnews.47Itwouldhaveamazedthebrightestmindsofthe18thcenturyEnlightenmenttobetoldbyanyofushowlittleweknowandhowbewilderingthewayaheadseems.48Itisthissuddenconfrontationwiththedepthandscopeofignorancethat’representsthemostsignificantcontributionofthe20thcenturysciencetothehumanintellect.Inearliertimesweeitherpretendedtounderstandhowthingsworkedorignoredtheproblemorsimplymadeupstoriestofillthegaps.Nowthatwehavebegunexploringinearnestwearegettingglimpsesofhowhugethequestionsareandhowfarfrombeinganswered.Becauseofthiswearedepressed.49Itisnotsobadbeingignorantifyouaretotallyignorantthehardthingisknowinginsomedetailtherealityofignorancetheworstspotsandhereandtherethenotsobadspotsbutnotruelightattheendofthetunnelnorevenanytunnelsthatcanyetbetrusted. Butwearemakingabeginningandthereoughttobesomesatisfaction.Thereareprobablynoquestionswecanthinkupthatcan’tbeansweredsoonerorlaterincludingeventhematterofconsciousness.50Tobesuretheremaywellbequestionswecan’tthinkupeverandthereforelimitstothereachofhumanintellectbutthatisanothermatter.Withinourlimitsweshouldbeabletoworkourwaythroughtoallouranswersifwekeepatitlongenoughandpayattention. Youeitherhavescienceoryoudon’tandifyouhaveityouareobligedtoacceptthesurprisinganddisturbingpiecesofinformationalongwiththeneatandpromptlyusefulbits.
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InoneverylongsentencetheintroductiontotheU.N.CharterexpressestheidealsandthecommonaimsofallthepeoplewhosegovernmentsjoinedtogethertoformtheU.N. "WethepeopleoftheU.N.determinedtosavesucceedinggenerationsfromthescourgeofwarwhichtwiceinourlifetimehasbroughtuntoldsufferingtomankindandtoreaffirmfaithinfundamentalrightsinthedignityandworthofthehumanpersonintheequalrightsofmenandwomenandofnationslargeandsmallandtoestablishconditionsunderwhichjusticeandrespectfortheobligationsarisingfromtreatiesandothersourcesofinternationallawcanbemaintainedandtopromotesocialprogressandbetterstandardsoflifeinlargerfreedomandfortheseendstopractisetoleranceandlivetogetherinpeacewithoneanotherasgoodneighboursandtouniteourstrengthtomaintaininternationalpeaceandsecurityandtoensurebytheacceptanceofprinciplesandtheinstitutionofmethodsthatarmedforceshallnotbeusedsaveinthecommoninterestandtoemployinternationalmachineryforthepromotionofeconomicandsocialadvancementofallpeopleshaveresolvedtocombineoureffortstoaccomplishtheseaims." Thename"UnitedNations"isaccreditedtoU.S.PresidentFranklinD.RooseveltandthefirstgroupofrepresentativesofmemberStatesmetandsignedadeclarationofcommonintentonNewYear’sDayin1942.RepresentativesoffivepowersworkedtogethertodrawupproposalscompletedatDumbartonOaksin1944.TheseproposalsmodifiedafterdeliberationattheconferenceonInternationalOrganizationinSanFranciscowhichbeganinApril1945werefinallyagreedonandsignedastheU.N.Charterby50countrieson26June1945.PolandnotrepresentedattheconferencesignedtheCharterlaterandwasaddedtothelistoforiginalmembers.ItwasnotuntilthatautumnhoweveraftertheCharterhadbeenratifiedbyChinaFrancetheU.S.S.R.U.theU.K.andtheU.S.andbyamajorityoftheotherparticipantsthattheU.N.officiallycameintoexistence.Thedatewas24OctobernowuniversallycelebratedasUnitedNationsDay. TheessentialfunctionsoftheU.N.aretomaintaininternationalpeaceandsecuritytodevelopfriendlyrelationsamongnationstocooperateinternationallyinsolvinginternationaleconomicsocialculturalandhumanproblemspromotingrespectforhumanrightsandfundamentalfreedomsandtobeacentreforco-ordinatingtheactionsofnationsonattainingthesecommonends. NocountrytakesprecedenceoveranotherintheU.N.Eachmember’srightsandobligationsarethesame.Allmustcontributetothepeacefulsettlementofinternationaldisputeandmembershavepledgedtorefrainfromthethreatoruseofforceagainstotherstates. WhichofthefollowingistrueastotheessentialfunctionsoftheU.N.
Tounderstandhowastrologyworksweshouldfirsttakeaquicklookatthesky.Althoughthestarsareatenormousdistancestheydoindeedgivetheimpressionofbeingaffixedtotheinnersurfaceofagreathollowspheresurroundingtheearth.Ancientpeopleinfactliterallybelievedintheexistenceofsuchacelestialsphere.Astheearthspinsonitsaxisthecelestialsphereappearstoturnaboutuseachdaypivotingatpointsonalinewiththeearth’saxisofrotation.ThisdailyturningofthespherecarriesthestarsaroundtheskycausingmostofthemtoriseandsetbuttheyandconstellationstheydefinemaintainsfixedpatternsonthespherejustasthecontinentofAustralianmaintainsitsshapeonaspinningglobeoftheearth.Thusthestarswerecalledfixedstars. Themotionofthesunalongtheeclipticisofcoursemerelyareflectionoftherevolutionoftheeartharoundthesunbuttheancientsbelievedtheearthwasfixedandthesunhadanindependentmotionofitsowneastwardamongthestars.Theglareofsunlighthidesthestarsindaytimebuttheancientswereawarethatthestarswereupthereevenatnightandthesloweastwardmotionofthesunaroundtheskyattherateofaboutthirtydegreeseachmonthcauseddifferentstarstobevisibleatnightatdifferenttimesoftheyear. Themoonrevolvingaroundtheeartheachmonthalsohasanindependentmotioninthesky.Themoonhoweverchangesitspositionrelativelyrapidly.Althoughitappearstoriseandseteachdayasdoesnearlyeverythingelseintheskywecanseethemoonchangingpositionduringasshortanintervalasanhourorso.Themoon’spatharoundtheearthliesnearlyinthesameplaneastheearth’spatharoundthesunsothemoonisneverseenveryfarfromtheeclipticinthesky.Therearefiveotherobjectsvisibletothenakedeyethatalsoappeartomoveinrespecttothefixedbackgroundofstarsonthecelestialsphere.ThesearetheplanetsMercuryVenusMarsJupiterandtheSaturn.Allofthemrevolvearoundthesuninnearlythesameplaneastheearthdoessotheylikethemoonalwaysappearneartheecliptic.Becauseweseetheplanetsfromthemovingearthhowevertheybehaveinacomplicatedwaywiththeirapparentmotions’onthecelestialspherereflectingboththeirownindependentmotionsaroundthesunandourmotionaswell. Accordingtothepassagewhichofthefollowingistrue
Willhumansalwaysbesuperiortomachines Thisstatementactuallyconsistsofaseriesofthreerelatedclaims:1machinesaretoolsofhumanminds;2humanmindswillalwaysbesuperiortomachines;and3itisbecausemachinesarehuman’toolsthathumanmindswillalwaysbesuperiortomachines.WhileIconcedethefirstclaimwhetherIagreewiththeothertwoclaimsdependspartlyonhowonedefines"superiority"andpartlyonhowwillingoneistohumbleoneselftotheunknownfuturescenarios. 41AfterallwouldanymachineevenexistunlessahumanbeinginventeditOfcoursenot.MoreoverIwouldbehard-pressedtothinkofanymachinethatcannotbedescribedasatool.Evenmachinesdesignedtoentertainoramuseus—forexampletoyrobotscarsandvideogamesandnoveltyitems—areinfacttoolswhichtheirinventorsandpromotersuseforengagingincommerceandthebusinessofentertainmentandamusement. 42AndtheclaimthatamachinecanbeanendinitselfwithoutpurposeorutilitarianfunctionforhumanswhatsoeverisdubiousatbestsinceIcannotconjureupevenasingleexampleofanysuchmachine. 43Asforthestatement’ssecondclaimincertainrespectsmachinesaresuperior.Wehavedevisedmachinesthatperformnumber-crunchingandotherrotecerebraltaskswithgreateraccuracyandspeedthanhumanmindsevercould.Howeverifonedefinessuperioritynotintermsofcompetenceinperformingrotetasksbutratherinotherwayshumanmindsaresuperior.Machineshavenocapacityforindependentthoughtformakingjudgmentsbasedonnormativeconsiderationsorfordevelopingemotionalresponsestointellectualproblems. 44Upuntilnowthenotionofhuman-mademachinesthatdeveloptheabilitytothinkontheirownandtodevelopso-called"emotionalintelligence"hasbeenpurefiction.Besideseveninfictionwehumansultimatelyprevailoversuchmachines—asinthecasesofFrankenstein’smonsterandHatthecomputerin2001:ASpaceOdyssey.Yetitseemspresumptuoustoassertwithconfidencethathumanswillalwaysmaintaintheirsuperiorstatusovertheirmachines.Inotherwordsmachineswillsoonexhibitthetraitstowhichwehumansattributeourownsuperiority. 45Andinsofarashumanshavetheuniquecapacityforindependentthoughtsubjectivejudgmentandemotionalresponseitalsoseemsfairtoclaimsuperiorityoverourmachines.Besidesshouldweeverbecomesocleveraspeciesastodevisemachinesthatcantrulythinkforthemselvesandlookoutfortheirownwell-beingthenquerywhetherthesemachinesofthefuturewouldbe"machines"anymore. [A]Recentadvancesinbiotechnologyparticularlyintheareaofhumangenomeresearchsuggestthatwithinthetwenty-firstcenturywe’llwitnessmachinesthatcanlearntothinkontheirowntorepairandnurturethemselvestoexperienceVisceralsensationsandsoforth. [B]Thestatementisclearlyaccurateinsofarasmachinesaretoolsofhumanminds. [C]Insumbecausewedevisemachinesinorderthattheymayserveusitisfairtocharacterizemachinesas"toolsofhumanminds." [D]It’shardlysurprisingthathuman-mademachinecandothemostworksthatbelongtohumanbefore. [E]Infactitisbecausewecandevisemachinesthataresuperiorintheserespectsthatwedevisethem--asourtools—tobeginwith. [F]Whenwedevelopanysortofmachinewealwayshavesomesortofendinmind—apurposeforthatmachine. 42
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人工智能的出现表明
InoneverylongsentencetheintroductiontotheU.N.CharterexpressestheidealsandthecommonaimsofallthepeoplewhosegovernmentsjoinedtogethertoformtheU.N. "WethepeopleoftheU.N.determinedtosavesucceedinggenerationsfromthescourgeofwarwhichtwiceinourlifetimehasbroughtuntoldsufferingtomankindandtoreaffirmfaithinfundamentalrightsinthedignityandworthofthehumanpersonintheequalrightsofmenandwomenandofnationslargeandsmallandtoestablishconditionsunderwhichjusticeandrespectfortheobligationsarisingfromtreatiesandothersourcesofinternationallawcanbemaintainedandtopromotesocialprogressandbetterstandardsoflifeinlargerfreedomandfortheseendstopractisetoleranceandlivetogetherinpeacewithoneanotherasgoodneighboursandtouniteourstrengthtomaintaininternationalpeaceandsecurityandtoensurebytheacceptanceofprinciplesandtheinstitutionofmethodsthatarmedforceshallnotbeusedsaveinthecommoninterestandtoemployinternationalmachineryforthepromotionofeconomicandsocialadvancementofallpeopleshaveresolvedtocombineoureffortstoaccomplishtheseaims." Thename"UnitedNations"isaccreditedtoU.S.PresidentFranklinD.RooseveltandthefirstgroupofrepresentativesofmemberStatesmetandsignedadeclarationofcommonintentonNewYear’sDayin1942.RepresentativesoffivepowersworkedtogethertodrawupproposalscompletedatDumbartonOaksin1944.TheseproposalsmodifiedafterdeliberationattheconferenceonInternationalOrganizationinSanFranciscowhichbeganinApril1945werefinallyagreedonandsignedastheU.N.Charterby50countrieson26June1945.PolandnotrepresentedattheconferencesignedtheCharterlaterandwasaddedtothelistoforiginalmembers.ItwasnotuntilthatautumnhoweveraftertheCharterhadbeenratifiedbyChinaFrancetheU.S.S.R.U.theU.K.andtheU.S.andbyamajorityoftheotherparticipantsthattheU.N.officiallycameintoexistence.Thedatewas24OctobernowuniversallycelebratedasUnitedNationsDay. TheessentialfunctionsoftheU.N.aretomaintaininternationalpeaceandsecuritytodevelopfriendlyrelationsamongnationstocooperateinternationallyinsolvinginternationaleconomicsocialculturalandhumanproblemspromotingrespectforhumanrightsandfundamentalfreedomsandtobeacentreforco-ordinatingtheactionsofnationsonattainingthesecommonends. NocountrytakesprecedenceoveranotherintheU.N.Eachmember’srightsandobligationsarethesame.Allmustcontributetothepeacefulsettlementofinternationaldisputeandmembershavepledgedtorefrainfromthethreatoruseofforceagainstotherstates. WhatdidPresidentRoosevelthavetodowiththeUnitedNations
Itishardtopredicthowscienceisgoingtoturnoutandifitisreallygoodscienceitisimpossibletopredict.Ifthethingstobefoundareactuallynewtheyarebydefinitionunknowninadvance.Youcannotmakechoicesinthismatter.46Youeitherhavescienceoryoudon’tandifyouhaveityouareobligedtoacceptthesurprisinganddisturbingpiecesofinformationalongwiththeneatandpromptlyusefulbits. TheonlysolidpieceofscientifictruthaboutwhichIfeeltotallyconfidentisthatweareprofoundlyignorantaboutnature.IndeedIregardthisasthemajordiscoveryofthepasthundredyearsofbiology.Itisinitswayanilluminatingpieceofnews.47Itwouldhaveamazedthebrightestmindsofthe18thcenturyEnlightenmenttobetoldbyanyofushowlittleweknowandhowbewilderingthewayaheadseems.48Itisthissuddenconfrontationwiththedepthandscopeofignorancethat’representsthemostsignificantcontributionofthe20thcenturysciencetothehumanintellect.Inearliertimesweeitherpretendedtounderstandhowthingsworkedorignoredtheproblemorsimplymadeupstoriestofillthegaps.Nowthatwehavebegunexploringinearnestwearegettingglimpsesofhowhugethequestionsareandhowfarfrombeinganswered.Becauseofthiswearedepressed.49Itisnotsobadbeingignorantifyouaretotallyignorantthehardthingisknowinginsomedetailtherealityofignorancetheworstspotsandhereandtherethenotsobadspotsbutnotruelightattheendofthetunnelnorevenanytunnelsthatcanyetbetrusted. Butwearemakingabeginningandthereoughttobesomesatisfaction.Thereareprobablynoquestionswecanthinkupthatcan’tbeansweredsoonerorlaterincludingeventhematterofconsciousness.50Tobesuretheremaywellbequestionswecan’tthinkupeverandthereforelimitstothereachofhumanintellectbutthatisanothermatter.Withinourlimitsweshouldbeabletoworkourwaythroughtoallouranswersifwekeepatitlongenoughandpayattention. Tobesuretheremaywellbequestionswecan’tthinkupeverandthereforelimitstothereachofhumanintellectbutthatisanothermatter.
Tounderstandhowastrologyworksweshouldfirsttakeaquicklookatthesky.Althoughthestarsareatenormousdistancestheydoindeedgivetheimpressionofbeingaffixedtotheinnersurfaceofagreathollowspheresurroundingtheearth.Ancientpeopleinfactliterallybelievedintheexistenceofsuchacelestialsphere.Astheearthspinsonitsaxisthecelestialsphereappearstoturnaboutuseachdaypivotingatpointsonalinewiththeearth’saxisofrotation.ThisdailyturningofthespherecarriesthestarsaroundtheskycausingmostofthemtoriseandsetbuttheyandconstellationstheydefinemaintainsfixedpatternsonthespherejustasthecontinentofAustralianmaintainsitsshapeonaspinningglobeoftheearth.Thusthestarswerecalledfixedstars. Themotionofthesunalongtheeclipticisofcoursemerelyareflectionoftherevolutionoftheeartharoundthesunbuttheancientsbelievedtheearthwasfixedandthesunhadanindependentmotionofitsowneastwardamongthestars.Theglareofsunlighthidesthestarsindaytimebuttheancientswereawarethatthestarswereupthereevenatnightandthesloweastwardmotionofthesunaroundtheskyattherateofaboutthirtydegreeseachmonthcauseddifferentstarstobevisibleatnightatdifferenttimesoftheyear. Themoonrevolvingaroundtheeartheachmonthalsohasanindependentmotioninthesky.Themoonhoweverchangesitspositionrelativelyrapidly.Althoughitappearstoriseandseteachdayasdoesnearlyeverythingelseintheskywecanseethemoonchangingpositionduringasshortanintervalasanhourorso.Themoon’spatharoundtheearthliesnearlyinthesameplaneastheearth’spatharoundthesunsothemoonisneverseenveryfarfromtheeclipticinthesky.Therearefiveotherobjectsvisibletothenakedeyethatalsoappeartomoveinrespecttothefixedbackgroundofstarsonthecelestialsphere.ThesearetheplanetsMercuryVenusMarsJupiterandtheSaturn.Allofthemrevolvearoundthesuninnearlythesameplaneastheearthdoessotheylikethemoonalwaysappearneartheecliptic.Becauseweseetheplanetsfromthemovingearthhowevertheybehaveinacomplicatedwaywiththeirapparentmotions’onthecelestialspherereflectingboththeirownindependentmotionsaroundthesunandourmotionaswell. Theancientpeoplebelievedthat
Willhumansalwaysbesuperiortomachines Thisstatementactuallyconsistsofaseriesofthreerelatedclaims:1machinesaretoolsofhumanminds;2humanmindswillalwaysbesuperiortomachines;and3itisbecausemachinesarehuman’toolsthathumanmindswillalwaysbesuperiortomachines.WhileIconcedethefirstclaimwhetherIagreewiththeothertwoclaimsdependspartlyonhowonedefines"superiority"andpartlyonhowwillingoneistohumbleoneselftotheunknownfuturescenarios. 41AfterallwouldanymachineevenexistunlessahumanbeinginventeditOfcoursenot.MoreoverIwouldbehard-pressedtothinkofanymachinethatcannotbedescribedasatool.Evenmachinesdesignedtoentertainoramuseus—forexampletoyrobotscarsandvideogamesandnoveltyitems—areinfacttoolswhichtheirinventorsandpromotersuseforengagingincommerceandthebusinessofentertainmentandamusement. 42AndtheclaimthatamachinecanbeanendinitselfwithoutpurposeorutilitarianfunctionforhumanswhatsoeverisdubiousatbestsinceIcannotconjureupevenasingleexampleofanysuchmachine. 43Asforthestatement’ssecondclaimincertainrespectsmachinesaresuperior.Wehavedevisedmachinesthatperformnumber-crunchingandotherrotecerebraltaskswithgreateraccuracyandspeedthanhumanmindsevercould.Howeverifonedefinessuperioritynotintermsofcompetenceinperformingrotetasksbutratherinotherwayshumanmindsaresuperior.Machineshavenocapacityforindependentthoughtformakingjudgmentsbasedonnormativeconsiderationsorfordevelopingemotionalresponsestointellectualproblems. 44Upuntilnowthenotionofhuman-mademachinesthatdeveloptheabilitytothinkontheirownandtodevelopso-called"emotionalintelligence"hasbeenpurefiction.Besideseveninfictionwehumansultimatelyprevailoversuchmachines—asinthecasesofFrankenstein’smonsterandHatthecomputerin2001:ASpaceOdyssey.Yetitseemspresumptuoustoassertwithconfidencethathumanswillalwaysmaintaintheirsuperiorstatusovertheirmachines.Inotherwordsmachineswillsoonexhibitthetraitstowhichwehumansattributeourownsuperiority. 45Andinsofarashumanshavetheuniquecapacityforindependentthoughtsubjectivejudgmentandemotionalresponseitalsoseemsfairtoclaimsuperiorityoverourmachines.Besidesshouldweeverbecomesocleveraspeciesastodevisemachinesthatcantrulythinkforthemselvesandlookoutfortheirownwell-beingthenquerywhetherthesemachinesofthefuturewouldbe"machines"anymore. [A]Recentadvancesinbiotechnologyparticularlyintheareaofhumangenomeresearchsuggestthatwithinthetwenty-firstcenturywe’llwitnessmachinesthatcanlearntothinkontheirowntorepairandnurturethemselvestoexperienceVisceralsensationsandsoforth. [B]Thestatementisclearlyaccurateinsofarasmachinesaretoolsofhumanminds. [C]Insumbecausewedevisemachinesinorderthattheymayserveusitisfairtocharacterizemachinesas"toolsofhumanminds." [D]It’shardlysurprisingthathuman-mademachinecandothemostworksthatbelongtohumanbefore. [E]Infactitisbecausewecandevisemachinesthataresuperiorintheserespectsthatwedevisethem--asourtools—tobeginwith. [F]Whenwedevelopanysortofmachinewealwayshavesomesortofendinmind—apurposeforthatmachine. 44
Itishardtopredicthowscienceisgoingtoturnoutandifitisreallygoodscienceitisimpossibletopredict.Ifthethingstobefoundareactuallynewtheyarebydefinitionunknowninadvance.Youcannotmakechoicesinthismatter.46Youeitherhavescienceoryoudon’tandifyouhaveityouareobligedtoacceptthesurprisinganddisturbingpiecesofinformationalongwiththeneatandpromptlyusefulbits. TheonlysolidpieceofscientifictruthaboutwhichIfeeltotallyconfidentisthatweareprofoundlyignorantaboutnature.IndeedIregardthisasthemajordiscoveryofthepasthundredyearsofbiology.Itisinitswayanilluminatingpieceofnews.47Itwouldhaveamazedthebrightestmindsofthe18thcenturyEnlightenmenttobetoldbyanyofushowlittleweknowandhowbewilderingthewayaheadseems.48Itisthissuddenconfrontationwiththedepthandscopeofignorancethat’representsthemostsignificantcontributionofthe20thcenturysciencetothehumanintellect.Inearliertimesweeitherpretendedtounderstandhowthingsworkedorignoredtheproblemorsimplymadeupstoriestofillthegaps.Nowthatwehavebegunexploringinearnestwearegettingglimpsesofhowhugethequestionsareandhowfarfrombeinganswered.Becauseofthiswearedepressed.49Itisnotsobadbeingignorantifyouaretotallyignorantthehardthingisknowinginsomedetailtherealityofignorancetheworstspotsandhereandtherethenotsobadspotsbutnotruelightattheendofthetunnelnorevenanytunnelsthatcanyetbetrusted. Butwearemakingabeginningandthereoughttobesomesatisfaction.Thereareprobablynoquestionswecanthinkupthatcan’tbeansweredsoonerorlaterincludingeventhematterofconsciousness.50Tobesuretheremaywellbequestionswecan’tthinkupeverandthereforelimitstothereachofhumanintellectbutthatisanothermatter.Withinourlimitsweshouldbeabletoworkourwaythroughtoallouranswersifwekeepatitlongenoughandpayattention. 如果我们当中任何一个人要告诉18世纪启蒙运动中最聪明的人我们的知识有多么少以及未来看起来是多么让人困惑都会把他们搞糊涂
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