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古代罗马的百科全书式的作家以其所著自然史一书著称的是
瓦罗
老普林尼
怀特海
西塞罗
下述哪一组药属于非选择性钙通道阻滞药
奎尼丁、普萘洛尔、硝苯地平
胺碘酮、哌克昔林、氟桂利嗪
地尔硫卓、哌克昔林、普尼拉明
维拉帕米、地尔硫卓、硝苯地平
普尼拉明、哌克昔林、氟桂利嗪
意大利文艺复兴的先驱是
但
达·芬奇
普林尼
莎士比亚
1.抗精神病药
司可林
尼可林
氯丙嗪
异丙嗪
意大利文艺复兴的先驱是
但丁
达芬奇
普林尼
莎士比亚
被称为古罗马百科全书式的作家代表作是自然史
老普林尼
怀特海
瓦罗
西塞罗
1958年提出了著名的MM定理创建了现代资本结构理论
大卫?杜兰特和米勒
米勒和麦克林
莫迪格利安尼和麦克林
莫迪格利安尼和米勒
中国古代的和古罗马老普林尼PlinitheElder的都可视作设计学作为一门理论的最初萌芽和起点
《考工记》、《美的分析》
《考工记》、《园冶》
《天工开物》、《营造法式》
《考工记》、《博物志》
罗马第一部农学著作农业志的作者是
科鲁麦拉
老普林尼
加图
瓦罗
罗马在应用科学尤其是农艺学方面取得了较高的成就其中论农业是研究罗马帝国初期奴隶制经济不可多得的历史文
科鲁麦拉
老普林尼
加图
瓦罗
普林尼
腓力二世亚历山大大帝老普林尼君士坦丁
小熊温尼•菩的作者是
约翰•特肯
林格伦
姜尼•罗大里
亚历山大•亚兰•米尔恩
1958年提出了著名的MM定理创建了现代资本结构理论
大卫·杜兰特和米勒
莫迪格利安尼和米勒
莫迪格利安尼和麦克林
米勒和麦克林
与非处方药西咪替丁同用可增加出血危险的处方药是
胺碘酮
氟卡尼
华法林
奎尼丁
帝国前期罗马文化吸收了许多民族的文化成果进入了兴盛时代其中自然科学方面最有代表性的人物是
老普林尼
科鲁麦拉
塞尔苏斯
斯特拉波
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"UniversalhistorythehistoryofwhatmanhasaccomplishedinthisworldisatbottomtheHistoryoftheGreatMenwhohaveworkedhere"wrotetheVictorianstageThomasCarlyle.Wellnotanymoreitisnot. SuddenlyBritainlookstohavefallenoutwithitsfavouritehistoricalform.Thiscouldbenomorethanapassingliterarycrazebutitalsopointstoabroadertruthabouthowwenowapproachthepast:lessconcernedwithlearningfromforefathersandmoreinterestedinfeelingtheirpain.Todaywewantempathynotinspiration. FromtheearliestdaysoftheRenaissancethewritingofhistorymeantrecountingtheexemplarylivesofgreatmen.In1337PetrarchbeganworkonhisramblingwritingDeVirisIllustribus—OnFamousMenhighlightingthevirtusorvirtueofclassicalheroes.Petrarchcelebratedtheirgreatnessinconqueringfortuneandrisingtothetop.ThiswasthebiographicaltraditionwhichNiccoloMachiavelliturnedonitshead.InThePrincethechampionedcunningruthlessnessandboldnessratherthanvirtuemercyandjusticeastheskillsofsuccessfulleaders. Overtimetheattributesofgreatnessshifted.TheRomanticscommemoratedtheleadingpaintersandauthorsoftheirdaystressingtheuniquenessoftheartist’spersonalexperienceratherthanpublicglory.BycontrasttheVictorianauthorSamualSmileswroteSelf-Helpasacatalogueoftheworthylivesofengineersindustrialistsandexplores."Thevaluableexampleswhichtheyfurnishofthepowerofself-helpifpatientpurposeresoluteworkingandsteadfastintegrityissuingintheformulationoftrulynobleandmanycharacterexhibit"wroteSmiles."whatitisinthepowerofeachtoaccomplishforhimself"HisbiographiesofJamesWaltRichardArkwrightandJosiahWedgwoodwereheldupasbeaconstoguidetheworkingmanthroughhisdifficultlife. ThiswasallabitbourgeoisforThomasCarlylewhofocusedhisbiographiesonthetrulyheroiclivesofMartinLutherOliverCromwellandNapoleonBonaparte.Theseepochalfiguresrepresentedliveshardtoimitatebuttobeacknowledgedaspossessinghigherauthoritythanmeremortals. CommunistManifesto.Forthemhistorydidnothingitpossessednoimmensewealthnorwagedbattles:"Itismanreallivingmanwhodoesallthat."Andhistoryshouldbethestoryofthemassesandtheirrecordofstruggle.Assuchitneededtoappreciatetheeconomicrealitiesthesocialcontextsandpowerrelationsinwhicheachepochstood.For:"Menmaketheirownhistorybuttheydonotmakeitjustastheyplease;theydonotmakeitundercircumstanceschosenbythemselvesbutundercircumstancesdirectlyfoundgivenandtransmittedfromthepast." Thiswasthetraditionwhichrevolutionizedourappreciationofthepast.InplaceofThomasCarlyleBritainnurturedChristopherHillEPThompsonandEricHobsbawm.Historyfrombelowstoodalongsidebiographiesofgreatmen.Wholenewrealmsofunderstanding—fromgendertoracetoculturalstudies—wereopenedupasscholarsunpickedthemultiplicityoflostsocieties.Andittransformedpublichistorytoo:downstairsbecamejustasfascinatingasupstairs. [A]emphasizedthevirtueofclassicalheroes. 41.iPetrarch [B]highlightedthepublicgloryoftheleadingartists. 42.NiccoloMachiavelli [C]focusedonepochalfigureswhoseliveswerehardtoimitate. 43.SamuelSmiles [D]openedupnewrealmsofunderstandingthegreatmeninhistory. 44.ThomasCarlyle [E]heldthathistoryshouldbethestoryofthemassesandtheirrecordofstruggle. 45.MarxandEngels [F]dismissedvirtueasunnecessaryforsuccessfulleaders. [G]depictedtheworthylivesofengineerindustrialistsandexplorers. 42
Extraordinarycreativeactivityhasbeencharacterizedasrevolutionaryflyinginthefaceofwhatisestablishedandproducingnotwhatisacceptablebutwhatwillbecomeaccepted.Accordingtothisformulationhighlycreativeactivitytranscendsthelimitsofanexistingformandestablishesanewprincipleoforganization.Howevertheideathatextraordinarycreativitytranscendsestablishedlimitsismisleadingwhenitisappliedtotheartseventhoughitmaybevalidforthescience;Differencesbetweenhighlycreativeartandhighlycreativescienceariseinpartfromadifferenceintheirgoal.Forthesciencesanewtheoryisthegoalandendresultofthecreativeact.Innovativescienceproducesnewpropositionsintermsofwhichdiversephenomenacanberelatedtooneanotherinmorecoherentways.Suchphenomenaasabrilliantdiamondoranestingbirdarerelegatedtotheroleofdateservingasthemeansforformulatingortestinganewtheory.Thegoalofhighlycreativeartisdifferent:thephenomenonitselfbecomesthedirectproductofthecreativeact.Shakespeare’sHamletisnotatractaboutthebehaviorofindecisiveprincesortheusesofpoliticalpowernorisPicasso’spaintingGuernicaprimarilyaprepositionalstatementabouttheSpanishCivilWarortheevilsoffascism.What’highlycreativeactivityproducesisnotanewgeneralizationthat’transcendsestablishedlimitsbutratheranaestheticparticular.Aestheticparticularsproducedbythehighlycreativeartistextendorexploitratherthantranscendthatform. Thisisnottodenythatahighlycreativeartistsometimesestablishesanewprincipleoforganizationinthehistoryofanartisticfield;thecomposerMonteverdiwhocreatedmusicofthehighestaestheticvaluecomestomind.Moregenerallyhoweverwhetherornotacompositionestablishesanewprincipleinthehistoryofmusichasnobearingonitsaestheticworth.BecausetheyembodyanewprincipleoforganizationsomemusicalworkssuchastheoperasoftheFlorentineCamerataareofsignalhistoricalimportancebutfewlistenersormusicologistswouldincludetheseamongthegreatworksofmusic.OntheotherhandMozart’sTheMarriageofFigaro费加罗的婚礼issurelyamongthemasterpieceofmusiceventhoughitsmodestinnovationsareconfinedtoextendingexistingmeans.IthasbeensaidofBeethoventhathetoppledtherulesandfreedmusicfromthestiflingconfinesofconvention.ButaclosestudyofhiscompositionrevealsthatBeethovenoverturnednofundamentalrules.RatherhewasanincomparablestrategistwhoexploitedlimitsoftherulesformsandconventionsthatheinheritedfrompredecessorssuchasHaydnandMozartHandelandBach—instrikinglyoriginalways. Accordingtotheauthordistinctionsbetweenthoseengagedinthecreativeartsandinnaturalsciencescaninpartbeexplainedby
Ourdailyexistenceisdividedintotwophasesasdistinctasdayandnight.Wecallthemworkandplay.Weworkmanyhoursadayandweallowthenecessaryminimumforsuchactivitiesaseatingandshopping.46Therestwespendinvariousactivitieswhichareknownasrecreationsanelegantwordwhichdisguisesthefactthatweusuallydonotevenplayinourhoursofleisurebutspendtheminvariousformsofpassiveenjoymentorentertainment. Weneedtomakethereforeahard-and-fastdistinctionnotonlybetweenworkandplaybutequallybetweenactiveplayandpassiveentertainment.47ItisIsupposethedeclineofactiveplay—ofamateursport—andtheenormousgrowthofpurelyreceptiveentertainmentwhichhavegivenrisetoasociologicalinterestintheproblem.Ifthegreaterpartofthepopulationinsteadofindulginginsportspendtheirhoursofleisure"viewing"televisionprogramstherewillinevitablybeadeclineinhealthandphysique.Inadditionwehaveyettotracethementalandmoralconsequencesofprolongeddietofsentimentalorsensationalspectaclesonthescreen.48Thereisifweareoptimisticthepossibilitythatthedietistoothinandunnourishingtohavemuchpermanenteffectonanybody.Ninefilmsoutoftenseemtoleaveabsolutelynoimpressiononthemindorimaginationofthosewhohaveseenthem. 49Itisonlywhenentertainmentisactiveparticipatedinpracticedthatitcanproperlybecalledplayandassuchitisanaturaluseofleisure.Inthatsenseplaystandsincontrasttoworkandisusuallyregardedasanactivitythatalternateswithwork. Workitselfisnotasingleconcept.Wesayquitegenerallythatweworkinordertomakealiving.Someofusworkphysicallytillingthelandmindingthemachinesdiggingthecoal;othersworkmentallykeepingaccountsinventingmachinesteachingandpreachingmanagingandgoverning.50Theredoesnotseemtobeanyfactorcommontoallthesediverseoccupationsexceptthattheyconsumeourtimeandleaveuslittleleisure. 48Thereisifweareoptimisticthepossibilitythatthedietistoothinandunnourishingtohavemuchpermanenteffectonanybody.
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage".Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter—aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis—theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen—publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces—arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 8
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage".Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter—aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis—theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen—publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces—arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 16
WhenMelissaMahanandherhusbandvisitedtheNetherlandstheyfeltimprisonedbytheirtourbus.Itforcedthemtoseethecityaccordingtoaparticularrouteandspecificschedule--butgoingoffontheirownmeantmissingoutontheinformationprovidedbytheguide.OntheirreturnhometoSanDiegoCaliforniatheystartedanewcompanycalledTourCoupes.NowwhentouristsinSanDiegorentoneoftheirsmallbrightlycolouredthree-wheeledvehiclestheyaretreatedtoanarrationoverthestereosystemabouttheplacestheypasstriggeredbyGlobalPositioningSystemGPSsatellitetechnology. ThisisjustoneexampleofhowGPSisbeingusedtoprovidenewservicestotourists."Whatwereallyhavehereisatechnologythatallowspeopletoforgetaboutthetechnology"saysJimCarrierofIntelliToursaGPStourismfirmwhichbeganofferingasimilarserviceoverayearagoinMontgomeryAlabama.ThecityispackedwithsitesassociatedwithtwoimportantchaptersinAmericanhistorythecivilwarofthe1860sandthecivil-rightsmovementacenturylater.Montgomeryhasa120-year-oldtrolleysystemcalledtheLightningRoutewhichcirculatesaroundthedowntownareaandismainlyusedbytourists.OntheLightningRoutetrolleysGPS-triggeredaudioclipspointouthistoricalhotspots. OtherfirmssuchasCityShowinNewYorkandGPSToursCanadainBanffCanadaofferhand-heldGPSreceiversthatplayaudioclipsforlisteningtowhilewalkingordriving.InSouthAfricaEuropcaracar-rentalfirmoffersadevicecalledtheXplorer.Aswellasprovidingcommentaryon2000pointsofinterestitcanalsowarndriversiftheyexceedthelocalspeedlimit. Ifsuchservicesprovepopulartheuseofdedicatedaudio-guidedevicescouldgivewaytoadifferentapproach.Agrowingnumberofmobilephoneshavebuilt-inGPSorcandeterminetheirlocationsusingothertechnologies.Informationfortouristsdeliveredviaphonescouldbeupdatedinrealtimeandcouldcontainadvertisements."Location-basedservices"suchastheabilitytocallupalistofnearbybanksorpizzeriashavebeentalkedaboutforyearsbuthavenevertakenoff.Butaimingsuchservicesattouristsmakessense--sincepeoplearemorelikelytowantinformationwheninanunfamiliarplace.Itcouldgivemobileroamingawholenewmeaning. MelissaMahan’sstoryismentionedinthetextto
InoneverylongsentencetheintroductiontotheU.N.CharterexpressestheidealsandthecommonaimsofallthepeoplewhosegovernmentsjoinedtogethertoformtheU.N. "WethepeopleoftheU.N.determinedtosavesucceedinggenerationsfromthescourgeofwarwhichtwiceinourlifetimehasbroughtuntoldsufferingtomankindandtoreaffirmfaithinfundamentalrightsinthedignityandworthofthehumanpersonintheequalrightsofmenandwomenandofnationslargeandsmallandtoestablishconditionsunderwhichjusticeandrespectfortheobligationsarisingfromtreatiesandothersourcesofinternationallawcanbemaintainedandtopromotesocialprogressandbetterstandardsoflifeinlargerfreedomandfortheseendstopractisetoleranceandlivetogetherinpeacewithoneanotherasgoodneighboursandtouniteourstrengthtomaintaininternationalpeaceandsecurityandtoensurebytheacceptanceofprinciplesandtheinstitutionofmethodsthatarmedforceshallnotbeusedsaveinthecommoninterestandtoemployinternationalmachineryforthepromotionofeconomicandsocialadvancementofallpeopleshaveresolvedtocombineoureffortstoaccomplishtheseaims." Thename"UnitedNations"isaccreditedtoU.S.PresidentFranklinD.RooseveltandthefirstgroupofrepresentativesofmemberStatesmetandsignedadeclarationofcommonintentonNewYear’sDayin1942.RepresentativesoffivepowersworkedtogethertodrawupproposalscompletedatDumbartonOaksin1944.TheseproposalsmodifiedafterdeliberationattheconferenceonInternationalOrganizationinSanFranciscowhichbeganinApril1945werefinallyagreedonandsignedastheU.N.Charterby50countrieson26June1945.PolandnotrepresentedattheconferencesignedtheCharterlaterandwasaddedtothelistoforiginalmembers.ItwasnotuntilthatautumnhoweveraftertheCharterhadbeenratifiedbyChinaFrancetheU.S.S.R.U.theU.K.andtheU.S.andbyamajorityoftheotherparticipantsthattheU.N.officiallycameintoexistence.Thedatewas24OctobernowuniversallycelebratedasUnitedNationsDay. TheessentialfunctionsoftheU.N.aretomaintaininternationalpeaceandsecuritytodevelopfriendlyrelationsamongnationstocooperateinternationallyinsolvinginternationaleconomicsocialculturalandhumanproblemspromotingrespectforhumanrightsandfundamentalfreedomsandtobeacentreforco-ordinatingtheactionsofnationsonattainingthesecommonends. NocountrytakesprecedenceoveranotherintheU.N.Eachmember’srightsandobligationsarethesame.Allmustcontributetothepeacefulsettlementofinternationaldisputeandmembershavepledgedtorefrainfromthethreatoruseofforceagainstotherstates. WhichofthefollowingistrueastotheessentialfunctionsoftheU.N
"UniversalhistorythehistoryofwhatmanhasaccomplishedinthisworldisatbottomtheHistoryoftheGreatMenwhohaveworkedhere"wrotetheVictorianstageThomasCarlyle.Wellnotanymoreitisnot. SuddenlyBritainlookstohavefallenoutwithitsfavouritehistoricalform.Thiscouldbenomorethanapassingliterarycrazebutitalsopointstoabroadertruthabouthowwenowapproachthepast:lessconcernedwithlearningfromforefathersandmoreinterestedinfeelingtheirpain.Todaywewantempathynotinspiration. FromtheearliestdaysoftheRenaissancethewritingofhistorymeantrecountingtheexemplarylivesofgreatmen.In1337PetrarchbeganworkonhisramblingwritingDeVirisIllustribus—OnFamousMenhighlightingthevirtusorvirtueofclassicalheroes.Petrarchcelebratedtheirgreatnessinconqueringfortuneandrisingtothetop.ThiswasthebiographicaltraditionwhichNiccoloMachiavelliturnedonitshead.InThePrincethechampionedcunningruthlessnessandboldnessratherthanvirtuemercyandjusticeastheskillsofsuccessfulleaders. Overtimetheattributesofgreatnessshifted.TheRomanticscommemoratedtheleadingpaintersandauthorsoftheirdaystressingtheuniquenessoftheartist’spersonalexperienceratherthanpublicglory.BycontrasttheVictorianauthorSamualSmileswroteSelf-Helpasacatalogueoftheworthylivesofengineersindustrialistsandexplores."Thevaluableexampleswhichtheyfurnishofthepowerofself-helpifpatientpurposeresoluteworkingandsteadfastintegrityissuingintheformulationoftrulynobleandmanycharacterexhibit"wroteSmiles."whatitisinthepowerofeachtoaccomplishforhimself"HisbiographiesofJamesWaltRichardArkwrightandJosiahWedgwoodwereheldupasbeaconstoguidetheworkingmanthroughhisdifficultlife. ThiswasallabitbourgeoisforThomasCarlylewhofocusedhisbiographiesonthetrulyheroiclivesofMartinLutherOliverCromwellandNapoleonBonaparte.Theseepochalfiguresrepresentedliveshardtoimitatebuttobeacknowledgedaspossessinghigherauthoritythanmeremortals. CommunistManifesto.Forthemhistorydidnothingitpossessednoimmensewealthnorwagedbattles:"Itismanreallivingmanwhodoesallthat."Andhistoryshouldbethestoryofthemassesandtheirrecordofstruggle.Assuchitneededtoappreciatetheeconomicrealitiesthesocialcontextsandpowerrelationsinwhicheachepochstood.For:"Menmaketheirownhistorybuttheydonotmakeitjustastheyplease;theydonotmakeitundercircumstanceschosenbythemselvesbutundercircumstancesdirectlyfoundgivenandtransmittedfromthepast." Thiswasthetraditionwhichrevolutionizedourappreciationofthepast.InplaceofThomasCarlyleBritainnurturedChristopherHillEPThompsonandEricHobsbawm.Historyfrombelowstoodalongsidebiographiesofgreatmen.Wholenewrealmsofunderstanding—fromgendertoracetoculturalstudies—wereopenedupasscholarsunpickedthemultiplicityoflostsocieties.Andittransformedpublichistorytoo:downstairsbecamejustasfascinatingasupstairs. [A]emphasizedthevirtueofclassicalheroes. 41.iPetrarch [B]highlightedthepublicgloryoftheleadingartists. 42.NiccoloMachiavelli [C]focusedonepochalfigureswhoseliveswerehardtoimitate. 43.SamuelSmiles [D]openedupnewrealmsofunderstandingthegreatmeninhistory. 44.ThomasCarlyle [E]heldthathistoryshouldbethestoryofthemassesandtheirrecordofstruggle. 45.MarxandEngels [F]dismissedvirtueasunnecessaryforsuccessfulleaders. [G]depictedtheworthylivesofengineerindustrialistsandexplorers. 44
Extraordinarycreativeactivityhasbeencharacterizedasrevolutionaryflyinginthefaceofwhatisestablishedandproducingnotwhatisacceptablebutwhatwillbecomeaccepted.Accordingtothisformulationhighlycreativeactivitytranscendsthelimitsofanexistingformandestablishesanewprincipleoforganization.Howevertheideathatextraordinarycreativitytranscendsestablishedlimitsismisleadingwhenitisappliedtotheartseventhoughitmaybevalidforthescience;Differencesbetweenhighlycreativeartandhighlycreativescienceariseinpartfromadifferenceintheirgoal.Forthesciencesanewtheoryisthegoalandendresultofthecreativeact.Innovativescienceproducesnewpropositionsintermsofwhichdiversephenomenacanberelatedtooneanotherinmorecoherentways.Suchphenomenaasabrilliantdiamondoranestingbirdarerelegatedtotheroleofdateservingasthemeansforformulatingortestinganewtheory.Thegoalofhighlycreativeartisdifferent:thephenomenonitselfbecomesthedirectproductofthecreativeact.Shakespeare’sHamletisnotatractaboutthebehaviorofindecisiveprincesortheusesofpoliticalpowernorisPicasso’spaintingGuernicaprimarilyaprepositionalstatementabouttheSpanishCivilWarortheevilsoffascism.What’highlycreativeactivityproducesisnotanewgeneralizationthat’transcendsestablishedlimitsbutratheranaestheticparticular.Aestheticparticularsproducedbythehighlycreativeartistextendorexploitratherthantranscendthatform. Thisisnottodenythatahighlycreativeartistsometimesestablishesanewprincipleoforganizationinthehistoryofanartisticfield;thecomposerMonteverdiwhocreatedmusicofthehighestaestheticvaluecomestomind.Moregenerallyhoweverwhetherornotacompositionestablishesanewprincipleinthehistoryofmusichasnobearingonitsaestheticworth.BecausetheyembodyanewprincipleoforganizationsomemusicalworkssuchastheoperasoftheFlorentineCamerataareofsignalhistoricalimportancebutfewlistenersormusicologistswouldincludetheseamongthegreatworksofmusic.OntheotherhandMozart’sTheMarriageofFigaro费加罗的婚礼issurelyamongthemasterpieceofmusiceventhoughitsmodestinnovationsareconfinedtoextendingexistingmeans.IthasbeensaidofBeethoventhathetoppledtherulesandfreedmusicfromthestiflingconfinesofconvention.ButaclosestudyofhiscompositionrevealsthatBeethovenoverturnednofundamentalrules.RatherhewasanincomparablestrategistwhoexploitedlimitsoftherulesformsandconventionsthatheinheritedfrompredecessorssuchasHaydnandMozartHandelandBach—instrikinglyoriginalways. What’sthebesttitleofthepassage
Directions:Writeanessayof160-200wordsbasedonthefollowingdrawing.Inyouressayyoushould 1describethephotosbriefly 2explainitsintendedmeaningand 3supportyourviewwithanexample/examples. YoushouldwriteneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage".Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter—aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis—theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen—publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces—arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 14
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage".Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter—aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis—theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen—publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces—arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 4
46StudentsofUnitedStateshistoryseekingtoidentifythecircumstancesthatencouragedtheemergenceoffeministmovementshavethoroughlyinvestigatedthemid-nineteenth-centuryAmericaneconomicandsocialconditionsthataffectedthestatusofwomen.Thesehistorinanshoweverhaveanalyzedlessfullythedevelopmentofspecificallyfeministideasandactivitiesduringthesameperiod.47FurthermoretheideologicaloriginsoffeminismintheUnitedStateshavebeenobscuredbecauseevenwhenhistoriansdidtakeintoaccountthosefeministideasandactivitiesoccurringwithintheUnitedStatestheyfailedtorecognizethatfeminismwasthenatrulyinternationalmovementactuallycenteredinEurope.Americanfeministactivistswhohavebeendescribedas"solitary"and"individualtheorists"wereinrealityconnectedtoamovement—utopiansocialism—whichwasalreadypopularizingfeministideasinEuropeduringthetwodecadesthatculminatedinthefirstwomen’srightsconferenceheldatSenecaFallsNewYorkin1848.48Thusacompleteunderstandingoftheoriginsanddevelopmentofnineteenth-centuryfeminismintheUnitedStatesrequiresthatthegeographicalfocusbewidenedtoincludeEuropeandthatthedetailedstudyalreadymadeofsocialconditionsbeexpandedtoincludetheideologicaldevelopmentoffeminism. TheearliestandmostpopularoftheutopiansocialistsweretheSaint-Simonians.ThespecificallyfeministpartofSaint-Simonianismhashoweverbeenlessstudiedthanthegroup’scontributiontoearlysocialism.Thisisregrettableontwocounts.By1832feminismwasthecentralconcernofSaint-Simonianismandentirelyabsorbeditsadherents’energy;hencebyignoringitsfeminismEuropeanhistorianshavemisunderstoodSaint-Simonianism.MoreoversincemanyfeministideascanbetracedtoSaint-SimonianismEuropeanhistorians’appreciationoflaterfeminisminFranceandtheUnitedStatesremainedlimited. 49Saint-Simon’sfollowersmanyofwhomwerewomenbasedtheirfeminismonaninterpretationofhisprojecttoreorganizetheglobebyreplacingbruteforcewiththeruleofspiritualpowers.Thenewworldorderwouldberuledtogetherbyamaletorepresentreflectionandafemaletorepresentsentiment.ThiscomplementarityreflectsthefactthatwhiletheSaint-Simoniansdidnotrejectthebeliefthattherewereinnatedifferencesbetweenmenandwomentheyneverthelessforesawanequallyimportantsocialandpoliticalroleforbothsexesintheirutopia. OnlyafewSaint-Simoniansopposedadefinitionofsexualequalitybasedongenderdistinction.Thisminoritybelievedthatindividualsofbothsexeswerebornsimilarincapacityandcharacterandtheyascribedmale-femaledifferencestosocializationandeducation.50Theenvisionedresultofbothcurrentsofthoughthoweverwasthatwomenwouldenterpubliclifeinthenewageandthatsexualequalitywouldrewardmenaswellaswomenwithanimprovedwayoflife. 50Theenvisionedresultofbothcurrentsofthoughthoweverwasthatwomenwouldenterpubliclifeinthenewageandthatsexualequalitywouldrewardmenaswellaswomenwithanimprovedwayoflife.
InoneverylongsentencetheintroductiontotheU.N.CharterexpressestheidealsandthecommonaimsofallthepeoplewhosegovernmentsjoinedtogethertoformtheU.N. "WethepeopleoftheU.N.determinedtosavesucceedinggenerationsfromthescourgeofwarwhichtwiceinourlifetimehasbroughtuntoldsufferingtomankindandtoreaffirmfaithinfundamentalrightsinthedignityandworthofthehumanpersonintheequalrightsofmenandwomenandofnationslargeandsmallandtoestablishconditionsunderwhichjusticeandrespectfortheobligationsarisingfromtreatiesandothersourcesofinternationallawcanbemaintainedandtopromotesocialprogressandbetterstandardsoflifeinlargerfreedomandfortheseendstopractisetoleranceandlivetogetherinpeacewithoneanotherasgoodneighboursandtouniteourstrengthtomaintaininternationalpeaceandsecurityandtoensurebytheacceptanceofprinciplesandtheinstitutionofmethodsthatarmedforceshallnotbeusedsaveinthecommoninterestandtoemployinternationalmachineryforthepromotionofeconomicandsocialadvancementofallpeopleshaveresolvedtocombineoureffortstoaccomplishtheseaims." Thename"UnitedNations"isaccreditedtoU.S.PresidentFranklinD.RooseveltandthefirstgroupofrepresentativesofmemberStatesmetandsignedadeclarationofcommonintentonNewYear’sDayin1942.RepresentativesoffivepowersworkedtogethertodrawupproposalscompletedatDumbartonOaksin1944.TheseproposalsmodifiedafterdeliberationattheconferenceonInternationalOrganizationinSanFranciscowhichbeganinApril1945werefinallyagreedonandsignedastheU.N.Charterby50countrieson26June1945.PolandnotrepresentedattheconferencesignedtheCharterlaterandwasaddedtothelistoforiginalmembers.ItwasnotuntilthatautumnhoweveraftertheCharterhadbeenratifiedbyChinaFrancetheU.S.S.R.U.theU.K.andtheU.S.andbyamajorityoftheotherparticipantsthattheU.N.officiallycameintoexistence.Thedatewas24OctobernowuniversallycelebratedasUnitedNationsDay. TheessentialfunctionsoftheU.N.aretomaintaininternationalpeaceandsecuritytodevelopfriendlyrelationsamongnationstocooperateinternationallyinsolvinginternationaleconomicsocialculturalandhumanproblemspromotingrespectforhumanrightsandfundamentalfreedomsandtobeacentreforco-ordinatingtheactionsofnationsonattainingthesecommonends. NocountrytakesprecedenceoveranotherintheU.N.Eachmember’srightsandobligationsarethesame.Allmustcontributetothepeacefulsettlementofinternationaldisputeandmembershavepledgedtorefrainfromthethreatoruseofforceagainstotherstates. WhatdidPresidentRoosevelthavetodowiththeUnitedNations
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage".Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter—aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis—theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen—publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces—arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 20
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage".Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter—aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis—theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen—publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces—arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 18
OneoftheenduringmythsofAmericanfolkloreisthatJesseJameswasahome-grownRobinHoodwho"stolefromtherichandgavetothepoor"Thatlegendenjoyedarevivedpopularityinthe1960s.Supportedbymoviespulpfictionandevenseriousscholarshipthisimagehasdominatedourunderstandingofthepost-CivilWarJamesgangandotherwesternoutlaws.HistorianshavedescribedJamesasa"primitiverebel"whochampioned"aspecialtypeofpeasantprotestandrebellion"againstmodernizingforcesbyrobbingbanksandrailroads. ButJameshimselfwouldhaveconsideredthisnotionagreatjoke.InfactJames’srobberswentaftertheexpresscompanysafesjustbecausethat’swherethemoneywas.AsfortheRobinHoodthemethereisnoevidencetheJamesgangdidanythingwiththecashtheystoleexcepttospenditonfinehorsefleshandgambling. ThekeytounderstandingthemotivesoftheJamesgang—besidesgreed—istheCivilWarespeciallytheviciousguerrillacombatwithinthelargerwarthatplaguedMissouri.SupportfortheConfederacywasstrongintheLittleDixiecountiesthatflankedtheMissouriRiverjusteastoftheKansasborder.InthesecountieslivedmostofthemenandboyswhowentintothebushasConfederateguerrillasincludingFrankandJesseJames.Theylearnedtheirtradeunderthetutelageofsuchpsychopathickillersas"BloodyBill"AndersonandWilliamClarkeQuantrillwhomurderedscoresofMissouriUnionistsandfoughtitoutwithUnionsoldiersduringfouryearsofinternecinewarfare. Theseguerrillaswereanythingbutthepoorfarmersoffolklore.ManyofthemlikeJamescamefromfamiliesthatwerethreetimesmorelikelytoownslavesandpossessedtwiceasmuchwealthastheaverageMissourifamily.JamesfoughtduringthewaragainstemancipationandafterthewaragainsttheRepublicanPartythatfreedandenfranchisedtheslaves.ManyofthebanksandexpresscompaniesstruckbytheJamesgangwereownedbyindividualsorgroupsassociatedwiththeRepublicanParty.LiketheKuKluxKlaninformerConfederatestatestheJamesgangdiditsbesttounderminetheneworderusheredinbyNorthernvictoryintheCivilWar. WhenDemocratsregainedcontrolofMissouriinthe1870stheJamesganglookedforgreenerpasturesoutsidethestate.InAugust1876theyrodeallthewaytoNorthfieldMinn.withtheaimofrobbingabankthereinwhichaUniongeneralwasreportedtohavedepositedlargefunds.Whenthebankcashier—alsoaUnionveteran—refusedtoopenthevaultJamesshothimincoldblood.ThecitizensofNorthfieldfoughtbackkillingtwoofthebanditsbeforetheycouldfleethetown.JesseandFrankJamesgotawaybutthisaffairwasthebeginningoftheendforJesse’scareerastheself-described"Napoleonofcrime. Whichisthebesttitleofthispassage
46StudentsofUnitedStateshistoryseekingtoidentifythecircumstancesthatencouragedtheemergenceoffeministmovementshavethoroughlyinvestigatedthemid-nineteenth-centuryAmericaneconomicandsocialconditionsthataffectedthestatusofwomen.Thesehistorinanshoweverhaveanalyzedlessfullythedevelopmentofspecificallyfeministideasandactivitiesduringthesameperiod.47FurthermoretheideologicaloriginsoffeminismintheUnitedStateshavebeenobscuredbecauseevenwhenhistoriansdidtakeintoaccountthosefeministideasandactivitiesoccurringwithintheUnitedStatestheyfailedtorecognizethatfeminismwasthenatrulyinternationalmovementactuallycenteredinEurope.Americanfeministactivistswhohavebeendescribedas"solitary"and"individualtheorists"wereinrealityconnectedtoamovement—utopiansocialism—whichwasalreadypopularizingfeministideasinEuropeduringthetwodecadesthatculminatedinthefirstwomen’srightsconferenceheldatSenecaFallsNewYorkin1848.48Thusacompleteunderstandingoftheoriginsanddevelopmentofnineteenth-centuryfeminismintheUnitedStatesrequiresthatthegeographicalfocusbewidenedtoincludeEuropeandthatthedetailedstudyalreadymadeofsocialconditionsbeexpandedtoincludetheideologicaldevelopmentoffeminism. TheearliestandmostpopularoftheutopiansocialistsweretheSaint-Simonians.ThespecificallyfeministpartofSaint-Simonianismhashoweverbeenlessstudiedthanthegroup’scontributiontoearlysocialism.Thisisregrettableontwocounts.By1832feminismwasthecentralconcernofSaint-Simonianismandentirelyabsorbeditsadherents’energy;hencebyignoringitsfeminismEuropeanhistorianshavemisunderstoodSaint-Simonianism.MoreoversincemanyfeministideascanbetracedtoSaint-SimonianismEuropeanhistorians’appreciationoflaterfeminisminFranceandtheUnitedStatesremainedlimited. 49Saint-Simon’sfollowersmanyofwhomwerewomenbasedtheirfeminismonaninterpretationofhisprojecttoreorganizetheglobebyreplacingbruteforcewiththeruleofspiritualpowers.Thenewworldorderwouldberuledtogetherbyamaletorepresentreflectionandafemaletorepresentsentiment.ThiscomplementarityreflectsthefactthatwhiletheSaint-Simoniansdidnotrejectthebeliefthattherewereinnatedifferencesbetweenmenandwomentheyneverthelessforesawanequallyimportantsocialandpoliticalroleforbothsexesintheirutopia. OnlyafewSaint-Simoniansopposedadefinitionofsexualequalitybasedongenderdistinction.Thisminoritybelievedthatindividualsofbothsexeswerebornsimilarincapacityandcharacterandtheyascribedmale-femaledifferencestosocializationandeducation.50Theenvisionedresultofbothcurrentsofthoughthoweverwasthatwomenwouldenterpubliclifeinthenewageandthatsexualequalitywouldrewardmenaswellaswomenwithanimprovedwayoflife. 46StudentsofUnitedStateshistoryseekingtoidentifythecircumstancesthatencouragedtheemergenceoffeministmovementshavethoroughlyinvestigatedthemid-nineteenth-centuryAmericaneconomicandsocialconditionsthataffectedthestatusofwomen.
46StudentsofUnitedStateshistoryseekingtoidentifythecircumstancesthatencouragedtheemergenceoffeministmovementshavethoroughlyinvestigatedthemid-nineteenth-centuryAmericaneconomicandsocialconditionsthataffectedthestatusofwomen.Thesehistorinanshoweverhaveanalyzedlessfullythedevelopmentofspecificallyfeministideasandactivitiesduringthesameperiod.47FurthermoretheideologicaloriginsoffeminismintheUnitedStateshavebeenobscuredbecauseevenwhenhistoriansdidtakeintoaccountthosefeministideasandactivitiesoccurringwithintheUnitedStatestheyfailedtorecognizethatfeminismwasthenatrulyinternationalmovementactuallycenteredinEurope.Americanfeministactivistswhohavebeendescribedas"solitary"and"individualtheorists"wereinrealityconnectedtoamovement—utopiansocialism—whichwasalreadypopularizingfeministideasinEuropeduringthetwodecadesthatculminatedinthefirstwomen’srightsconferenceheldatSenecaFallsNewYorkin1848.48Thusacompleteunderstandingoftheoriginsanddevelopmentofnineteenth-centuryfeminismintheUnitedStatesrequiresthatthegeographicalfocusbewidenedtoincludeEuropeandthatthedetailedstudyalreadymadeofsocialconditionsbeexpandedtoincludetheideologicaldevelopmentoffeminism. TheearliestandmostpopularoftheutopiansocialistsweretheSaint-Simonians.ThespecificallyfeministpartofSaint-Simonianismhashoweverbeenlessstudiedthanthegroup’scontributiontoearlysocialism.Thisisregrettableontwocounts.By1832feminismwasthecentralconcernofSaint-Simonianismandentirelyabsorbeditsadherents’energy;hencebyignoringitsfeminismEuropeanhistorianshavemisunderstoodSaint-Simonianism.MoreoversincemanyfeministideascanbetracedtoSaint-SimonianismEuropeanhistorians’appreciationoflaterfeminisminFranceandtheUnitedStatesremainedlimited. 49Saint-Simon’sfollowersmanyofwhomwerewomenbasedtheirfeminismonaninterpretationofhisprojecttoreorganizetheglobebyreplacingbruteforcewiththeruleofspiritualpowers.Thenewworldorderwouldberuledtogetherbyamaletorepresentreflectionandafemaletorepresentsentiment.ThiscomplementarityreflectsthefactthatwhiletheSaint-Simoniansdidnotrejectthebeliefthattherewereinnatedifferencesbetweenmenandwomentheyneverthelessforesawanequallyimportantsocialandpoliticalroleforbothsexesintheirutopia. OnlyafewSaint-Simoniansopposedadefinitionofsexualequalitybasedongenderdistinction.Thisminoritybelievedthatindividualsofbothsexeswerebornsimilarincapacityandcharacterandtheyascribedmale-femaledifferencestosocializationandeducation.50Theenvisionedresultofbothcurrentsofthoughthoweverwasthatwomenwouldenterpubliclifeinthenewageandthatsexualequalitywouldrewardmenaswellaswomenwithanimprovedwayoflife. 48Thusacompleteunderstandingoftheoriginsanddevelopmentofnineteenth-centuryfeminismintheUnitedStatesrequiresthatthegeographicalfocusbewidenedtoincludeEuropeandthatthedetailedstudyalreadymadeofsocialconditionsbeexpandedtoincludetheideologicaldevelopmentoffeminism.
OneoftheenduringmythsofAmericanfolkloreisthatJesseJameswasahome-grownRobinHoodwho"stolefromtherichandgavetothepoor"Thatlegendenjoyedarevivedpopularityinthe1960s.Supportedbymoviespulpfictionandevenseriousscholarshipthisimagehasdominatedourunderstandingofthepost-CivilWarJamesgangandotherwesternoutlaws.HistorianshavedescribedJamesasa"primitiverebel"whochampioned"aspecialtypeofpeasantprotestandrebellion"againstmodernizingforcesbyrobbingbanksandrailroads. ButJameshimselfwouldhaveconsideredthisnotionagreatjoke.InfactJames’srobberswentaftertheexpresscompanysafesjustbecausethat’swherethemoneywas.AsfortheRobinHoodthemethereisnoevidencetheJamesgangdidanythingwiththecashtheystoleexcepttospenditonfinehorsefleshandgambling. ThekeytounderstandingthemotivesoftheJamesgang—besidesgreed—istheCivilWarespeciallytheviciousguerrillacombatwithinthelargerwarthatplaguedMissouri.SupportfortheConfederacywasstrongintheLittleDixiecountiesthatflankedtheMissouriRiverjusteastoftheKansasborder.InthesecountieslivedmostofthemenandboyswhowentintothebushasConfederateguerrillasincludingFrankandJesseJames.Theylearnedtheirtradeunderthetutelageofsuchpsychopathickillersas"BloodyBill"AndersonandWilliamClarkeQuantrillwhomurderedscoresofMissouriUnionistsandfoughtitoutwithUnionsoldiersduringfouryearsofinternecinewarfare. Theseguerrillaswereanythingbutthepoorfarmersoffolklore.ManyofthemlikeJamescamefromfamiliesthatwerethreetimesmorelikelytoownslavesandpossessedtwiceasmuchwealthastheaverageMissourifamily.JamesfoughtduringthewaragainstemancipationandafterthewaragainsttheRepublicanPartythatfreedandenfranchisedtheslaves.ManyofthebanksandexpresscompaniesstruckbytheJamesgangwereownedbyindividualsorgroupsassociatedwiththeRepublicanParty.LiketheKuKluxKlaninformerConfederatestatestheJamesgangdiditsbesttounderminetheneworderusheredinbyNorthernvictoryintheCivilWar. WhenDemocratsregainedcontrolofMissouriinthe1870stheJamesganglookedforgreenerpasturesoutsidethestate.InAugust1876theyrodeallthewaytoNorthfieldMinn.withtheaimofrobbingabankthereinwhichaUniongeneralwasreportedtohavedepositedlargefunds.Whenthebankcashier—alsoaUnionveteran—refusedtoopenthevaultJamesshothimincoldblood.ThecitizensofNorthfieldfoughtbackkillingtwoofthebanditsbeforetheycouldfleethetown.JesseandFrankJamesgotawaybutthisaffairwasthebeginningoftheendforJesse’scareerastheself-described"Napoleonofcrime. Asfortheguerrillawhichistheright
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage".Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter—aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis—theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen—publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces—arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 6
Ourdailyexistenceisdividedintotwophasesasdistinctasdayandnight.Wecallthemworkandplay.Weworkmanyhoursadayandweallowthenecessaryminimumforsuchactivitiesaseatingandshopping.46Therestwespendinvariousactivitieswhichareknownasrecreationsanelegantwordwhichdisguisesthefactthatweusuallydonotevenplayinourhoursofleisurebutspendtheminvariousformsofpassiveenjoymentorentertainment. Weneedtomakethereforeahard-and-fastdistinctionnotonlybetweenworkandplaybutequallybetweenactiveplayandpassiveentertainment.47ItisIsupposethedeclineofactiveplay—ofamateursport—andtheenormousgrowthofpurelyreceptiveentertainmentwhichhavegivenrisetoasociologicalinterestintheproblem.Ifthegreaterpartofthepopulationinsteadofindulginginsportspendtheirhoursofleisure"viewing"televisionprogramstherewillinevitablybeadeclineinhealthandphysique.Inadditionwehaveyettotracethementalandmoralconsequencesofprolongeddietofsentimentalorsensationalspectaclesonthescreen.48Thereisifweareoptimisticthepossibilitythatthedietistoothinandunnourishingtohavemuchpermanenteffectonanybody.Ninefilmsoutoftenseemtoleaveabsolutelynoimpressiononthemindorimaginationofthosewhohaveseenthem. 49Itisonlywhenentertainmentisactiveparticipatedinpracticedthatitcanproperlybecalledplayandassuchitisanaturaluseofleisure.Inthatsenseplaystandsincontrasttoworkandisusuallyregardedasanactivitythatalternateswithwork. Workitselfisnotasingleconcept.Wesayquitegenerallythatweworkinordertomakealiving.Someofusworkphysicallytillingthelandmindingthemachinesdiggingthecoal;othersworkmentallykeepingaccountsinventingmachinesteachingandpreachingmanagingandgoverning.50Theredoesnotseemtobeanyfactorcommontoallthesediverseoccupationsexceptthattheyconsumeourtimeandleaveuslittleleisure. 46Therestwespendinvariousactivitieswhichareknownasrecreationsanelegantwordwhichdisguisesthefactthatweusuallydonotevenplayinourhoursofleisurebutspendtheminvariousformsofpassiveenjoymentorentertainment.
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage".Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter—aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis—theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen—publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces—arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 12
WhenMelissaMahanandherhusbandvisitedtheNetherlandstheyfeltimprisonedbytheirtourbus.Itforcedthemtoseethecityaccordingtoaparticularrouteandspecificschedule--butgoingoffontheirownmeantmissingoutontheinformationprovidedbytheguide.OntheirreturnhometoSanDiegoCaliforniatheystartedanewcompanycalledTourCoupes.NowwhentouristsinSanDiegorentoneoftheirsmallbrightlycolouredthree-wheeledvehiclestheyaretreatedtoanarrationoverthestereosystemabouttheplacestheypasstriggeredbyGlobalPositioningSystemGPSsatellitetechnology. ThisisjustoneexampleofhowGPSisbeingusedtoprovidenewservicestotourists."Whatwereallyhavehereisatechnologythatallowspeopletoforgetaboutthetechnology"saysJimCarrierofIntelliToursaGPStourismfirmwhichbeganofferingasimilarserviceoverayearagoinMontgomeryAlabama.ThecityispackedwithsitesassociatedwithtwoimportantchaptersinAmericanhistorythecivilwarofthe1860sandthecivil-rightsmovementacenturylater.Montgomeryhasa120-year-oldtrolleysystemcalledtheLightningRoutewhichcirculatesaroundthedowntownareaandismainlyusedbytourists.OntheLightningRoutetrolleysGPS-triggeredaudioclipspointouthistoricalhotspots. OtherfirmssuchasCityShowinNewYorkandGPSToursCanadainBanffCanadaofferhand-heldGPSreceiversthatplayaudioclipsforlisteningtowhilewalkingordriving.InSouthAfricaEuropcaracar-rentalfirmoffersadevicecalledtheXplorer.Aswellasprovidingcommentaryon2000pointsofinterestitcanalsowarndriversiftheyexceedthelocalspeedlimit. Ifsuchservicesprovepopulartheuseofdedicatedaudio-guidedevicescouldgivewaytoadifferentapproach.Agrowingnumberofmobilephoneshavebuilt-inGPSorcandeterminetheirlocationsusingothertechnologies.Informationfortouristsdeliveredviaphonescouldbeupdatedinrealtimeandcouldcontainadvertisements."Location-basedservices"suchastheabilitytocallupalistofnearbybanksorpizzeriashavebeentalkedaboutforyearsbuthavenevertakenoff.Butaimingsuchservicesattouristsmakessense--sincepeoplearemorelikelytowantinformationwheninanunfamiliarplace.Itcouldgivemobileroamingawholenewmeaning. Whichofthefollowingistrueofthetext
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage".Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter—aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis—theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen—publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces—arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 10
OneoftheenduringmythsofAmericanfolkloreisthatJesseJameswasahome-grownRobinHoodwho"stolefromtherichandgavetothepoor"Thatlegendenjoyedarevivedpopularityinthe1960s.Supportedbymoviespulpfictionandevenseriousscholarshipthisimagehasdominatedourunderstandingofthepost-CivilWarJamesgangandotherwesternoutlaws.HistorianshavedescribedJamesasa"primitiverebel"whochampioned"aspecialtypeofpeasantprotestandrebellion"againstmodernizingforcesbyrobbingbanksandrailroads. ButJameshimselfwouldhaveconsideredthisnotionagreatjoke.InfactJames’srobberswentaftertheexpresscompanysafesjustbecausethat’swherethemoneywas.AsfortheRobinHoodthemethereisnoevidencetheJamesgangdidanythingwiththecashtheystoleexcepttospenditonfinehorsefleshandgambling. ThekeytounderstandingthemotivesoftheJamesgang—besidesgreed—istheCivilWarespeciallytheviciousguerrillacombatwithinthelargerwarthatplaguedMissouri.SupportfortheConfederacywasstrongintheLittleDixiecountiesthatflankedtheMissouriRiverjusteastoftheKansasborder.InthesecountieslivedmostofthemenandboyswhowentintothebushasConfederateguerrillasincludingFrankandJesseJames.Theylearnedtheirtradeunderthetutelageofsuchpsychopathickillersas"BloodyBill"AndersonandWilliamClarkeQuantrillwhomurderedscoresofMissouriUnionistsandfoughtitoutwithUnionsoldiersduringfouryearsofinternecinewarfare. Theseguerrillaswereanythingbutthepoorfarmersoffolklore.ManyofthemlikeJamescamefromfamiliesthatwerethreetimesmorelikelytoownslavesandpossessedtwiceasmuchwealthastheaverageMissourifamily.JamesfoughtduringthewaragainstemancipationandafterthewaragainsttheRepublicanPartythatfreedandenfranchisedtheslaves.ManyofthebanksandexpresscompaniesstruckbytheJamesgangwereownedbyindividualsorgroupsassociatedwiththeRepublicanParty.LiketheKuKluxKlaninformerConfederatestatestheJamesgangdiditsbesttounderminetheneworderusheredinbyNorthernvictoryintheCivilWar. WhenDemocratsregainedcontrolofMissouriinthe1870stheJamesganglookedforgreenerpasturesoutsidethestate.InAugust1876theyrodeallthewaytoNorthfieldMinn.withtheaimofrobbingabankthereinwhichaUniongeneralwasreportedtohavedepositedlargefunds.Whenthebankcashier—alsoaUnionveteran—refusedtoopenthevaultJamesshothimincoldblood.ThecitizensofNorthfieldfoughtbackkillingtwoofthebanditsbeforetheycouldfleethetown.JesseandFrankJamesgotawaybutthisaffairwasthebeginningoftheendforJesse’scareerastheself-described"Napoleonofcrime. Fromthefirstparagraphwecanknowthat
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage".Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter—aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis—theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen—publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces—arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 2
LongbeforemanlivedontheEarththerewerefishesreptilesbirdsinsectsandsomemammals.Althoughsomeoftheseanimalswereancestorsofkindslivingtodayothersarenowextinctthatistheyhavenodescendantsalivenow.Neverthelessweknowagreatdealaboutmanyofthembecausetheirbonesandshellshavebeenpreservedintherocksasfossils. 41.______Thatkindofrockinwhichtheremainsarefoundtellsusmuchaboutthenatureoftheoriginallandoftenoftheplantsthatgrewonitandevenofitsclimate. Whenananimaldiesthebodyitsbonesorshellmayoftenbecarriedawaybystreamsintolakesortheseaandtheregetcoveredupbymud.Iftheanimallivedintheseaitsbodywouldprobablysinkandbecoveredwithmud.Moreandmoremudwouldfalluponituntilthebonesorshellbecomeembeddedandpreserved.42．______Thusitfollowsthattheremustbemanykindsofmammalsbirdsandinsectsofwhichweknownothing 43．______Laterformsaremorecomplexandamongthesearethesea-liliesrelationsofthestar-fisheswhichhadlongarmsandwereattachedbyalongstalktotheseabedortorocks.Therewerealsocrab-likecreatureswhosebodieswerecoveredwithahornysubstanceThebodysegmentseachhadtwopairsoflegsonepairforwalkingonthesandybottomtheotherforswimming.Theheadwasakindofshieldwithapairofcompoundeyesoftenwiththousandsoflenses.Theywereusuallyaninchortwolongbutsomewere2feet. Theshellfishhavealonghistoryintherockandmanydifferentkindsareknown.Ofthesetheammonitesareveryinterestingandimportant.Theyhaveashellcomposedofmanychamberseachrepresentingatemporaryhomeoftheanimal.Astheyounggrewlargeritgrewanewchamberandsealedoffthepreviousone.ThousandsofthesecanbeseenintherocksontheDorsetCoast. Thefirstanimalswithtruebackboneswerefishesfirstknownintherocksof375millionyearsago.About300millionyearsagotheamphibianstheanimalsabletolivebothonlandandinwaterappeared.Theyweregiantsometimes8feetlongandmanyofthemlivedintheswampypoolsinwhichourcoalseamorlayerformed.44．______About75millionyearsagotheAgeofReptileswasoverandmostofthegroupsdiedout.Themammalsquicklydevelopedandwecantracetheevolutionofmanyfamiliaranimalssuchastheelephantandhorse.45．______ [A]Thebestindexfossilstendtobemarinecreatures.Theseanimalsevolvedrapidlyandspreadoverlargeareasoftheworld. [B]Theamphibiansgaverisetothereptilesandfornearly150millionyearstheseweretheprincipalformsoflifeonlandintheseaandintheair. [C]Manyofthelatermammalsthoughnowextinctwereknowntoprimitivemanandwerefeaturedbyhimincavepaintingsandonbonecarvings. [D]Nearlyallofthefossilsthatweknowwerepreservedinrocksformedbywateractionandmostoftheseareofanimalsthatlivedinornearwater. [E]Theearliestanimalswhoseremainshavebeenfoundwereallverysimplekindsandlivedinthesea. [F]Manyfactorscaninfluencehowfossilsarepreservedinrocks.Remainsofanorganismmaybereplacedbymineralsdissolvedbyanacidicsolutiontoleaveonlytheirimpressionorsimplyreducedtoamorestableform. [G]Fromthemwecantelltheirsizeandshapehowtheywalkedthekindoffoodtheyate.Veryoccasionallytherocksshowimpressionofskinsothatapartfromcolorwecanbuildupareasonablyaccuratepictureofananimalthatdiedmillionsofyearsago. 44
Extraordinarycreativeactivityhasbeencharacterizedasrevolutionaryflyinginthefaceofwhatisestablishedandproducingnotwhatisacceptablebutwhatwillbecomeaccepted.Accordingtothisformulationhighlycreativeactivitytranscendsthelimitsofanexistingformandestablishesanewprincipleoforganization.Howevertheideathatextraordinarycreativitytranscendsestablishedlimitsismisleadingwhenitisappliedtotheartseventhoughitmaybevalidforthescience;Differencesbetweenhighlycreativeartandhighlycreativescienceariseinpartfromadifferenceintheirgoal.Forthesciencesanewtheoryisthegoalandendresultofthecreativeact.Innovativescienceproducesnewpropositionsintermsofwhichdiversephenomenacanberelatedtooneanotherinmorecoherentways.Suchphenomenaasabrilliantdiamondoranestingbirdarerelegatedtotheroleofdateservingasthemeansforformulatingortestinganewtheory.Thegoalofhighlycreativeartisdifferent:thephenomenonitselfbecomesthedirectproductofthecreativeact.Shakespeare’sHamletisnotatractaboutthebehaviorofindecisiveprincesortheusesofpoliticalpowernorisPicasso’spaintingGuernicaprimarilyaprepositionalstatementabouttheSpanishCivilWarortheevilsoffascism.What’highlycreativeactivityproducesisnotanewgeneralizationthat’transcendsestablishedlimitsbutratheranaestheticparticular.Aestheticparticularsproducedbythehighlycreativeartistextendorexploitratherthantranscendthatform. Thisisnottodenythatahighlycreativeartistsometimesestablishesanewprincipleoforganizationinthehistoryofanartisticfield;thecomposerMonteverdiwhocreatedmusicofthehighestaestheticvaluecomestomind.Moregenerallyhoweverwhetherornotacompositionestablishesanewprincipleinthehistoryofmusichasnobearingonitsaestheticworth.BecausetheyembodyanewprincipleoforganizationsomemusicalworkssuchastheoperasoftheFlorentineCamerataareofsignalhistoricalimportancebutfewlistenersormusicologistswouldincludetheseamongthegreatworksofmusic.OntheotherhandMozart’sTheMarriageofFigaro费加罗的婚礼issurelyamongthemasterpieceofmusiceventhoughitsmodestinnovationsareconfinedtoextendingexistingmeans.IthasbeensaidofBeethoventhathetoppledtherulesandfreedmusicfromthestiflingconfinesofconvention.ButaclosestudyofhiscompositionrevealsthatBeethovenoverturnednofundamentalrules.RatherhewasanincomparablestrategistwhoexploitedlimitsoftherulesformsandconventionsthatheinheritedfrompredecessorssuchasHaydnandMozartHandelandBach—instrikinglyoriginalways. Thepassageimpliesthatanoriginalcontributioninscienceisonethat
LongbeforemanlivedontheEarththerewerefishesreptilesbirdsinsectsandsomemammals.Althoughsomeoftheseanimalswereancestorsofkindslivingtodayothersarenowextinctthatistheyhavenodescendantsalivenow.Neverthelessweknowagreatdealaboutmanyofthembecausetheirbonesandshellshavebeenpreservedintherocksasfossils. 41.______Thatkindofrockinwhichtheremainsarefoundtellsusmuchaboutthenatureoftheoriginallandoftenoftheplantsthatgrewonitandevenofitsclimate. Whenananimaldiesthebodyitsbonesorshellmayoftenbecarriedawaybystreamsintolakesortheseaandtheregetcoveredupbymud.Iftheanimallivedintheseaitsbodywouldprobablysinkandbecoveredwithmud.Moreandmoremudwouldfalluponituntilthebonesorshellbecomeembeddedandpreserved.42．______Thusitfollowsthattheremustbemanykindsofmammalsbirdsandinsectsofwhichweknownothing 43．______Laterformsaremorecomplexandamongthesearethesea-liliesrelationsofthestar-fisheswhichhadlongarmsandwereattachedbyalongstalktotheseabedortorocks.Therewerealsocrab-likecreatureswhosebodieswerecoveredwithahornysubstanceThebodysegmentseachhadtwopairsoflegsonepairforwalkingonthesandybottomtheotherforswimming.Theheadwasakindofshieldwithapairofcompoundeyesoftenwiththousandsoflenses.Theywereusuallyaninchortwolongbutsomewere2feet. Theshellfishhavealonghistoryintherockandmanydifferentkindsareknown.Ofthesetheammonitesareveryinterestingandimportant.Theyhaveashellcomposedofmanychamberseachrepresentingatemporaryhomeoftheanimal.Astheyounggrewlargeritgrewanewchamberandsealedoffthepreviousone.ThousandsofthesecanbeseenintherocksontheDorsetCoast. Thefirstanimalswithtruebackboneswerefishesfirstknownintherocksof375millionyearsago.About300millionyearsagotheamphibianstheanimalsabletolivebothonlandandinwaterappeared.Theyweregiantsometimes8feetlongandmanyofthemlivedintheswampypoolsinwhichourcoalseamorlayerformed.44．______About75millionyearsagotheAgeofReptileswasoverandmostofthegroupsdiedout.Themammalsquicklydevelopedandwecantracetheevolutionofmanyfamiliaranimalssuchastheelephantandhorse.45．______ [A]Thebestindexfossilstendtobemarinecreatures.Theseanimalsevolvedrapidlyandspreadoverlargeareasoftheworld. [B]Theamphibiansgaverisetothereptilesandfornearly150millionyearstheseweretheprincipalformsoflifeonlandintheseaandintheair. [C]Manyofthelatermammalsthoughnowextinctwereknowntoprimitivemanandwerefeaturedbyhimincavepaintingsandonbonecarvings. [D]Nearlyallofthefossilsthatweknowwerepreservedinrocksformedbywateractionandmostoftheseareofanimalsthatlivedinornearwater. [E]Theearliestanimalswhoseremainshavebeenfoundwereallverysimplekindsandlivedinthesea. [F]Manyfactorscaninfluencehowfossilsarepreservedinrocks.Remainsofanorganismmaybereplacedbymineralsdissolvedbyanacidicsolutiontoleaveonlytheirimpressionorsimplyreducedtoamorestableform. [G]Fromthemwecantelltheirsizeandshapehowtheywalkedthekindoffoodtheyate.Veryoccasionallytherocksshowimpressionofskinsothatapartfromcolorwecanbuildupareasonablyaccuratepictureofananimalthatdiedmillionsofyearsago. 42
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