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In some early attempts by psychologists to describe the basic learning process, the terms ’stimul...
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Text3 OfallthetruthsthatthisgenerationofAmericansholdself-evidentfewaremoredeeplyembeddedinthenationalpsychethanthemaxim"Itpaystogotocollege."SincetheGIBilltrans-formedhighereducationintheaftermathofWWIIacollegediplomaonceabirthrightoftheleisuredfewhasbecomeanattractionfortheupwardlymobileasintegraltotheAmericandreamasthepursuitofhappinessitself.Thenumberstellthestory:in1950s43%ofhigh-schoolgraduateswentontopursuesomeformofhighereducation;attilesametimeonly6%ofAmericanswerecollegegraduates.Butby1998almost2tooutof3secondary-schoolgraduateswereoptingforhighereducation--and21%ofamuchlargerU.S.populationhadcollegediplomas.AsProf.HerbertLondonofNewYorkUniversitytoldacommencementaudiencelastJune:"thecollegeexperiencehasgonefromaritepassagetoarightofpassage." Howeverastheclassof2004issopainfullydiscoveringwhileacollegediplomaremainsarequisitecredentialforascendingtheeconomicladderitnolongerguaranteesthegoodlife.RarelysincetheendoftheGreatDepressionhasthejoboutlookforcollegegraduatesappearedsobleak:ofthe1.1millionstudentswhoreceivedtheirbachelordegreeslastspringfewerthan20%hadlinedupfull-timeemploymentbycommencement.Indeedanuncertainjobmarkethasprecipitatedawaveofeconomicfearandtremblingamongtheyoung."Manyofmyclassmatesareabsolutelyterrified"saysoneofthefortunatefewwhodidmanagetolandapermanentposition."Theywonderifthey’lleverfindajob." Someofthisrecession-inducedanxietywilldisappearifarecoveryfinallybeginstogeneratejobsatwhateconomistsconsideranormalrate.Butthesadfactisthatfortheforeseeablefuturecollegegraduateswillinconsiderablesurplusenablingemployerstorequireadegreeevenforjobsforwhichacollegeeducationisreallyunnecessary.AccordingtoKristinaShelleyoftheBureauofLaborStatistics--whobasesherestimateona"moderateprojection"ofcurrenttrends--30per-centofcollegegraduatesenteringthelabort0rcebetweennowandtheyear2008willbeunemployedorwillfindemploymentinjobsforwhichtheywillbeoverqualifiedjoiningwhateconomistscallthe"educationallyunderutilized." Indeeditmaybequiteawhile--ifever--beforethoseworkingtemporarilyascocktailwaitressesortaxidriverswillbeabletopursuetheirprimarycareerpaths.Ofcoursewaitingontablesandbustlingcabfaresarerespectablewaystoearnaliving.ButtheyarenotquitewhatsomanyyoungAmericans--andtheirparents--hadinmindastheendproductoffourexpensiveyearsincollege. Accordingtothepassagewhatcauseseducationallyunderutilizing
Shynessisthecauseofmuchunhappinessforagreatmanypeople.Shypeopleare1andserf-conscious;thatistheyare2concernedwiththeirownappearanceandactions.3thoughtsare4occurringintheirminds:WhatkindofimpressionamImaking Itisobviousthatsuch5feelingsmustaffectpeopleadversely.Aperson’sself-conceptis6inthewayheorshebehavesandthewayapersonbehavesaffectsotherpeople’sreactions.7thewaypeoplethinkaboutthemselveshasaprofoundeffectonallareasoftheirlives. Shypeoplehavinglow8arelikelytobepassiveandeasilyinfluencedbyothers.Theyneedreassurance9theyaredoing"thefightthing".Shypeoplearevery10tocriticism;theyfeelit11theirinferiority.Ashypersonmay12toacomplimentwithastatementlikethisone:"You’rejustsayingthattomakemefeelgood."Itisclearthat13self-awarenessisahealthyqualityoverdoingitisharmful. Canshynessbecompletely14oratleastreducedFortunatelypeoplecanovercomeshynesswithdeterminedandpatienteffortinbuildingself-confidence.Sinceshynessgoes15withlackofserf-esteemitisimportantforpeopletoaccepttheirweaknessaswellastheirstrengths.Forexamplemostpeoplewouldliketobe"A"studentsineverysubject.Itisnotfairforthemto16themselvesinferiorbecausetheyhavedifficulty17someareas.People’sexpectationsofthemselvesmustbe18 Eachoneofusisauniqueworthwhileindividual.Thebetterweunderstandourselvestheeasieritbecomesto19ourfullpotential.Let’snotallowshynesstoblockourchancesforarichand20life. 5
Withthedevelopmentoftheglobaleconomymanycompaniesstatetheirbasicobjectiveofengaginginaworldwidemanufacturingbusinessandclaimthattheyareorarebecomingamultinationalcompany. Someeconomists1betweentheinternationalfirmandthemultinationalcompanyinthefollowingway:the"internationalfirm"isatermthat2enterpriseswithvariousdegreesofworldorientationintheirbusiness;3the"multinationalcompany"isonetypeofinternationalfirm.Theinternationalfirmengagesinanyactivityor4ofactivitiesfromexportingimportingandlicensingtofullscalemanufacturinginanumberofcountries.Theinternational5ofsuchacompanyvariesfromthepointatwhichoverseassalesandprofitstakeonimportanceandtopmanagementbeginsto6someattentiontothemtothestage7thecompanyisgloballyorientedinitsmarketingproduction8andotherdecisionsandconsidersalternativeopportunitiesaroundtheworld. Whenacompanyreachesthelatterstageitbecomes9.Thusthemultinationalcompanyisonetypeofinternationalcompany.Itisa10developedinternationalcompanywithadeepworldwideinvolvementandaglobal11initsmanagementanddecisionmaking.More12themultinationalcompanyinmanufacturingdoesbusinessinanumberofcountries;ithasasubstantialcommitmentofitsresourcesininternationalbusiness;it13internationalproductioninanumberofcountries;andithasa14perspectiveinitsmanagement.Significant15existamongmultinationalcompanies.Firstsuchacompanymaynot16dobusinessineveryregionandcountryintheworld17itconsidersopportunitiesthroughouttheworld.Secondithasa18portionofitsassetsinvestedininternationalbusiness;19itmakesasubstantialpartofitssalesandearnsaconsiderablepartofits20overseas. 3
Shynessisthecauseofmuchunhappinessforagreatmanypeople.Shypeopleare1andserf-conscious;thatistheyare2concernedwiththeirownappearanceandactions.3thoughtsare4occurringintheirminds:WhatkindofimpressionamImaking Itisobviousthatsuch5feelingsmustaffectpeopleadversely.Aperson’sself-conceptis6inthewayheorshebehavesandthewayapersonbehavesaffectsotherpeople’sreactions.7thewaypeoplethinkaboutthemselveshasaprofoundeffectonallareasoftheirlives. Shypeoplehavinglow8arelikelytobepassiveandeasilyinfluencedbyothers.Theyneedreassurance9theyaredoing"thefightthing".Shypeoplearevery10tocriticism;theyfeelit11theirinferiority.Ashypersonmay12toacomplimentwithastatementlikethisone:"You’rejustsayingthattomakemefeelgood."Itisclearthat13self-awarenessisahealthyqualityoverdoingitisharmful. Canshynessbecompletely14oratleastreducedFortunatelypeoplecanovercomeshynesswithdeterminedandpatienteffortinbuildingself-confidence.Sinceshynessgoes15withlackofserf-esteemitisimportantforpeopletoaccepttheirweaknessaswellastheirstrengths.Forexamplemostpeoplewouldliketobe"A"studentsineverysubject.Itisnotfairforthemto16themselvesinferiorbecausetheyhavedifficulty17someareas.People’sexpectationsofthemselvesmustbe18 Eachoneofusisauniqueworthwhileindividual.Thebetterweunderstandourselvestheeasieritbecomesto19ourfullpotential.Let’snotallowshynesstoblockourchancesforarichand20life. 19
Shynessisthecauseofmuchunhappinessforagreatmanypeople.Shypeopleare1andserf-conscious;thatistheyare2concernedwiththeirownappearanceandactions.3thoughtsare4occurringintheirminds:WhatkindofimpressionamImaking Itisobviousthatsuch5feelingsmustaffectpeopleadversely.Aperson’sself-conceptis6inthewayheorshebehavesandthewayapersonbehavesaffectsotherpeople’sreactions.7thewaypeoplethinkaboutthemselveshasaprofoundeffectonallareasoftheirlives. Shypeoplehavinglow8arelikelytobepassiveandeasilyinfluencedbyothers.Theyneedreassurance9theyaredoing"thefightthing".Shypeoplearevery10tocriticism;theyfeelit11theirinferiority.Ashypersonmay12toacomplimentwithastatementlikethisone:"You’rejustsayingthattomakemefeelgood."Itisclearthat13self-awarenessisahealthyqualityoverdoingitisharmful. Canshynessbecompletely14oratleastreducedFortunatelypeoplecanovercomeshynesswithdeterminedandpatienteffortinbuildingself-confidence.Sinceshynessgoes15withlackofserf-esteemitisimportantforpeopletoaccepttheirweaknessaswellastheirstrengths.Forexamplemostpeoplewouldliketobe"A"studentsineverysubject.Itisnotfairforthemto16themselvesinferiorbecausetheyhavedifficulty17someareas.People’sexpectationsofthemselvesmustbe18 Eachoneofusisauniqueworthwhileindividual.Thebetterweunderstandourselvestheeasieritbecomesto19ourfullpotential.Let’snotallowshynesstoblockourchancesforarichand20life. 9
Text1 Iamnotanaccomplishedlawyer.IfindquiteasmuchmaterialforalectureinthosepointswhereinIhavefailedasinthosewhereIhavebeenmoderatelysuccessful.Theleadingruleforthelawyerasforthemanofeveryothercallingisdiligence.Leavenothingfortomorrowwhichcanbedonetoday.Neverletyourcorrespondencesfallbehind.Whateverpieceofbusinessyouhaveinhandbeforestoppingdoallthelaborrelatedtoitwhichcanthenbedone.Whenyoubringacommonlawsuitifyouhavethefactsfordoingsowritethedeclarationatonce.Ifalawpointbeinvolvedexaminethebooksandnotetheauthorityyourelyonthedeclarationitselfwhereyouaresuretofinditwhenwanted.Inbusinessnotlikelytobelitigated--ordinarycollectioncasespartitionsandthelike--makeallexaminationsoftitlesnotethemandevendraftordersandofficialordersinadvance.Thiscoursehasatripleadvantage:itavoidsomissionsandneglectsavesyourlaborwhenoncedoneperformsthelaboroutofcourtwhenyouhaveleisureratherthanincourtwhenyouhavenot.Spontaneousspeakingshouldbepracticedandcultivated.Itisthelawyer’savenuetothepublic.Howeverableandfaithfulhemaybeinotherrespectspeopleareslowbringinghimbusinessifhecannotmakeaspeech.Andyethereisnotamorefatalerrortoyounglawyersthanrelyingtoomuchonspeechmaking.Ifanyoneuponhisrarepowersofspeakingshallclaimexemptionfromtheexhaustingworkofthelawhiscaseisafailureinadvance. Discouragelitigation.Persuadeyourneighborstocompromisewheneveryoucan.Pointouttothemhowthenominalwinnerisoftenarealloser--infeesandexpensesandwasteoftime.Asapeacemakerthelawyerhasasuperioropportunityofbeingagoodman.Therewillstillbebusinessenough. Neverstiruplitigation.Aworsemancanscarcelybefoundthanonewhodoesthis.WhocanbemorenearlyafriendthanhewhohabituallyoverhaulstheRegisterofdeedsinsearchofdefectsintitleswhereontostirupstrifeandputmoneyinhispocketAmoraltoneoughttobeintroducedintotheprofessionwhichshoulddrivesuchmenoutofit. BysayingthenominalwinnerisoftenarealloserLine2Paragraph2theauthormeans
Text4 TherecentapparentlysuccessfulpredictionbymathematicalmodelsofanappearanceofElNifio—thewarmoceancurrentthatperiodicallydevelopsalongthePacificcoastofSouthAmerica--hasexcitedresearchers.JacobBjerknesspointedoutover20yearsagohowwindsmightcreateeitherabnormallywarmorabnormallycoldwaterintheeasternequatorialPacific.NonethelessuntilthedevelopmentofthemodelsnoonecouldexplainwhyconditionsshouldregularlyshiftfromonetotheotherashappensintheperiodicoscillationsbetweenappearanceofthewarmElNifioandthecoldso-calledanti-ElNifio.Theansweralleastifthecurrentmodelthatlinksthebehavioroftheoceantothatoftheatmosphereiscorrectistobefoundintheocean. IthaslongbeenknownthatduringanElNiflotwoconditionsexist:1unusuallywarmwaterextendsalongtheeasternPacificprincipallyalongthecoastsofEcuadorandPeruand2windsblowfromthewestintothewarmerairrisingoverthewarmwaterintheeast.Thesewindstendtocreateafeedbackmechanismbydrivingthewarmersurfacewaterintoa"pile"thatblocksthenormalupwellingofdeepercoldwaterintheeastandfurtherwarmstheeasternwaterthusstrengtheningthewindstillmore.ThecontributionofthemodelistoshowthatthewindsofanElNifiowhichraisesealevelintheeastsimultaneouslysendasignaltothewestloweringsealevel.AccordingtothemodelthatsignalisgeneratedasanegativeRossbywaveawaveofdepressedornegativesealevelthatmoveswestwardparalleltotheequatorat25to85kilometersperday.TakingmonthstotraversethePacificRossbywavesmarchtothewesternboundaryofthePacificbasinwhichismodeledasasmoothwallbutinrealityconsistsofquiteirregularislandchainssuchasthePhilippinesandIndonesia. WhenthewavesmeetthewesternboundarytheyarereflectedandthemodelpredictsthatRossbywaveswillbebrokenintonumerouscoastalKelvinwavescarryingthesamenegativesea-levelsignal.TheseeventuallyshoottowardtheequatorandthenheadeastwardalongtheequatorpropelledbytherotationoftheEarthataspeedofabout250kilometersperday.WhenenoughKelvinwavesofsufficientamplitudearrivefromthewesternPacifictheirnegativesea-levelsignalovercomesthefeedbackmechanismtendingtoraisethesealevelandtheybegintodrivethesystemintotheoppositecoldmode.Thisproducesagradualshiftinwindsonethatwilleventuallysendpositivesea-levelRossbywaveswestwardwavesthatwilleventuallyreturnascoldcycle-endingpositiveKelvinwavesbeginninganotherwarmingcycle. Itcanbeconcludedthatduringananti-ElNifiothefaster-movingsignalwavesare
Withthedevelopmentoftheglobaleconomymanycompaniesstatetheirbasicobjectiveofengaginginaworldwidemanufacturingbusinessandclaimthattheyareorarebecomingamultinationalcompany. Someeconomists1betweentheinternationalfirmandthemultinationalcompanyinthefollowingway:the"internationalfirm"isatermthat2enterpriseswithvariousdegreesofworldorientationintheirbusiness;3the"multinationalcompany"isonetypeofinternationalfirm.Theinternationalfirmengagesinanyactivityor4ofactivitiesfromexportingimportingandlicensingtofullscalemanufacturinginanumberofcountries.Theinternational5ofsuchacompanyvariesfromthepointatwhichoverseassalesandprofitstakeonimportanceandtopmanagementbeginsto6someattentiontothemtothestage7thecompanyisgloballyorientedinitsmarketingproduction8andotherdecisionsandconsidersalternativeopportunitiesaroundtheworld. Whenacompanyreachesthelatterstageitbecomes9.Thusthemultinationalcompanyisonetypeofinternationalcompany.Itisa10developedinternationalcompanywithadeepworldwideinvolvementandaglobal11initsmanagementanddecisionmaking.More12themultinationalcompanyinmanufacturingdoesbusinessinanumberofcountries;ithasasubstantialcommitmentofitsresourcesininternationalbusiness;it13internationalproductioninanumberofcountries;andithasa14perspectiveinitsmanagement.Significant15existamongmultinationalcompanies.Firstsuchacompanymaynot16dobusinessineveryregionandcountryintheworld17itconsidersopportunitiesthroughouttheworld.Secondithasa18portionofitsassetsinvestedininternationalbusiness;19itmakesasubstantialpartofitssalesandearnsaconsiderablepartofits20overseas. 1
Toresolveadisputemeanstoturnopposingpositionsintoasingleoutcome.Thetwopartiesmaychoosetofocustheirattentionononeormoreofthreebasicfactors.Theymayseekto1reconciletheirinterests2determinewhoisrightand/or3determinewhoismorepowerful. 41Disagreementofinterests Interestsareneedsdesiresconcernsfears--thethingsonecaresaboutorwants.Theypro-videthefoundationforaperson’soranorganisation’spositioninadispute.Inadisputenotonlydotheinterestsofonepartynotcoincidewiththoseoftheotherpartybuttheyareinconflict.ForexamplethedirectorofsalesforanelectronicscompanygetsintoadisputewiththedirectorofmanufacturingoverthenumberofTVmodelstoproduce. 42Methodsofsettlingconflictinginterests Reconcilingsuchinterestsisnoteasy.Itinvolvesprobingfordeeplyrootedconcernsdevisingcreativesolutionsandmakingtrade-offsandcompromiseswhereinterestsareopposed.Themostcommonprocedurefordoingthisisnegotiationtheactofcommunicationintendedtoreachagreement. 43Theuseofnegotiationfordifferentdisputetypes Bynomeansdoallnegotiationsormediationsfocusonreconcilinginterests.Somenegotiationsfocusondeterminingwhoisrightsuchaswhentwolawyersargueaboutwhosecasehasthegreatermerit. 44Handlingrights-baseddisputes Thereareoftendifferent---andsometimescontradictory--standardsthatapplytorights.Reachingagreementonrightswheretheoutcomewilldeterminewhogetswhatcanoftenbesodifficultthatthepartiesfrequentlyturntoathirdpartytodeterminewhoisright.Themosttypicalrightsprocedureisadjudicationinwhichdisputantspresentevidenceandargumentstoaneutralthirdpartywhohasthepowertomakeadecisionthatmustbefollowedbybothdisputants.Inmediationbycontrastthethirdpartydoesnothavethepowertodecidethedispute.Publicadjudicationisprovidedbycourtsandadministrativeagencies.Privateadjudicationisprovidedbyarbitrators. 45Theroleofpowerinsettlingdisagreements Athirdwaytoresolveadisputeisonthebasisofpower.Wedefinepowersomewhatnarrowlyastheabilitytopressuresomeonetodosomethinghewouldnototherwisedo. Inrelationshipsofmutualdependencesuchasbetweenlaborandmanagementorwithinanorganizationorafamilythequestionofwhoismorepowerfulturnsonwhoislessdependentontheother.Ifacompanyneedstheemployees’workmorethanemployeesneedthecompany’spaythecompanyismoredependentandhencelesspowerful.Howdependentoneisturnsonhowsatisfactorythealternativesareforsatisfyingone’sinterests.Thebetterthealternativethelessdependentoneis.Ifitiseasierforthecompanytoreplacestrikingemployeesthanitisforstrikingemployeestofindnewjobsthecompanyislessdependentandtherebymorepowerful.Determiningwhoisthemorepowerfulpartywithoutadecisiveandpotentiallydestructivepowercontestisdifficultbecausepowerisultimatelyamatterofperceptions. [A]Anotherinterests-basedprocedureismediationinwhichathirdpartyassiststhedisputantsthetwosidesinthedisputeinreachingagreement. [B]Othernegotiationslocusondeterminingwhoismorepowerfulsuchaswhenquarrellingmeighboursornationsexchangethreatsandcounterthreats.Oftennegotiationsinvolveamixofallthree--someattemptstosatisfyinterestssomediscussionofrightsandsomereferencestorelativepower. [C]Weoftenencounterdisputes.Ifwedon’tdealwithitpropertyitwillbringunexpectedout-cometous. [D]ThedirectorofsaleswantstoproducemoremodelsbecauseherinterestisinsellingTVsets;moremodelsmeanmorechoiceforconsumersandhenceincreasedsales.Thedirectorofmanufacturinghoweverwantstoproducefewermodels.Hisinterestisindecreasingmanufacturingcostsandmoremodelsmeanhighercosts. [E]Exercisingpowertypicallymeansimposingcostsontheothersideorthreateningtodoso.Theexerciseofpowertakestwocommonforms:actsofaggressionsuchasphysicalattackandwithholdingthebenefitsthatderivefromarelationshipaswhenemployeesstopworkinginastrike. [F]Itisoftencomplicatedtoattempttodeterminewhoisrightinadispute.Althoughitisusuallystraightforwardwhererightsareformalizedinlawotherrightstaketheformofunwrittenbutsociallyacceptedstandardsofbehavioursuchasreciprocityprecedentequalityandseniority. 45
Text1 Iamnotanaccomplishedlawyer.IfindquiteasmuchmaterialforalectureinthosepointswhereinIhavefailedasinthosewhereIhavebeenmoderatelysuccessful.Theleadingruleforthelawyerasforthemanofeveryothercallingisdiligence.Leavenothingfortomorrowwhichcanbedonetoday.Neverletyourcorrespondencesfallbehind.Whateverpieceofbusinessyouhaveinhandbeforestoppingdoallthelaborrelatedtoitwhichcanthenbedone.Whenyoubringacommonlawsuitifyouhavethefactsfordoingsowritethedeclarationatonce.Ifalawpointbeinvolvedexaminethebooksandnotetheauthorityyourelyonthedeclarationitselfwhereyouaresuretofinditwhenwanted.Inbusinessnotlikelytobelitigated--ordinarycollectioncasespartitionsandthelike--makeallexaminationsoftitlesnotethemandevendraftordersandofficialordersinadvance.Thiscoursehasatripleadvantage:itavoidsomissionsandneglectsavesyourlaborwhenoncedoneperformsthelaboroutofcourtwhenyouhaveleisureratherthanincourtwhenyouhavenot.Spontaneousspeakingshouldbepracticedandcultivated.Itisthelawyer’savenuetothepublic.Howeverableandfaithfulhemaybeinotherrespectspeopleareslowbringinghimbusinessifhecannotmakeaspeech.Andyethereisnotamorefatalerrortoyounglawyersthanrelyingtoomuchonspeechmaking.Ifanyoneuponhisrarepowersofspeakingshallclaimexemptionfromtheexhaustingworkofthelawhiscaseisafailureinadvance. Discouragelitigation.Persuadeyourneighborstocompromisewheneveryoucan.Pointouttothemhowthenominalwinnerisoftenarealloser--infeesandexpensesandwasteoftime.Asapeacemakerthelawyerhasasuperioropportunityofbeingagoodman.Therewillstillbebusinessenough. Neverstiruplitigation.Aworsemancanscarcelybefoundthanonewhodoesthis.WhocanbemorenearlyafriendthanhewhohabituallyoverhaulstheRegisterofdeedsinsearchofdefectsintitleswhereontostirupstrifeandputmoneyinhispocketAmoraltoneoughttobeintroducedintotheprofessionwhichshoulddrivesuchmenoutofit. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheauthorwantsto
Shynessisthecauseofmuchunhappinessforagreatmanypeople.Shypeopleare1andserf-conscious;thatistheyare2concernedwiththeirownappearanceandactions.3thoughtsare4occurringintheirminds:WhatkindofimpressionamImaking Itisobviousthatsuch5feelingsmustaffectpeopleadversely.Aperson’sself-conceptis6inthewayheorshebehavesandthewayapersonbehavesaffectsotherpeople’sreactions.7thewaypeoplethinkaboutthemselveshasaprofoundeffectonallareasoftheirlives. Shypeoplehavinglow8arelikelytobepassiveandeasilyinfluencedbyothers.Theyneedreassurance9theyaredoing"thefightthing".Shypeoplearevery10tocriticism;theyfeelit11theirinferiority.Ashypersonmay12toacomplimentwithastatementlikethisone:"You’rejustsayingthattomakemefeelgood."Itisclearthat13self-awarenessisahealthyqualityoverdoingitisharmful. Canshynessbecompletely14oratleastreducedFortunatelypeoplecanovercomeshynesswithdeterminedandpatienteffortinbuildingself-confidence.Sinceshynessgoes15withlackofserf-esteemitisimportantforpeopletoaccepttheirweaknessaswellastheirstrengths.Forexamplemostpeoplewouldliketobe"A"studentsineverysubject.Itisnotfairforthemto16themselvesinferiorbecausetheyhavedifficulty17someareas.People’sexpectationsofthemselvesmustbe18 Eachoneofusisauniqueworthwhileindividual.Thebetterweunderstandourselvestheeasieritbecomesto19ourfullpotential.Let’snotallowshynesstoblockourchancesforarichand20life. 13
Thirty-fiveyearsaftercomputerscientistsatUCLAlinkedtwobulkycomputersusinga15-footgraycabletestinganewwayforexchangingdataovernetworkswhatwouldultimatelybecometheInternetremainsaworkinprogress. Universityresearchersareexperimentingwithwaystoincreaseitscapacityandspeed.ProgrammersaretryingtoimbueWebpageswithintelligence.Andworkisunderwaytore-engineerthenet-worktoreducespamandsecuritytroubles. 46Allthewhilethreatsloom:criticswarethatcommerciallegalandpoliticalpressurescouldhinderthetypesofinnovationsthatmadetheInternetwhatitistoday. StephenCrockerandVintonCerfwereamongthegraduatestudentswhojoinedUCLAprofessorLenKleinrockinanengineeringlabonSept.21969asbitsofmeaninglesstestdataflowedsilentlybetweenthetwocomputers.ByJanuarythreeother"nodes"joinedthefledglingnetwork. 47Thencamee-mailafewyearslateracorecommunicationsagreementcalledTCP/IPinthelate70sthedomainnamesysteminthe80sandtheWorldWideWeb--nowthesecondmostpopularapplicationbehinde-mail--in1990.TheInternetexpandedbeyonditsinitialmilitaryandeducationaldomainintobusinessesandhomesaroundtheworld. TodayCrockercontinuesworkontheInternetdesigningbettertoolsforcollaboration.48AndassecuritychairmanfortheInternet’skeyoversightbodyheistryingtodefendthecoreaddressingsystemfromoutsidethreats. HeacknowledgestheInternethehelpedbuildisfarfromfinishedandchangesareinstoretomeetgrowingdemandsformultimedia.49Networkprovidersnowmakeonly"bestefforts"atdeliveringdatapacketsandCrockersaidbetterguaranteesareneededtopreventtheskipsandunexpectedpausesnowcommonwithvideo. CerfnowatMCIInc.saidhewishedhecouldhavedesignedtheInternetwithsecuritybuilt-in.MicrosoftCorp.YahooInc.andAmericaOnlineInc.amongothersarecurrentlytryingtoretrofitthenetworksoe-mailsenderscanbeauthenticated--awaytocutclownonjunkmessagessentusingspoofedaddresses. 50Manyfeaturesbeingdevelopedtodaywouldn’thavebeenpossibleatbirthgiventheslowercomputingspeedsandnarrowerInternetpipesorbandwidthCerfsaid. 47Thencamee-mailafewyearslateracorecommunicationsagreementcalledTCP/IPinthelate70sthedomainnamesysteminthe80sandtheWorldWideWeb--nowthesecondmostpopularapplicationbehinde-mail--in1990.
Shynessisthecauseofmuchunhappinessforagreatmanypeople.Shypeopleare1andserf-conscious;thatistheyare2concernedwiththeirownappearanceandactions.3thoughtsare4occurringintheirminds:WhatkindofimpressionamImaking Itisobviousthatsuch5feelingsmustaffectpeopleadversely.Aperson’sself-conceptis6inthewayheorshebehavesandthewayapersonbehavesaffectsotherpeople’sreactions.7thewaypeoplethinkaboutthemselveshasaprofoundeffectonallareasoftheirlives. Shypeoplehavinglow8arelikelytobepassiveandeasilyinfluencedbyothers.Theyneedreassurance9theyaredoing"thefightthing".Shypeoplearevery10tocriticism;theyfeelit11theirinferiority.Ashypersonmay12toacomplimentwithastatementlikethisone:"You’rejustsayingthattomakemefeelgood."Itisclearthat13self-awarenessisahealthyqualityoverdoingitisharmful. Canshynessbecompletely14oratleastreducedFortunatelypeoplecanovercomeshynesswithdeterminedandpatienteffortinbuildingself-confidence.Sinceshynessgoes15withlackofserf-esteemitisimportantforpeopletoaccepttheirweaknessaswellastheirstrengths.Forexamplemostpeoplewouldliketobe"A"studentsineverysubject.Itisnotfairforthemto16themselvesinferiorbecausetheyhavedifficulty17someareas.People’sexpectationsofthemselvesmustbe18 Eachoneofusisauniqueworthwhileindividual.Thebetterweunderstandourselvestheeasieritbecomesto19ourfullpotential.Let’snotallowshynesstoblockourchancesforarichand20life. 3
Text2 SoBig.Fwasthemorevisibleoftiletworecentwavesofinfectionbecauseitpropagateditselfbye-mailmeaningthatvictimsnoticedwhatwasgoingon.SoBig.Fwassoeffectivethatitcausedsubstantialdisruptioneventothoseprotectedbyanti-virussoftware.Thatwasbecausesomanycopiesofthevirusspreadthatmanymachineswereoverwhelmedbymessagesfromtheirownanti-virussoftware.Ontopofthatonecommoncounter-measurebackfiredincreasingtrafficstillfurthers.Anti-virussoftwareoftenbouncesawarningbacktothesenderofaninfectede-mailsayingthatthee-mailinquestioncannotbedeliveredbecauseitcontainsavirus.SoBig.Fwasabletospoofthissystemby"harvesting"e-mailaddressesfromtheharddisksofinfectedcomputers.Someoftheseaddresseswerethensentinfectede-mailsthathadbeendoctoredtolookasthoughtheyhadcomefromotherharvestedaddresses.Thelatterwerethussentwarningseventhoughtheirmachinesmaynothavebeeninfected. KevinHaleyofSymantecafirmthatmakesanti-virussoftwarethinksthatonereasonSoBig.Fwassomuchmoreeffectivethanothervirusesthatworkthiswayisbecauseitwasbetteratsearchinghard-drivesforaddresses.BrianKingofCERTaninternet-securitycenteratCarnegie-MellonUniversityinPittsburghnotethatunlikeitsprecursorsSoBig.Fwascapableof"multi-threading":itcouldsendmultiplee-mailssimultaneouslyallowingittodispatchthousandsinminutes. Blasterworkedbycreatinga"bufferoverrunintheremoteprocedurecall".InotherwordthatmeansitattackedapieceofsoftwareusedbyMicrosoft’sWindowsoperatingsystemtoallowonecomputertocontrolanother.Itdidsobycausingthatsoftwaretousetoomuchmemory. MostwormsworkbyexploitingweaknessesinanoperatingsystembutwhoeverwroteBlasterhadaparticularlyrefinedsenseofhumorsincethewebsiteunderattackwastheonefromwhichuserscouldobtainaprogramtofixtheveryweaknessinWindowsthatthewormitselfwasexploiting. OnewaytodealwithawickedwormlikeBlasteristodesignafairygodmotherwormthatgoesaroundrepairingvulnerablemachinesautomatically.InthecaseofBlastersomeoneseemstohavetriedexactlythatwithaprogramcalledWelchi.HoweveraccordingtoMr.HaleyWelchihascausedalmostasmanyproblemsasBlasteritselfbyoverwhelmingnetworkswith"pings"--signalsthatcheckedforthepresenceofothercomputers. Thoughbothoftheseprogramsfellshortoftheapparentobjectivesoftheirauthorstheystillcauseddamage.ForinstancetheyforcedtheshutdownofanumberofcomputernetworksincludingtheoneusedbytheNewYorkTimesnewsroomandtheoneorganizingtrainsoperatedbyCSXafreightcompanyonAmerica’seastcoast.Computerscientistsexpectthatitisonlyamatteroftimebeforeatrulydevastatingvirusisunleashed. Whatcanweinferfromthelastparagraph
Toresolveadisputemeanstoturnopposingpositionsintoasingleoutcome.Thetwopartiesmaychoosetofocustheirattentionononeormoreofthreebasicfactors.Theymayseekto1reconciletheirinterests2determinewhoisrightand/or3determinewhoismorepowerful. 41Disagreementofinterests Interestsareneedsdesiresconcernsfears--thethingsonecaresaboutorwants.Theypro-videthefoundationforaperson’soranorganisation’spositioninadispute.Inadisputenotonlydotheinterestsofonepartynotcoincidewiththoseoftheotherpartybuttheyareinconflict.ForexamplethedirectorofsalesforanelectronicscompanygetsintoadisputewiththedirectorofmanufacturingoverthenumberofTVmodelstoproduce. 42Methodsofsettlingconflictinginterests Reconcilingsuchinterestsisnoteasy.Itinvolvesprobingfordeeplyrootedconcernsdevisingcreativesolutionsandmakingtrade-offsandcompromiseswhereinterestsareopposed.Themostcommonprocedurefordoingthisisnegotiationtheactofcommunicationintendedtoreachagreement. 43Theuseofnegotiationfordifferentdisputetypes Bynomeansdoallnegotiationsormediationsfocusonreconcilinginterests.Somenegotiationsfocusondeterminingwhoisrightsuchaswhentwolawyersargueaboutwhosecasehasthegreatermerit. 44Handlingrights-baseddisputes Thereareoftendifferent---andsometimescontradictory--standardsthatapplytorights.Reachingagreementonrightswheretheoutcomewilldeterminewhogetswhatcanoftenbesodifficultthatthepartiesfrequentlyturntoathirdpartytodeterminewhoisright.Themosttypicalrightsprocedureisadjudicationinwhichdisputantspresentevidenceandargumentstoaneutralthirdpartywhohasthepowertomakeadecisionthatmustbefollowedbybothdisputants.Inmediationbycontrastthethirdpartydoesnothavethepowertodecidethedispute.Publicadjudicationisprovidedbycourtsandadministrativeagencies.Privateadjudicationisprovidedbyarbitrators. 45Theroleofpowerinsettlingdisagreements Athirdwaytoresolveadisputeisonthebasisofpower.Wedefinepowersomewhatnarrowlyastheabilitytopressuresomeonetodosomethinghewouldnototherwisedo. Inrelationshipsofmutualdependencesuchasbetweenlaborandmanagementorwithinanorganizationorafamilythequestionofwhoismorepowerfulturnsonwhoislessdependentontheother.Ifacompanyneedstheemployees’workmorethanemployeesneedthecompany’spaythecompanyismoredependentandhencelesspowerful.Howdependentoneisturnsonhowsatisfactorythealternativesareforsatisfyingone’sinterests.Thebetterthealternativethelessdependentoneis.Ifitiseasierforthecompanytoreplacestrikingemployeesthanitisforstrikingemployeestofindnewjobsthecompanyislessdependentandtherebymorepowerful.Determiningwhoisthemorepowerfulpartywithoutadecisiveandpotentiallydestructivepowercontestisdifficultbecausepowerisultimatelyamatterofperceptions. [A]Anotherinterests-basedprocedureismediationinwhichathirdpartyassiststhedisputantsthetwosidesinthedisputeinreachingagreement. [B]Othernegotiationslocusondeterminingwhoismorepowerfulsuchaswhenquarrellingmeighboursornationsexchangethreatsandcounterthreats.Oftennegotiationsinvolveamixofallthree--someattemptstosatisfyinterestssomediscussionofrightsandsomereferencestorelativepower. [C]Weoftenencounterdisputes.Ifwedon’tdealwithitpropertyitwillbringunexpectedout-cometous. [D]ThedirectorofsaleswantstoproducemoremodelsbecauseherinterestisinsellingTVsets;moremodelsmeanmorechoiceforconsumersandhenceincreasedsales.Thedirectorofmanufacturinghoweverwantstoproducefewermodels.Hisinterestisindecreasingmanufacturingcostsandmoremodelsmeanhighercosts. [E]Exercisingpowertypicallymeansimposingcostsontheothersideorthreateningtodoso.Theexerciseofpowertakestwocommonforms:actsofaggressionsuchasphysicalattackandwithholdingthebenefitsthatderivefromarelationshipaswhenemployeesstopworkinginastrike. [F]Itisoftencomplicatedtoattempttodeterminewhoisrightinadispute.Althoughitisusuallystraightforwardwhererightsareformalizedinlawotherrightstaketheformofunwrittenbutsociallyacceptedstandardsofbehavioursuchasreciprocityprecedentequalityandseniority. 41
Text3 OfallthetruthsthatthisgenerationofAmericansholdself-evidentfewaremoredeeplyembeddedinthenationalpsychethanthemaxim"Itpaystogotocollege."SincetheGIBilltrans-formedhighereducationintheaftermathofWWIIacollegediplomaonceabirthrightoftheleisuredfewhasbecomeanattractionfortheupwardlymobileasintegraltotheAmericandreamasthepursuitofhappinessitself.Thenumberstellthestory:in1950s43%ofhigh-schoolgraduateswentontopursuesomeformofhighereducation;attilesametimeonly6%ofAmericanswerecollegegraduates.Butby1998almost2tooutof3secondary-schoolgraduateswereoptingforhighereducation--and21%ofamuchlargerU.S.populationhadcollegediplomas.AsProf.HerbertLondonofNewYorkUniversitytoldacommencementaudiencelastJune:"thecollegeexperiencehasgonefromaritepassagetoarightofpassage." Howeverastheclassof2004issopainfullydiscoveringwhileacollegediplomaremainsarequisitecredentialforascendingtheeconomicladderitnolongerguaranteesthegoodlife.RarelysincetheendoftheGreatDepressionhasthejoboutlookforcollegegraduatesappearedsobleak:ofthe1.1millionstudentswhoreceivedtheirbachelordegreeslastspringfewerthan20%hadlinedupfull-timeemploymentbycommencement.Indeedanuncertainjobmarkethasprecipitatedawaveofeconomicfearandtremblingamongtheyoung."Manyofmyclassmatesareabsolutelyterrified"saysoneofthefortunatefewwhodidmanagetolandapermanentposition."Theywonderifthey’lleverfindajob." Someofthisrecession-inducedanxietywilldisappearifarecoveryfinallybeginstogeneratejobsatwhateconomistsconsideranormalrate.Butthesadfactisthatfortheforeseeablefuturecollegegraduateswillinconsiderablesurplusenablingemployerstorequireadegreeevenforjobsforwhichacollegeeducationisreallyunnecessary.AccordingtoKristinaShelleyoftheBureauofLaborStatistics--whobasesherestimateona"moderateprojection"ofcurrenttrends--30per-centofcollegegraduatesenteringthelabort0rcebetweennowandtheyear2008willbeunemployedorwillfindemploymentinjobsforwhichtheywillbeoverqualifiedjoiningwhateconomistscallthe"educationallyunderutilized." Indeeditmaybequiteawhile--ifever--beforethoseworkingtemporarilyascocktailwaitressesortaxidriverswillbeabletopursuetheirprimarycareerpaths.Ofcoursewaitingontablesandbustlingcabfaresarerespectablewaystoearnaliving.ButtheyarenotquitewhatsomanyyoungAmericans--andtheirparents--hadinmindastheendproductoffourexpensiveyearsincollege. Theauthortriestoconvinceusthat
Text4 TherecentapparentlysuccessfulpredictionbymathematicalmodelsofanappearanceofElNifio—thewarmoceancurrentthatperiodicallydevelopsalongthePacificcoastofSouthAmerica--hasexcitedresearchers.JacobBjerknesspointedoutover20yearsagohowwindsmightcreateeitherabnormallywarmorabnormallycoldwaterintheeasternequatorialPacific.NonethelessuntilthedevelopmentofthemodelsnoonecouldexplainwhyconditionsshouldregularlyshiftfromonetotheotherashappensintheperiodicoscillationsbetweenappearanceofthewarmElNifioandthecoldso-calledanti-ElNifio.Theansweralleastifthecurrentmodelthatlinksthebehavioroftheoceantothatoftheatmosphereiscorrectistobefoundintheocean. IthaslongbeenknownthatduringanElNiflotwoconditionsexist:1unusuallywarmwaterextendsalongtheeasternPacificprincipallyalongthecoastsofEcuadorandPeruand2windsblowfromthewestintothewarmerairrisingoverthewarmwaterintheeast.Thesewindstendtocreateafeedbackmechanismbydrivingthewarmersurfacewaterintoa"pile"thatblocksthenormalupwellingofdeepercoldwaterintheeastandfurtherwarmstheeasternwaterthusstrengtheningthewindstillmore.ThecontributionofthemodelistoshowthatthewindsofanElNifiowhichraisesealevelintheeastsimultaneouslysendasignaltothewestloweringsealevel.AccordingtothemodelthatsignalisgeneratedasanegativeRossbywaveawaveofdepressedornegativesealevelthatmoveswestwardparalleltotheequatorat25to85kilometersperday.TakingmonthstotraversethePacificRossbywavesmarchtothewesternboundaryofthePacificbasinwhichismodeledasasmoothwallbutinrealityconsistsofquiteirregularislandchainssuchasthePhilippinesandIndonesia. WhenthewavesmeetthewesternboundarytheyarereflectedandthemodelpredictsthatRossbywaveswillbebrokenintonumerouscoastalKelvinwavescarryingthesamenegativesea-levelsignal.TheseeventuallyshoottowardtheequatorandthenheadeastwardalongtheequatorpropelledbytherotationoftheEarthataspeedofabout250kilometersperday.WhenenoughKelvinwavesofsufficientamplitudearrivefromthewesternPacifictheirnegativesea-levelsignalovercomesthefeedbackmechanismtendingtoraisethesealevelandtheybegintodrivethesystemintotheoppositecoldmode.Thisproducesagradualshiftinwindsonethatwilleventuallysendpositivesea-levelRossbywaveswestwardwavesthatwilleventuallyreturnascoldcycle-endingpositiveKelvinwavesbeginninganotherwarmingcycle. OnecharacteristicoftheElNifiois
Shynessisthecauseofmuchunhappinessforagreatmanypeople.Shypeopleare1andserf-conscious;thatistheyare2concernedwiththeirownappearanceandactions.3thoughtsare4occurringintheirminds:WhatkindofimpressionamImaking Itisobviousthatsuch5feelingsmustaffectpeopleadversely.Aperson’sself-conceptis6inthewayheorshebehavesandthewayapersonbehavesaffectsotherpeople’sreactions.7thewaypeoplethinkaboutthemselveshasaprofoundeffectonallareasoftheirlives. Shypeoplehavinglow8arelikelytobepassiveandeasilyinfluencedbyothers.Theyneedreassurance9theyaredoing"thefightthing".Shypeoplearevery10tocriticism;theyfeelit11theirinferiority.Ashypersonmay12toacomplimentwithastatementlikethisone:"You’rejustsayingthattomakemefeelgood."Itisclearthat13self-awarenessisahealthyqualityoverdoingitisharmful. Canshynessbecompletely14oratleastreducedFortunatelypeoplecanovercomeshynesswithdeterminedandpatienteffortinbuildingself-confidence.Sinceshynessgoes15withlackofserf-esteemitisimportantforpeopletoaccepttheirweaknessaswellastheirstrengths.Forexamplemostpeoplewouldliketobe"A"studentsineverysubject.Itisnotfairforthemto16themselvesinferiorbecausetheyhavedifficulty17someareas.People’sexpectationsofthemselvesmustbe18 Eachoneofusisauniqueworthwhileindividual.Thebetterweunderstandourselvestheeasieritbecomesto19ourfullpotential.Let’snotallowshynesstoblockourchancesforarichand20life. 17
Text3 OfallthetruthsthatthisgenerationofAmericansholdself-evidentfewaremoredeeplyembeddedinthenationalpsychethanthemaxim"Itpaystogotocollege."SincetheGIBilltrans-formedhighereducationintheaftermathofWWIIacollegediplomaonceabirthrightoftheleisuredfewhasbecomeanattractionfortheupwardlymobileasintegraltotheAmericandreamasthepursuitofhappinessitself.Thenumberstellthestory:in1950s43%ofhigh-schoolgraduateswentontopursuesomeformofhighereducation;attilesametimeonly6%ofAmericanswerecollegegraduates.Butby1998almost2tooutof3secondary-schoolgraduateswereoptingforhighereducation--and21%ofamuchlargerU.S.populationhadcollegediplomas.AsProf.HerbertLondonofNewYorkUniversitytoldacommencementaudiencelastJune:"thecollegeexperiencehasgonefromaritepassagetoarightofpassage." Howeverastheclassof2004issopainfullydiscoveringwhileacollegediplomaremainsarequisitecredentialforascendingtheeconomicladderitnolongerguaranteesthegoodlife.RarelysincetheendoftheGreatDepressionhasthejoboutlookforcollegegraduatesappearedsobleak:ofthe1.1millionstudentswhoreceivedtheirbachelordegreeslastspringfewerthan20%hadlinedupfull-timeemploymentbycommencement.Indeedanuncertainjobmarkethasprecipitatedawaveofeconomicfearandtremblingamongtheyoung."Manyofmyclassmatesareabsolutelyterrified"saysoneofthefortunatefewwhodidmanagetolandapermanentposition."Theywonderifthey’lleverfindajob." Someofthisrecession-inducedanxietywilldisappearifarecoveryfinallybeginstogeneratejobsatwhateconomistsconsideranormalrate.Butthesadfactisthatfortheforeseeablefuturecollegegraduateswillinconsiderablesurplusenablingemployerstorequireadegreeevenforjobsforwhichacollegeeducationisreallyunnecessary.AccordingtoKristinaShelleyoftheBureauofLaborStatistics--whobasesherestimateona"moderateprojection"ofcurrenttrends--30per-centofcollegegraduatesenteringthelabort0rcebetweennowandtheyear2008willbeunemployedorwillfindemploymentinjobsforwhichtheywillbeoverqualifiedjoiningwhateconomistscallthe"educationallyunderutilized." Indeeditmaybequiteawhile--ifever--beforethoseworkingtemporarilyascocktailwaitressesortaxidriverswillbeabletopursuetheirprimarycareerpaths.Ofcoursewaitingontablesandbustlingcabfaresarerespectablewaystoearnaliving.ButtheyarenotquitewhatsomanyyoungAmericans--andtheirparents--hadinmindastheendproductoffourexpensiveyearsincollege. Towhichofthefollowingstatementsmighttheauthoragree
Shynessisthecauseofmuchunhappinessforagreatmanypeople.Shypeopleare1andserf-conscious;thatistheyare2concernedwiththeirownappearanceandactions.3thoughtsare4occurringintheirminds:WhatkindofimpressionamImaking Itisobviousthatsuch5feelingsmustaffectpeopleadversely.Aperson’sself-conceptis6inthewayheorshebehavesandthewayapersonbehavesaffectsotherpeople’sreactions.7thewaypeoplethinkaboutthemselveshasaprofoundeffectonallareasoftheirlives. Shypeoplehavinglow8arelikelytobepassiveandeasilyinfluencedbyothers.Theyneedreassurance9theyaredoing"thefightthing".Shypeoplearevery10tocriticism;theyfeelit11theirinferiority.Ashypersonmay12toacomplimentwithastatementlikethisone:"You’rejustsayingthattomakemefeelgood."Itisclearthat13self-awarenessisahealthyqualityoverdoingitisharmful. Canshynessbecompletely14oratleastreducedFortunatelypeoplecanovercomeshynesswithdeterminedandpatienteffortinbuildingself-confidence.Sinceshynessgoes15withlackofserf-esteemitisimportantforpeopletoaccepttheirweaknessaswellastheirstrengths.Forexamplemostpeoplewouldliketobe"A"studentsineverysubject.Itisnotfairforthemto16themselvesinferiorbecausetheyhavedifficulty17someareas.People’sexpectationsofthemselvesmustbe18 Eachoneofusisauniqueworthwhileindividual.Thebetterweunderstandourselvestheeasieritbecomesto19ourfullpotential.Let’snotallowshynesstoblockourchancesforarichand20life. 11
Shynessisthecauseofmuchunhappinessforagreatmanypeople.Shypeopleare1andserf-conscious;thatistheyare2concernedwiththeirownappearanceandactions.3thoughtsare4occurringintheirminds:WhatkindofimpressionamImaking Itisobviousthatsuch5feelingsmustaffectpeopleadversely.Aperson’sself-conceptis6inthewayheorshebehavesandthewayapersonbehavesaffectsotherpeople’sreactions.7thewaypeoplethinkaboutthemselveshasaprofoundeffectonallareasoftheirlives. Shypeoplehavinglow8arelikelytobepassiveandeasilyinfluencedbyothers.Theyneedreassurance9theyaredoing"thefightthing".Shypeoplearevery10tocriticism;theyfeelit11theirinferiority.Ashypersonmay12toacomplimentwithastatementlikethisone:"You’rejustsayingthattomakemefeelgood."Itisclearthat13self-awarenessisahealthyqualityoverdoingitisharmful. Canshynessbecompletely14oratleastreducedFortunatelypeoplecanovercomeshynesswithdeterminedandpatienteffortinbuildingself-confidence.Sinceshynessgoes15withlackofserf-esteemitisimportantforpeopletoaccepttheirweaknessaswellastheirstrengths.Forexamplemostpeoplewouldliketobe"A"studentsineverysubject.Itisnotfairforthemto16themselvesinferiorbecausetheyhavedifficulty17someareas.People’sexpectationsofthemselvesmustbe18 Eachoneofusisauniqueworthwhileindividual.Thebetterweunderstandourselvestheeasieritbecomesto19ourfullpotential.Let’snotallowshynesstoblockourchancesforarichand20life. 1
Shynessisthecauseofmuchunhappinessforagreatmanypeople.Shypeopleare1andserf-conscious;thatistheyare2concernedwiththeirownappearanceandactions.3thoughtsare4occurringintheirminds:WhatkindofimpressionamImaking Itisobviousthatsuch5feelingsmustaffectpeopleadversely.Aperson’sself-conceptis6inthewayheorshebehavesandthewayapersonbehavesaffectsotherpeople’sreactions.7thewaypeoplethinkaboutthemselveshasaprofoundeffectonallareasoftheirlives. Shypeoplehavinglow8arelikelytobepassiveandeasilyinfluencedbyothers.Theyneedreassurance9theyaredoing"thefightthing".Shypeoplearevery10tocriticism;theyfeelit11theirinferiority.Ashypersonmay12toacomplimentwithastatementlikethisone:"You’rejustsayingthattomakemefeelgood."Itisclearthat13self-awarenessisahealthyqualityoverdoingitisharmful. Canshynessbecompletely14oratleastreducedFortunatelypeoplecanovercomeshynesswithdeterminedandpatienteffortinbuildingself-confidence.Sinceshynessgoes15withlackofserf-esteemitisimportantforpeopletoaccepttheirweaknessaswellastheirstrengths.Forexamplemostpeoplewouldliketobe"A"studentsineverysubject.Itisnotfairforthemto16themselvesinferiorbecausetheyhavedifficulty17someareas.People’sexpectationsofthemselvesmustbe18 Eachoneofusisauniqueworthwhileindividual.Thebetterweunderstandourselvestheeasieritbecomesto19ourfullpotential.Let’snotallowshynesstoblockourchancesforarichand20life. 15
Text1 Iamnotanaccomplishedlawyer.IfindquiteasmuchmaterialforalectureinthosepointswhereinIhavefailedasinthosewhereIhavebeenmoderatelysuccessful.Theleadingruleforthelawyerasforthemanofeveryothercallingisdiligence.Leavenothingfortomorrowwhichcanbedonetoday.Neverletyourcorrespondencesfallbehind.Whateverpieceofbusinessyouhaveinhandbeforestoppingdoallthelaborrelatedtoitwhichcanthenbedone.Whenyoubringacommonlawsuitifyouhavethefactsfordoingsowritethedeclarationatonce.Ifalawpointbeinvolvedexaminethebooksandnotetheauthorityyourelyonthedeclarationitselfwhereyouaresuretofinditwhenwanted.Inbusinessnotlikelytobelitigated--ordinarycollectioncasespartitionsandthelike--makeallexaminationsoftitlesnotethemandevendraftordersandofficialordersinadvance.Thiscoursehasatripleadvantage:itavoidsomissionsandneglectsavesyourlaborwhenoncedoneperformsthelaboroutofcourtwhenyouhaveleisureratherthanincourtwhenyouhavenot.Spontaneousspeakingshouldbepracticedandcultivated.Itisthelawyer’savenuetothepublic.Howeverableandfaithfulhemaybeinotherrespectspeopleareslowbringinghimbusinessifhecannotmakeaspeech.Andyethereisnotamorefatalerrortoyounglawyersthanrelyingtoomuchonspeechmaking.Ifanyoneuponhisrarepowersofspeakingshallclaimexemptionfromtheexhaustingworkofthelawhiscaseisafailureinadvance. Discouragelitigation.Persuadeyourneighborstocompromisewheneveryoucan.Pointouttothemhowthenominalwinnerisoftenarealloser--infeesandexpensesandwasteoftime.Asapeacemakerthelawyerhasasuperioropportunityofbeingagoodman.Therewillstillbebusinessenough. Neverstiruplitigation.Aworsemancanscarcelybefoundthanonewhodoesthis.WhocanbemorenearlyafriendthanhewhohabituallyoverhaulstheRegisterofdeedsinsearchofdefectsintitleswhereontostirupstrifeandputmoneyinhispocketAmoraltoneoughttobeintroducedintotheprofessionwhichshoulddrivesuchmenoutofit. Themostviciouslawyersarethosewho
Withthedevelopmentoftheglobaleconomymanycompaniesstatetheirbasicobjectiveofengaginginaworldwidemanufacturingbusinessandclaimthattheyareorarebecomingamultinationalcompany. Someeconomists1betweentheinternationalfirmandthemultinationalcompanyinthefollowingway:the"internationalfirm"isatermthat2enterpriseswithvariousdegreesofworldorientationintheirbusiness;3the"multinationalcompany"isonetypeofinternationalfirm.Theinternationalfirmengagesinanyactivityor4ofactivitiesfromexportingimportingandlicensingtofullscalemanufacturinginanumberofcountries.Theinternational5ofsuchacompanyvariesfromthepointatwhichoverseassalesandprofitstakeonimportanceandtopmanagementbeginsto6someattentiontothemtothestage7thecompanyisgloballyorientedinitsmarketingproduction8andotherdecisionsandconsidersalternativeopportunitiesaroundtheworld. Whenacompanyreachesthelatterstageitbecomes9.Thusthemultinationalcompanyisonetypeofinternationalcompany.Itisa10developedinternationalcompanywithadeepworldwideinvolvementandaglobal11initsmanagementanddecisionmaking.More12themultinationalcompanyinmanufacturingdoesbusinessinanumberofcountries;ithasasubstantialcommitmentofitsresourcesininternationalbusiness;it13internationalproductioninanumberofcountries;andithasa14perspectiveinitsmanagement.Significant15existamongmultinationalcompanies.Firstsuchacompanymaynot16dobusinessineveryregionandcountryintheworld17itconsidersopportunitiesthroughouttheworld.Secondithasa18portionofitsassetsinvestedininternationalbusiness;19itmakesasubstantialpartofitssalesandearnsaconsiderablepartofits20overseas. 7
Withthedevelopmentoftheglobaleconomymanycompaniesstatetheirbasicobjectiveofengaginginaworldwidemanufacturingbusinessandclaimthattheyareorarebecomingamultinationalcompany. Someeconomists1betweentheinternationalfirmandthemultinationalcompanyinthefollowingway:the"internationalfirm"isatermthat2enterpriseswithvariousdegreesofworldorientationintheirbusiness;3the"multinationalcompany"isonetypeofinternationalfirm.Theinternationalfirmengagesinanyactivityor4ofactivitiesfromexportingimportingandlicensingtofullscalemanufacturinginanumberofcountries.Theinternational5ofsuchacompanyvariesfromthepointatwhichoverseassalesandprofitstakeonimportanceandtopmanagementbeginsto6someattentiontothemtothestage7thecompanyisgloballyorientedinitsmarketingproduction8andotherdecisionsandconsidersalternativeopportunitiesaroundtheworld. Whenacompanyreachesthelatterstageitbecomes9.Thusthemultinationalcompanyisonetypeofinternationalcompany.Itisa10developedinternationalcompanywithadeepworldwideinvolvementandaglobal11initsmanagementanddecisionmaking.More12themultinationalcompanyinmanufacturingdoesbusinessinanumberofcountries;ithasasubstantialcommitmentofitsresourcesininternationalbusiness;it13internationalproductioninanumberofcountries;andithasa14perspectiveinitsmanagement.Significant15existamongmultinationalcompanies.Firstsuchacompanymaynot16dobusinessineveryregionandcountryintheworld17itconsidersopportunitiesthroughouttheworld.Secondithasa18portionofitsassetsinvestedininternationalbusiness;19itmakesasubstantialpartofitssalesandearnsaconsiderablepartofits20overseas. 5
Directions: TheStudentUnionofyouruniversityisgoinglohostaNewYearparty.OnbehalfoftheStudentUnionwriteProfessorGeorgeKingaletterinvitinghimtothepartyandexpressingyourthanksforthehelpheoffered. Writeyourletterwithnolessthan100words.WriteitneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.Donotsignyourownnameattheendoftheletter;use"LiMing"instead.Youdonotneedtowritetheaddress.10points
Toresolveadisputemeanstoturnopposingpositionsintoasingleoutcome.Thetwopartiesmaychoosetofocustheirattentionononeormoreofthreebasicfactors.Theymayseekto1reconciletheirinterests2determinewhoisrightand/or3determinewhoismorepowerful. 41Disagreementofinterests Interestsareneedsdesiresconcernsfears--thethingsonecaresaboutorwants.Theypro-videthefoundationforaperson’soranorganisation’spositioninadispute.Inadisputenotonlydotheinterestsofonepartynotcoincidewiththoseoftheotherpartybuttheyareinconflict.ForexamplethedirectorofsalesforanelectronicscompanygetsintoadisputewiththedirectorofmanufacturingoverthenumberofTVmodelstoproduce. 42Methodsofsettlingconflictinginterests Reconcilingsuchinterestsisnoteasy.Itinvolvesprobingfordeeplyrootedconcernsdevisingcreativesolutionsandmakingtrade-offsandcompromiseswhereinterestsareopposed.Themostcommonprocedurefordoingthisisnegotiationtheactofcommunicationintendedtoreachagreement. 43Theuseofnegotiationfordifferentdisputetypes Bynomeansdoallnegotiationsormediationsfocusonreconcilinginterests.Somenegotiationsfocusondeterminingwhoisrightsuchaswhentwolawyersargueaboutwhosecasehasthegreatermerit. 44Handlingrights-baseddisputes Thereareoftendifferent---andsometimescontradictory--standardsthatapplytorights.Reachingagreementonrightswheretheoutcomewilldeterminewhogetswhatcanoftenbesodifficultthatthepartiesfrequentlyturntoathirdpartytodeterminewhoisright.Themosttypicalrightsprocedureisadjudicationinwhichdisputantspresentevidenceandargumentstoaneutralthirdpartywhohasthepowertomakeadecisionthatmustbefollowedbybothdisputants.Inmediationbycontrastthethirdpartydoesnothavethepowertodecidethedispute.Publicadjudicationisprovidedbycourtsandadministrativeagencies.Privateadjudicationisprovidedbyarbitrators. 45Theroleofpowerinsettlingdisagreements Athirdwaytoresolveadisputeisonthebasisofpower.Wedefinepowersomewhatnarrowlyastheabilitytopressuresomeonetodosomethinghewouldnototherwisedo. Inrelationshipsofmutualdependencesuchasbetweenlaborandmanagementorwithinanorganizationorafamilythequestionofwhoismorepowerfulturnsonwhoislessdependentontheother.Ifacompanyneedstheemployees’workmorethanemployeesneedthecompany’spaythecompanyismoredependentandhencelesspowerful.Howdependentoneisturnsonhowsatisfactorythealternativesareforsatisfyingone’sinterests.Thebetterthealternativethelessdependentoneis.Ifitiseasierforthecompanytoreplacestrikingemployeesthanitisforstrikingemployeestofindnewjobsthecompanyislessdependentandtherebymorepowerful.Determiningwhoisthemorepowerfulpartywithoutadecisiveandpotentiallydestructivepowercontestisdifficultbecausepowerisultimatelyamatterofperceptions. [A]Anotherinterests-basedprocedureismediationinwhichathirdpartyassiststhedisputantsthetwosidesinthedisputeinreachingagreement. [B]Othernegotiationslocusondeterminingwhoismorepowerfulsuchaswhenquarrellingmeighboursornationsexchangethreatsandcounterthreats.Oftennegotiationsinvolveamixofallthree--someattemptstosatisfyinterestssomediscussionofrightsandsomereferencestorelativepower. [C]Weoftenencounterdisputes.Ifwedon’tdealwithitpropertyitwillbringunexpectedout-cometous. [D]ThedirectorofsaleswantstoproducemoremodelsbecauseherinterestisinsellingTVsets;moremodelsmeanmorechoiceforconsumersandhenceincreasedsales.Thedirectorofmanufacturinghoweverwantstoproducefewermodels.Hisinterestisindecreasingmanufacturingcostsandmoremodelsmeanhighercosts. [E]Exercisingpowertypicallymeansimposingcostsontheothersideorthreateningtodoso.Theexerciseofpowertakestwocommonforms:actsofaggressionsuchasphysicalattackandwithholdingthebenefitsthatderivefromarelationshipaswhenemployeesstopworkinginastrike. [F]Itisoftencomplicatedtoattempttodeterminewhoisrightinadispute.Althoughitisusuallystraightforwardwhererightsareformalizedinlawotherrightstaketheformofunwrittenbutsociallyacceptedstandardsofbehavioursuchasreciprocityprecedentequalityandseniority. 43
Shynessisthecauseofmuchunhappinessforagreatmanypeople.Shypeopleare1andserf-conscious;thatistheyare2concernedwiththeirownappearanceandactions.3thoughtsare4occurringintheirminds:WhatkindofimpressionamImaking Itisobviousthatsuch5feelingsmustaffectpeopleadversely.Aperson’sself-conceptis6inthewayheorshebehavesandthewayapersonbehavesaffectsotherpeople’sreactions.7thewaypeoplethinkaboutthemselveshasaprofoundeffectonallareasoftheirlives. Shypeoplehavinglow8arelikelytobepassiveandeasilyinfluencedbyothers.Theyneedreassurance9theyaredoing"thefightthing".Shypeoplearevery10tocriticism;theyfeelit11theirinferiority.Ashypersonmay12toacomplimentwithastatementlikethisone:"You’rejustsayingthattomakemefeelgood."Itisclearthat13self-awarenessisahealthyqualityoverdoingitisharmful. Canshynessbecompletely14oratleastreducedFortunatelypeoplecanovercomeshynesswithdeterminedandpatienteffortinbuildingself-confidence.Sinceshynessgoes15withlackofserf-esteemitisimportantforpeopletoaccepttheirweaknessaswellastheirstrengths.Forexamplemostpeoplewouldliketobe"A"studentsineverysubject.Itisnotfairforthemto16themselvesinferiorbecausetheyhavedifficulty17someareas.People’sexpectationsofthemselvesmustbe18 Eachoneofusisauniqueworthwhileindividual.Thebetterweunderstandourselvestheeasieritbecomesto19ourfullpotential.Let’snotallowshynesstoblockourchancesforarichand20life. 7
Thirty-fiveyearsaftercomputerscientistsatUCLAlinkedtwobulkycomputersusinga15-footgraycabletestinganewwayforexchangingdataovernetworkswhatwouldultimatelybecometheInternetremainsaworkinprogress. Universityresearchersareexperimentingwithwaystoincreaseitscapacityandspeed.ProgrammersaretryingtoimbueWebpageswithintelligence.Andworkisunderwaytore-engineerthenet-worktoreducespamandsecuritytroubles. 46Allthewhilethreatsloom:criticswarethatcommerciallegalandpoliticalpressurescouldhinderthetypesofinnovationsthatmadetheInternetwhatitistoday. StephenCrockerandVintonCerfwereamongthegraduatestudentswhojoinedUCLAprofessorLenKleinrockinanengineeringlabonSept.21969asbitsofmeaninglesstestdataflowedsilentlybetweenthetwocomputers.ByJanuarythreeother"nodes"joinedthefledglingnetwork. 47Thencamee-mailafewyearslateracorecommunicationsagreementcalledTCP/IPinthelate70sthedomainnamesysteminthe80sandtheWorldWideWeb--nowthesecondmostpopularapplicationbehinde-mail--in1990.TheInternetexpandedbeyonditsinitialmilitaryandeducationaldomainintobusinessesandhomesaroundtheworld. TodayCrockercontinuesworkontheInternetdesigningbettertoolsforcollaboration.48AndassecuritychairmanfortheInternet’skeyoversightbodyheistryingtodefendthecoreaddressingsystemfromoutsidethreats. HeacknowledgestheInternethehelpedbuildisfarfromfinishedandchangesareinstoretomeetgrowingdemandsformultimedia.49Networkprovidersnowmakeonly"bestefforts"atdeliveringdatapacketsandCrockersaidbetterguaranteesareneededtopreventtheskipsandunexpectedpausesnowcommonwithvideo. CerfnowatMCIInc.saidhewishedhecouldhavedesignedtheInternetwithsecuritybuilt-in.MicrosoftCorp.YahooInc.andAmericaOnlineInc.amongothersarecurrentlytryingtoretrofitthenetworksoe-mailsenderscanbeauthenticated--awaytocutclownonjunkmessagessentusingspoofedaddresses. 50Manyfeaturesbeingdevelopedtodaywouldn’thavebeenpossibleatbirthgiventheslowercomputingspeedsandnarrowerInternetpipesorbandwidthCerfsaid. 49NetworkprovidersnowmakeonlybesteffortsatdeliveringdatapacketsandCrockersaidbetterguaranteesareneededtopreventtheskipsandunexpectedpausesnowcommonwithvideo.
Text2 SoBig.Fwasthemorevisibleoftiletworecentwavesofinfectionbecauseitpropagateditselfbye-mailmeaningthatvictimsnoticedwhatwasgoingon.SoBig.Fwassoeffectivethatitcausedsubstantialdisruptioneventothoseprotectedbyanti-virussoftware.Thatwasbecausesomanycopiesofthevirusspreadthatmanymachineswereoverwhelmedbymessagesfromtheirownanti-virussoftware.Ontopofthatonecommoncounter-measurebackfiredincreasingtrafficstillfurthers.Anti-virussoftwareoftenbouncesawarningbacktothesenderofaninfectede-mailsayingthatthee-mailinquestioncannotbedeliveredbecauseitcontainsavirus.SoBig.Fwasabletospoofthissystemby"harvesting"e-mailaddressesfromtheharddisksofinfectedcomputers.Someoftheseaddresseswerethensentinfectede-mailsthathadbeendoctoredtolookasthoughtheyhadcomefromotherharvestedaddresses.Thelatterwerethussentwarningseventhoughtheirmachinesmaynothavebeeninfected. KevinHaleyofSymantecafirmthatmakesanti-virussoftwarethinksthatonereasonSoBig.Fwassomuchmoreeffectivethanothervirusesthatworkthiswayisbecauseitwasbetteratsearchinghard-drivesforaddresses.BrianKingofCERTaninternet-securitycenteratCarnegie-MellonUniversityinPittsburghnotethatunlikeitsprecursorsSoBig.Fwascapableof"multi-threading":itcouldsendmultiplee-mailssimultaneouslyallowingittodispatchthousandsinminutes. Blasterworkedbycreatinga"bufferoverrunintheremoteprocedurecall".InotherwordthatmeansitattackedapieceofsoftwareusedbyMicrosoft’sWindowsoperatingsystemtoallowonecomputertocontrolanother.Itdidsobycausingthatsoftwaretousetoomuchmemory. MostwormsworkbyexploitingweaknessesinanoperatingsystembutwhoeverwroteBlasterhadaparticularlyrefinedsenseofhumorsincethewebsiteunderattackwastheonefromwhichuserscouldobtainaprogramtofixtheveryweaknessinWindowsthatthewormitselfwasexploiting. OnewaytodealwithawickedwormlikeBlasteristodesignafairygodmotherwormthatgoesaroundrepairingvulnerablemachinesautomatically.InthecaseofBlastersomeoneseemstohavetriedexactlythatwithaprogramcalledWelchi.HoweveraccordingtoMr.HaleyWelchihascausedalmostasmanyproblemsasBlasteritselfbyoverwhelmingnetworkswith"pings"--signalsthatcheckedforthepresenceofothercomputers. Thoughbothoftheseprogramsfellshortoftheapparentobjectivesoftheirauthorstheystillcauseddamage.ForinstancetheyforcedtheshutdownofanumberofcomputernetworksincludingtheoneusedbytheNewYorkTimesnewsroomandtheoneorganizingtrainsoperatedbyCSXafreightcompanyonAmerica’seastcoast.Computerscientistsexpectthatitisonlyamatteroftimebeforeatrulydevastatingvirusisunleashed. TheworddoctoredLine9Paragraph1probablymeans
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