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In the long period from 1500 to 1800, western European nation-states were all influenced by a set...
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InPlato’sUtopiaherearethreeclasses:thecommonpeoplethesoldiersandtheguardianschosenbythelegislator.ThemainproblemasPlatoperceivesistoinsurethattheguardiansshallcarryouttheintentionofthelegislator.Forthispurposethefirstthingheproposesiseducation. Educationisdividedintotwopartsmusicandgymnastics.46Eachhasawidermeaningthanatpresent:“music”meanseverythingthatisintheprovinceofthemusesand“gymnastics”meanseverythingconcernedwithphysicaltrainingfitness.“Music”isalmostaswideaswhatisnowcalled“culture”and“gymnastics”issomewhatwiderthanwhat“athletics”meaninthemodernsense. CultureistobedevotedtomakingmengentlemeninthesensewhichlargelyowingtoPlatoisfamiliarinEngland.TheAthensofhisdaywasinonerespectanalogoustoEnglandinthenineteenthcentury:47therewasineachanaristocracyenjoyingwealthandsocialprestigebuthavingnomonopolyofpoliticalpower;andineachthearistocracyhadtosecureasmuchpowerasitcouldbymeansofimpressivebehavior.InPlato’sUtopiahoweverthearistocracyrulesunchecked. Gravitydecorumandcourageseemtobethequalitiesmainlytobecultivatedineducation.48Thereistobearigidcensorshipfromveryearlyyearsovertheliteraturetowhichtheyounghaveaccessandthemusictheyareallowedtohear.Mothersandnursesaretotelltheirchildrenonlyauthorizedstories.Alsothereisacensorshipofmusic.TheLydianandIonianharmoniesaretobeforbiddenthefirstbecauseitexpressessorrowthesecondbecauseitisrelaxed.49OnlytheDorianforcourageandthePhrygianfortemperancearetobeallowedandpermissiblerhythmsmustbesimpleandsuchasareexpressiveofacourageousandharmoniouslife. Asforgymnasticsthetrainingofthebodyistobeveryaustere.Nooneistoeatfishormeatcookedotherwisethanroastedandtheremustbenosaucesorcandies.Peoplebroughtuponhisregimenhesayswillhavenoneedofdoctors.Gymnasticsappliestothetrainingofmindaswell.Uptoacertainagetheyoungaretoseenouglinessorvice.50Butatasuitablemomenttheymustbeexposedto“enchantments”bothintheshapeofterrorsthatmustnotterrifyandofbadpleasuresthatmustnotseducethewill.Onlyaftertheyhavewithstoodthesetestswilltheybejudgedfittobeguardians. Butatasuitablemomenttheymustbeexposedtoenchantmentsbothintheshapeofterrorsthatmustnotterrifyandofbadpleasuresthatmustnotseducethewill
Thequestionofwhereinsightscomefromhasbecomeahottopicinneurosciencedespitethefactthattheyarenoteasytoinduceexperimentallyinalaboratory.Dr.BhattacharyaandDr.Shethhavetakenacreativeapproach.Theyhaveselectedsomebrain-teasingbutpracticalproblemsinthehopethatthesewouldgetclosertomimickingrealinsight:Toqualifyapuzzlehadtobesimplenottoowidelyknownandwithoutamethodicalsolution.Theresearchersthenasked18youngadultstotrytosolvetheseproblemswhiletheirbrainwavesweremonitoredusinganelectroencephalographEEG.Atypicalbrain-teaserwentlikethis.Therearethreelightswitchesontheground-floorwallofathree-storeyhouse.Twooftheswitchesdonothingbutoneofthemcontrolsabulbonthesecondfloor.Whenyoubeginthebulbisoff.Youcanonlymakeonevisittothesecondfloor.HowdoyouworkoutwhichswitchistheonethatcontrolsthelightThisproblemoroneequivalenttoitwaspresentedonacomputerscreentoavolunteerwhenthatvolunteerpressedabutton.Theelectricalactivityofthevolunteer’sbrainhisbrainwavepatternwasrecordedbytheEEGfromthebutton’spress.Eachvolunteerwasgiven30secondstoreadthepuzzleandanother60to90secondstosolveit.Somepeopleworkeditout;othersdidnot.ThesignificantpointthoughwasthattheEEGpredictedwhowouldfallwhere.Thosevolunteerswhowentontohaveaninsightinthiscasethatontheironeandonlyvisittothesecondfloortheycouldusenotjustthelighthuttheheatproducedbyabulbasevidenceofanactiveswitchhadhaddifferentbrainwaveactivityfromthosewhonevergotit.Intherightfrontalcortexapartofthebrainassociatedwithshiftingmentalstatestherewasanincreaseinhigh-frequencygammawavesthosewith47-48cyclesasecond.Moreoverthedifferencewasnoticeableuptoeightsecondsbeforethevolunteerrealisedhehadfoundthesolution.Dr.Sheththinksthismayhecapturingthetransformationalthoughtinactionbeforethebrain’sownerisconsciouslyawareofit.Thisfindingposesfascinatingquestionsabouthowthebrainreallyworks.Consciousthoughtitseemsdoesnotsolveproblems.Insteadunconsciousprocessinghappensinthebackgroundandonlydeliverstheanswertoconsciousnessonceithasbeenarrivedat.Foodforfurtherthoughtindeed.WhichkindofproblemscanheusedinDr.BhattacharyaandDr.Sheth’sresearch
Digitalphotographyisstillnewenoughthatmostofushaveyettoformanopinionaboutit1developapointofview.Butthishasn’tstoppedmanyfilmandcomputerfansfromagreeing2theearlyconventionalwisdomaboutdigitalcameras—they’reneat3foryourPCbutthey’renotsuitableforeverydaypicturetaking. Thefansarewrong.Morethananythingelsedigitalcamerasareradically4whatphotographymeansandwhatitcanbe.Thevenerablemediumofphotography5weknowitisbeginningtoseemoutof6withthewaywelive.Inourcomputerandcamcorder7savingpicturesasdigital8andwatchingthemonTVisnolesspractical—andinmanywaysmore9thanfumblingwithrollsoffilmthatmustbesentofftobe10. Paperisalsoterribly11.Picturesthatareincorrectlyframed12orlightedarenonethelesscommittedtofilmandultimatelyprocessedintoprints. Thedigitalmediumchangesthe13.Stillimagesthatare14digitallycanimmediatelybeshownonacomputer15aTVscreenorasmallliquidcrystaldisplayLCDbuiltrightintothecamera.Andsincethepointsoflightthat16animagearesavedasaseriesofdigitalbitsinelectronicmemory17beingpermanentlyetchedontofilmtheycanbeerasedretouchedandtransmitted18. What’sitliketo19withoneofthesedigitalcamerasIt’salittlelikeafirstdate—excitingconfusingandfraughtwith20. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.20
Thequestionofwhereinsightscomefromhasbecomeahottopicinneurosciencedespitethefactthattheyarenoteasytoinduceexperimentallyinalaboratory.Dr.BhattacharyaandDr.Shethhavetakenacreativeapproach.Theyhaveselectedsomebrain-teasingbutpracticalproblemsinthehopethatthesewouldgetclosertomimickingrealinsight:Toqualifyapuzzlehadtobesimplenottoowidelyknownandwithoutamethodicalsolution.Theresearchersthenasked18youngadultstotrytosolvetheseproblemswhiletheirbrainwavesweremonitoredusinganelectroencephalographEEG.Atypicalbrain-teaserwentlikethis.Therearethreelightswitchesontheground-floorwallofathree-storeyhouse.Twooftheswitchesdonothingbutoneofthemcontrolsabulbonthesecondfloor.Whenyoubeginthebulbisoff.Youcanonlymakeonevisittothesecondfloor.HowdoyouworkoutwhichswitchistheonethatcontrolsthelightThisproblemoroneequivalenttoitwaspresentedonacomputerscreentoavolunteerwhenthatvolunteerpressedabutton.Theelectricalactivityofthevolunteer’sbrainhisbrainwavepatternwasrecordedbytheEEGfromthebutton’spress.Eachvolunteerwasgiven30secondstoreadthepuzzleandanother60to90secondstosolveit.Somepeopleworkeditout;othersdidnot.ThesignificantpointthoughwasthattheEEGpredictedwhowouldfallwhere.Thosevolunteerswhowentontohaveaninsightinthiscasethatontheironeandonlyvisittothesecondfloortheycouldusenotjustthelighthuttheheatproducedbyabulbasevidenceofanactiveswitchhadhaddifferentbrainwaveactivityfromthosewhonevergotit.Intherightfrontalcortexapartofthebrainassociatedwithshiftingmentalstatestherewasanincreaseinhigh-frequencygammawavesthosewith47-48cyclesasecond.Moreoverthedifferencewasnoticeableuptoeightsecondsbeforethevolunteerrealisedhehadfoundthesolution.Dr.Sheththinksthismayhecapturingthetransformationalthoughtinactionbeforethebrain’sownerisconsciouslyawareofit.Thisfindingposesfascinatingquestionsabouthowthebrainreallyworks.Consciousthoughtitseemsdoesnotsolveproblems.Insteadunconsciousprocessinghappensinthebackgroundandonlydeliverstheanswertoconsciousnessonceithasbeenarrivedat.Foodforfurtherthoughtindeed.TheEEGwouldpredictthesuccessofavolunteer
Concreteisprobablyusedmorewidelythananyothersubstanceexceptwateryetitremainslargelyunappreciated.Somepeopleviewthe20thcenturyastheatomicagethespaceagethecomputerage—butanargumentcanbemadethatitwastheconcreteagesayscementspecialistHendrikVanOss.It’samiraclematerial.IndeedmorethanatonofconcreteisproducedeachyearforeverymanwomanandchildonEarth.Yetconcreteisgenerallyignoredoutsidetheengineeringworldavictimofitsownubiquityandtheindustry’sconservativepaceofdevelopment.Nowthankstoenvironmentalpressuresandentrepreneurialinnovationanewgenerationofconcretesisemerging.Thishigh-techassortmentofconcreteconfectionspromisestobestrongerlighterandmoreenvironmentallyfriendlythaneverbefore.Concreteisalsoaclimate-changevillain.Itismadebymixingwaterwithanaggregatesuchassandorgravelandcement.Cementisusuallymadebyheatinglimestoneandclaytoover2500degreesF.Theresultingchemicalreactionalongwithfuelburnedtoheatthekilnproducesbetween7%and10%ofglobalcarbon-dioxideemissions.Whenwehavetorepeatedlyregeneratethesematerialsbecausethey’renotdurablewereleasemoreemissionssaysVictorLiwhohascreatedaconcretesuffusedbysyntheticfibersthatmakeitstrongermoredurableandabletobendlikeametal.Li’screationdoesnotrequirereinforcementapropertysharedbyotherconcretesthatusechemicaladditives.UsinglesswatermakesconcretestrongerbutuntilthedevelopmentofplasticizersitalsomadeconcretestickydryandhardtohandlesaysChristianMeyeracivilengineeringprofessoratColumbiaUniversity.MakingstrongerconcretessaysLiallowslesstobeusedreducingwasteandgivingarchitectsmorefreedom.Youcanhavesuchfuturisticdesignsifyoudon’thavetoputrebarinthereorstructuralbeamssaysVanOss.Amoredirectlygreenc6neretehasbeendevelopedbytheAustraliancompanyTecEeo.Theyaddmagnesiumtotheircementformingaporousconcretethatactuallyscrubscarbondioxidefromtheair.Whileexpertsagreethatthesenewconcretewillsomedaybewidelyusedthetimetableisuncertain.Concretecompaniesareresponsivetoenvironmentalconcernsandarealwayslookingtostretchtheutilityoftheirproductbuttheconstructionindustryisslowtochange.WhenyoustartmonkeyingaroundwithmaterialsthegoverningbodiesthebuildingdepartmentsareverycautiousbeforetheyletyouuseanunprovenmaterialMeyersays.InthenextfewdecadessaysVanOssbuildingcodeswillchangeopeningthewayforinnovativematerials.Butwhilenewconcretesmaybestrongerandmoredurabletheyarealsomoreexpensive—andwhetherthetendencyofdevelopersandthepublictofocusonshort-termratherthanlong-termcostswillalsochangeisanothermatter.WhichofthefollowingistrueaboutLi’snewgreenconcrete
InPlato’sUtopiaherearethreeclasses:thecommonpeoplethesoldiersandtheguardianschosenbythelegislator.ThemainproblemasPlatoperceivesistoinsurethattheguardiansshallcarryouttheintentionofthelegislator.Forthispurposethefirstthingheproposesiseducation. Educationisdividedintotwopartsmusicandgymnastics.46Eachhasawidermeaningthanatpresent:“music”meanseverythingthatisintheprovinceofthemusesand“gymnastics”meanseverythingconcernedwithphysicaltrainingfitness.“Music”isalmostaswideaswhatisnowcalled“culture”and“gymnastics”issomewhatwiderthanwhat“athletics”meaninthemodernsense. CultureistobedevotedtomakingmengentlemeninthesensewhichlargelyowingtoPlatoisfamiliarinEngland.TheAthensofhisdaywasinonerespectanalogoustoEnglandinthenineteenthcentury:47therewasineachanaristocracyenjoyingwealthandsocialprestigebuthavingnomonopolyofpoliticalpower;andineachthearistocracyhadtosecureasmuchpowerasitcouldbymeansofimpressivebehavior.InPlato’sUtopiahoweverthearistocracyrulesunchecked. Gravitydecorumandcourageseemtobethequalitiesmainlytobecultivatedineducation.48Thereistobearigidcensorshipfromveryearlyyearsovertheliteraturetowhichtheyounghaveaccessandthemusictheyareallowedtohear.Mothersandnursesaretotelltheirchildrenonlyauthorizedstories.Alsothereisacensorshipofmusic.TheLydianandIonianharmoniesaretobeforbiddenthefirstbecauseitexpressessorrowthesecondbecauseitisrelaxed.49OnlytheDorianforcourageandthePhrygianfortemperancearetobeallowedandpermissiblerhythmsmustbesimpleandsuchasareexpressiveofacourageousandharmoniouslife. Asforgymnasticsthetrainingofthebodyistobeveryaustere.Nooneistoeatfishormeatcookedotherwisethanroastedandtheremustbenosaucesorcandies.Peoplebroughtuponhisregimenhesayswillhavenoneedofdoctors.Gymnasticsappliestothetrainingofmindaswell.Uptoacertainagetheyoungaretoseenouglinessorvice.50Butatasuitablemomenttheymustbeexposedto“enchantments”bothintheshapeofterrorsthatmustnotterrifyandofbadpleasuresthatmustnotseducethewill.Onlyaftertheyhavewithstoodthesetestswilltheybejudgedfittobeguardians. Thereistobearigidcensorshipfromveryearlyyearsovertheliteraturetowhichtheyounghaveaccessandthemusictheyareallowedtohear
Digitalphotographyisstillnewenoughthatmostofushaveyettoformanopinionaboutit1developapointofview.Butthishasn’tstoppedmanyfilmandcomputerfansfromagreeing2theearlyconventionalwisdomaboutdigitalcameras—they’reneat3foryourPCbutthey’renotsuitableforeverydaypicturetaking. Thefansarewrong.Morethananythingelsedigitalcamerasareradically4whatphotographymeansandwhatitcanbe.Thevenerablemediumofphotography5weknowitisbeginningtoseemoutof6withthewaywelive.Inourcomputerandcamcorder7savingpicturesasdigital8andwatchingthemonTVisnolesspractical—andinmanywaysmore9thanfumblingwithrollsoffilmthatmustbesentofftobe10. Paperisalsoterribly11.Picturesthatareincorrectlyframed12orlightedarenonethelesscommittedtofilmandultimatelyprocessedintoprints. Thedigitalmediumchangesthe13.Stillimagesthatare14digitallycanimmediatelybeshownonacomputer15aTVscreenorasmallliquidcrystaldisplayLCDbuiltrightintothecamera.Andsincethepointsoflightthat16animagearesavedasaseriesofdigitalbitsinelectronicmemory17beingpermanentlyetchedontofilmtheycanbeerasedretouchedandtransmitted18. What’sitliketo19withoneofthesedigitalcamerasIt’salittlelikeafirstdate—excitingconfusingandfraughtwith20. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.10
Digitalphotographyisstillnewenoughthatmostofushaveyettoformanopinionaboutit1developapointofview.Butthishasn’tstoppedmanyfilmandcomputerfansfromagreeing2theearlyconventionalwisdomaboutdigitalcameras—they’reneat3foryourPCbutthey’renotsuitableforeverydaypicturetaking. Thefansarewrong.Morethananythingelsedigitalcamerasareradically4whatphotographymeansandwhatitcanbe.Thevenerablemediumofphotography5weknowitisbeginningtoseemoutof6withthewaywelive.Inourcomputerandcamcorder7savingpicturesasdigital8andwatchingthemonTVisnolesspractical—andinmanywaysmore9thanfumblingwithrollsoffilmthatmustbesentofftobe10. Paperisalsoterribly11.Picturesthatareincorrectlyframed12orlightedarenonethelesscommittedtofilmandultimatelyprocessedintoprints. Thedigitalmediumchangesthe13.Stillimagesthatare14digitallycanimmediatelybeshownonacomputer15aTVscreenorasmallliquidcrystaldisplayLCDbuiltrightintothecamera.Andsincethepointsoflightthat16animagearesavedasaseriesofdigitalbitsinelectronicmemory17beingpermanentlyetchedontofilmtheycanbeerasedretouchedandtransmitted18. What’sitliketo19withoneofthesedigitalcamerasIt’salittlelikeafirstdate—excitingconfusingandfraughtwith20. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.14
Digitalphotographyisstillnewenoughthatmostofushaveyettoformanopinionaboutit1developapointofview.Butthishasn’tstoppedmanyfilmandcomputerfansfromagreeing2theearlyconventionalwisdomaboutdigitalcameras—they’reneat3foryourPCbutthey’renotsuitableforeverydaypicturetaking. Thefansarewrong.Morethananythingelsedigitalcamerasareradically4whatphotographymeansandwhatitcanbe.Thevenerablemediumofphotography5weknowitisbeginningtoseemoutof6withthewaywelive.Inourcomputerandcamcorder7savingpicturesasdigital8andwatchingthemonTVisnolesspractical—andinmanywaysmore9thanfumblingwithrollsoffilmthatmustbesentofftobe10. Paperisalsoterribly11.Picturesthatareincorrectlyframed12orlightedarenonethelesscommittedtofilmandultimatelyprocessedintoprints. Thedigitalmediumchangesthe13.Stillimagesthatare14digitallycanimmediatelybeshownonacomputer15aTVscreenorasmallliquidcrystaldisplayLCDbuiltrightintothecamera.Andsincethepointsoflightthat16animagearesavedasaseriesofdigitalbitsinelectronicmemory17beingpermanentlyetchedontofilmtheycanbeerasedretouchedandtransmitted18. What’sitliketo19withoneofthesedigitalcamerasIt’salittlelikeafirstdate—excitingconfusingandfraughtwith20. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.16
Digitalphotographyisstillnewenoughthatmostofushaveyettoformanopinionaboutit1developapointofview.Butthishasn’tstoppedmanyfilmandcomputerfansfromagreeing2theearlyconventionalwisdomaboutdigitalcameras—they’reneat3foryourPCbutthey’renotsuitableforeverydaypicturetaking. Thefansarewrong.Morethananythingelsedigitalcamerasareradically4whatphotographymeansandwhatitcanbe.Thevenerablemediumofphotography5weknowitisbeginningtoseemoutof6withthewaywelive.Inourcomputerandcamcorder7savingpicturesasdigital8andwatchingthemonTVisnolesspractical—andinmanywaysmore9thanfumblingwithrollsoffilmthatmustbesentofftobe10. Paperisalsoterribly11.Picturesthatareincorrectlyframed12orlightedarenonethelesscommittedtofilmandultimatelyprocessedintoprints. Thedigitalmediumchangesthe13.Stillimagesthatare14digitallycanimmediatelybeshownonacomputer15aTVscreenorasmallliquidcrystaldisplayLCDbuiltrightintothecamera.Andsincethepointsoflightthat16animagearesavedasaseriesofdigitalbitsinelectronicmemory17beingpermanentlyetchedontofilmtheycanbeerasedretouchedandtransmitted18. What’sitliketo19withoneofthesedigitalcamerasIt’salittlelikeafirstdate—excitingconfusingandfraughtwith20. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.2
Directions:Writeanessayof160～200wordsbasedonthefollowingdrawings.Inyouressayyoushould: 1describethedrawingbriefly; 2explainitsintendedmeaningandthen 3stateyourpointsofview. YonshouldwriteneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.
[A]RefuseGimmicks [B]BeWaryofPriceLevels [C]SayNotoUselessThings [D]NeverPayListPrice [E]StanduptoTemptations [F]Switch—orThreatento [G]Don’tBuyonImpulse InrecentyearsthebasicmarketprinciplesofcompetitionandchoicehaveexpandedintonewaspectsofAmericanlife.Consumersnowfaceabewilderingarrayofoptionsforairtravelphoneservicemedicalcareevenpostalservice.CarbuyerscanshopontheInternetforthebestpriceatanydealershipintheirarea.Insomepartsofthecountryhomeownerscanpurchaseelectricityfromamenuofcompanies.Allthischoicetranslatesintounprecedentedconsumerpower. Oneofthepersistentmythsofcapitalistcultureisthatbusinesspeoplelovecompetition.Theydon’t.Theyspendtheirwakinghoursplottingwaystoavoiditandkeeppriceshigh.Thesedaystheyuseinformationtechnologiesthatgivethemintricatedataonindividualshoppersandthenpresentmultiplepricestogeteachconsumertocoughupthemaximumheiswillingtopay.Theairlineshavemasteredthisgameofferingmanylevelsoffares. SohowcanyoumakethemostofyournewpowerasaconsumerHerearerulestohelpyoufindyourway. 41.______ IntheNewEconomycompetitionissostrongthatfewerstoresandservicesareimmunetopricepressuresosharpenyourbargainingskills.Askretailerstomatchpricesyou’veseenontheInternet.Askatthecheckoutcounterifthereareanycouponsordiscountsyoucanuse.Askhotelclerksiftherearebetterratesavailable.You’llbesurprisedhowoftentheanswerisyes. 42.______ Ascompetitionheatsupandpushespricesdownbusinessesscrambletoboosttheirprofitsbyheapingonextras:rustproofingyourcarservicecontractsonyourapplianceprepaidgasolineforyourrentalcar.Thesestuntsaredevisedtomakeyoupaymoreatthelastminuteandprobablyaren’tagooddeal. 43.______ Theinformationhighwayisatwo-waystreet.Asaconsumeryoucangetmoredata.ButwhileyouareroamingtheWebbusinessesarestudyingyourhabitsandvulnerabilities. HaveaweaknessforchocolatesDon’tbesurprisedifAmazon.Comofferstosellyouaboxwhileyou’rebrowsingforbooks.They’reusingawrinkleonthelast-minutemarketingpitchperfectedbyMcDonald’s:“Wouldyoulikefrieswiththat”Theployworksremarkablywell. 44.______ Versioningisatacticusedbybusinessestoseparatestatus-consciousconsumersfromthebargain-hungryones—sincetheformermeanbiggerprofitmargins.“Deluxe”and“platinum”arecodewordsusedtoenticestatusseekerstoopentheirwallets. Addathirdpricelevelandthepursesofevenbargain-hungryshopperscanbepriedopen.Researchshowsthatmanyconsumerswhomightpickthelower-pricedoptionwhengivenjusttwochoiceswillchoosethemedium-pricedalternativeifgiventhree.“Consumerstrytoavoidextremeoptions”writeCarlShapiroandHalR.VarianintheirbookInformationRules. Consumersin.theNewEconomyfacemoredemandsontheirtimeandattentionthaneverbeforesothey’reinclinedtomakethemostfamiliarchoice.Considerthis:ithadbeenadecadeandahalfsincethebreakupofAT＆Tyetitisstillbyfarthelargestlong-distanceprovider—evenwhileotherphonecompaniesoffer$50worthoffreeserviceforswitching.Morethaneveritpaystochangeservicesandbrands. Ifyoudon’twantthehasslesofswitchingrememberthatbusinessesareeagertohangontoconsumers.Thenexttimeyougetatemptingofferfromacredit-cardissueroraphonecompanycallyourcurrentproviderandaskthemtomatchthedeal.You’llbepleasedtofindhowoftenthey’llagree. 42
CharlesDarwinwedhiscousinEmmaandspawned10childrenincludingfourbrilliantscientists.AlbertEinstein’ssecondwifeElsawashisfirstcousin.QueenVictoriasaidIdotohers.Sohavemillionsworldwide.InpartsofSaudiArabia39%ofallmarriagesarebetweenfirstcousins.IntheU.S.thoughthepracticebearsastigmaofinbreedingjustthissideofincest.Thetabooisnotonlysocialhutlegislative;24statesbanthemarriageoffirstcousins:fiveothersallowitonlyifthecoupleisunabletobearchildren.Amajorreasonforthisbanisthebeliefthatkidsoffirstcousinsaretragicallysusceptibletoseriouscongenitalillnesses.Thatviewmayhavetochange.AcomprehensivestudypublishedrecentlyintheJournalofGeneticCounselingindicatessuchchildrenrunanonlyslightlyhigherriskofsignificantgeneticdisorderslikecongenitalheartdefects—abouttwopercentagepointsabovetheaverage3%to4%.Saysthestudy’sleadauthorRobinBennettpresident-electoftheNationalSocietyofGeneticCounselorswhichfundedthestudy:Asidefromathoroughmedicalfamilyhistorythereisnoneedtoofferanygenetictestingonthebasisofconsanguinityalone.Publicationofthestudywilldomorethantweakpublicawareness;itwillenlightendoctorswhohaveurgedcousincouplesnottohavechildren.JustthisweeksaysBennettIsawa23-year-oldwomanwhohadhadatuballigationbecauseherparentswerecousinsandherdoctortoldhersheshouldn’thavechildren.TheAmericanproscriptionagainstcousinmarriagesgrewinthe19thcenturyaswildernesssettlerstriedtodistinguishthemselvesfromthesavageIndianssaysMartinauthorofthebookForbiddenRelatives:TheAmericanMythofCousinMarriage.ThetruthisthatEuropeansweremarryingtheircousinsandNativeAmericanswerenot.Anddoesn’tGodhavesternwordsonthesubjectChristieSmith37aNevadawritersaysshefeltguiltywhenshefellinlovewithherfirstcousin’ssonMark.IwastryingsohardtoconvincemyselfnottohavethesefeelingssherecallsthatIwenttotheBiblelookingforconfirmationthatitwaswrong.AndwhatIfoundwastheexactopposite:supportforcousinmarriages.ThepatriarchJacobmarriedtwoofhisfirstcousinsRachelandLeah.SmithmarriedMarkin1999.Themedicalbanislifted;thesocialstainmaytakelongertodisappear.ItissuggestedinParagraph1and2thatthecousinmarriage
Digitalphotographyisstillnewenoughthatmostofushaveyettoformanopinionaboutit1developapointofview.Butthishasn’tstoppedmanyfilmandcomputerfansfromagreeing2theearlyconventionalwisdomaboutdigitalcameras—they’reneat3foryourPCbutthey’renotsuitableforeverydaypicturetaking. Thefansarewrong.Morethananythingelsedigitalcamerasareradically4whatphotographymeansandwhatitcanbe.Thevenerablemediumofphotography5weknowitisbeginningtoseemoutof6withthewaywelive.Inourcomputerandcamcorder7savingpicturesasdigital8andwatchingthemonTVisnolesspractical—andinmanywaysmore9thanfumblingwithrollsoffilmthatmustbesentofftobe10. Paperisalsoterribly11.Picturesthatareincorrectlyframed12orlightedarenonethelesscommittedtofilmandultimatelyprocessedintoprints. Thedigitalmediumchangesthe13.Stillimagesthatare14digitallycanimmediatelybeshownonacomputer15aTVscreenorasmallliquidcrystaldisplayLCDbuiltrightintothecamera.Andsincethepointsoflightthat16animagearesavedasaseriesofdigitalbitsinelectronicmemory17beingpermanentlyetchedontofilmtheycanbeerasedretouchedandtransmitted18. What’sitliketo19withoneofthesedigitalcamerasIt’salittlelikeafirstdate—excitingconfusingandfraughtwith20. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.12
Thenewspapermustprovideforthereaderthefactsunalloyedunslantedobjectivelyselectedfacts.Butinthesedaysofcomplexnewsitmustprovidemore;itmustsupplyinterpretationthemeaningofthefacts.ThisisthemostimportantassignmentConfrontingAmericanjournalism—tomakecleartothereadertheproblemsofthedaytomakeinternationalnewsasunderstandableascommunitynewstorecognizethatthereisnolongeranysuchthingwiththepossibleexceptionofsuchscribblingassocietyandclubnewsas“local”newsbecauseanyeventintheinternationalareahasalocalreactioninmanpowerdraftineconomicstrainintermsindeedofourverywayoflife. 46Thereisinjournalismawidespreadviewthatwhenyouembarkoninterpretationyouareenteringchoppyanddangerouswaterstheswirlingtidesofopinion.Thisisnonsense. Theopponentsofinterpretationinsistthatthewriterandtheeditorshallconfinehimselftothe“facts”.Thisinsistenceraisestwoquestions:WhatarethefactsAnd:Arethebarefactsenough Astothefirstqueryconsiderhowaso-called“factual”storycomesabout.Thereportercollectssayfiftyfacts;outofthesefiftyhisspaceallotmentbeingnecessarilyrestrictedheselectsthetenwhichheconsidersmostimportant.ThisisJudgmentNumberOne.ThenheorhiseditordecideswhichofthesetenfactsshallconstitutetheleadofthepieceThisisimportantdecisionbecausemanyreadersdonotproceedbeyondthefirstparagraph.ThisisJudgmentNumberTwo.47Thenthenighteditordetermineswhetherthearticleshallbepresentedonpageonewhereithasalargeimpactoronpagetwenty-fourwhereithaslittle.JudgmentNumberThree. Thusinthepresentationofaso-called“factual”or“objective”storyatleastthreejudgmentsareinvolved.48Andtheyarejudgmentsnotatallunlikethoseinvolvedininterpretationinwhichreporterandeditorcallingupontheirresearchresourcestheirgeneralbackgroundandtheir“newsneutralism”arriveataconclusionastothesignificanceofthenews. 49Thetwoareasofjudgmentpresentationofthenewsanditsinterpretationarebothobjectiveratherthansubjectiveprocesses—asobjectivethatisasanyhumanbeingcanbe.Noteinpassing:eventhoughcompleteobjectivitycanneverbeachievedneverthelesstheidealmustalwaysbethebeacononthemurkynewschannels.50Ifaneditorisintentonslantingthenewshecandoitinotherwaysandmoreeffectivelythanbyinterpretationandhecandoitbytheselectionofthosefactsthatpropuphisparticularplea.Orhecandoitbythepayhegivesastory—promotingittopageoneordemotingittopagethirty. Andtheyarejudgmentsnotatallunlikethoseinvolvedininterpretationinwhichreporterandeditorcallingupontheirresearchresourcestheirgeneralbackgroundandtheirnewsneutralismarriveataconclusionastothesignificanceofthenews.
Digitalphotographyisstillnewenoughthatmostofushaveyettoformanopinionaboutit1developapointofview.Butthishasn’tstoppedmanyfilmandcomputerfansfromagreeing2theearlyconventionalwisdomaboutdigitalcameras—they’reneat3foryourPCbutthey’renotsuitableforeverydaypicturetaking. Thefansarewrong.Morethananythingelsedigitalcamerasareradically4whatphotographymeansandwhatitcanbe.Thevenerablemediumofphotography5weknowitisbeginningtoseemoutof6withthewaywelive.Inourcomputerandcamcorder7savingpicturesasdigital8andwatchingthemonTVisnolesspractical—andinmanywaysmore9thanfumblingwithrollsoffilmthatmustbesentofftobe10. Paperisalsoterribly11.Picturesthatareincorrectlyframed12orlightedarenonethelesscommittedtofilmandultimatelyprocessedintoprints. Thedigitalmediumchangesthe13.Stillimagesthatare14digitallycanimmediatelybeshownonacomputer15aTVscreenorasmallliquidcrystaldisplayLCDbuiltrightintothecamera.Andsincethepointsoflightthat16animagearesavedasaseriesofdigitalbitsinelectronicmemory17beingpermanentlyetchedontofilmtheycanbeerasedretouchedandtransmitted18. What’sitliketo19withoneofthesedigitalcamerasIt’salittlelikeafirstdate—excitingconfusingandfraughtwith20. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.8
MosttownsuptoElizabethantimesweresmallerthanamodernvillageandeachofthemwasbuiltarounditsweeklymarketwherelocalproducewasbroughtforsaleandthetownfolkssoldtheirworktothepeoplefromthecountrysideandprovidedthemwithrefreshmentfortheday.Tradewasvirtuallyconfinedtothatonedayeveninatownofathousandorsopeople.Onmarketdayscraftsmenputuptheirstallsintheopenairwhilstononeortwootherdaysduringtheweekthetownsmanwouldpackuphisloavesornailsorclothandsetoutearlytodoaday’stradeinthemarketofanadjoiningtownwherehoweverhewouldbechargedaheavytollfortheprivilegeandgetalessfavourablespotforhisstandthanthelocalcraftsmen.AnotherchanceforhimtomakeasalewastothecongregationgatheredforSundaymorningworship.Althoughnotradewasallowedanywhereduringthehoursoftheserviceexceptatannualfairtimesafterchurchtherewouldbesometradeatthechurchdoorwithdepartingcountryfolk.Thetradeofmarketswasalmostwhollyconcernedwithexchangingtheproductsofthenearbycountrysideandthegoodssoldinthemarketbutparticularlyinfoodretaildealingwasdistrustedasakindofprofiteering.Evenwhentherewasenoughtradebeingdonetoaffordalivelihoodtoanenterprisingmanreadytobuywholesaleandsellretailtownauthoritieswerereluctanttoallowit.Yettherewereplainlypeoplewhoweretemptedtoforestallthemarketbybuyinggoodsoutsideitandtoregratethemthatistoresellthematahigherprice.Theconstantlyrepeatedrulesagainstthesepracticesandtheendlesslyrecurringprosecutionsmentionedintherecordsofallthelargertownsprovethatsomewell-informedandsharp-wittedpeopledidthesethings.Everytownmadeitsownlawsandifitwasbigenoughtohavecraftguildstheseassociationswouldregulatethebusinessoftheirmembersandtriedtoenforceastrictmonopolyoftheirowntrades.Yetwhiletheguildleadersascraftsmenfollowedfiercelyprotectionistpoliciesatthesametimeasleadingtownsmentheywantedtoseeabigbusymarketyieldingahandsomerevenueinvariousduesandtolls.Conflictsofinterestledtoendlessminuteregulationschangeableofteninconsistentfrequentlyabsurd.TherewasatimeinthefourteenthcenturyforexamplewhenLondonfishmongerswerenotallowedtohandleanyfishthathadnotalreadybeenexposedforsaleforthreedaysbythemenwhocaughtit.TheexpressionforestallthemarketLine1Para.3probablymeans
Thequestionofwhereinsightscomefromhasbecomeahottopicinneurosciencedespitethefactthattheyarenoteasytoinduceexperimentallyinalaboratory.Dr.BhattacharyaandDr.Shethhavetakenacreativeapproach.Theyhaveselectedsomebrain-teasingbutpracticalproblemsinthehopethatthesewouldgetclosertomimickingrealinsight:Toqualifyapuzzlehadtobesimplenottoowidelyknownandwithoutamethodicalsolution.Theresearchersthenasked18youngadultstotrytosolvetheseproblemswhiletheirbrainwavesweremonitoredusinganelectroencephalographEEG.Atypicalbrain-teaserwentlikethis.Therearethreelightswitchesontheground-floorwallofathree-storeyhouse.Twooftheswitchesdonothingbutoneofthemcontrolsabulbonthesecondfloor.Whenyoubeginthebulbisoff.Youcanonlymakeonevisittothesecondfloor.HowdoyouworkoutwhichswitchistheonethatcontrolsthelightThisproblemoroneequivalenttoitwaspresentedonacomputerscreentoavolunteerwhenthatvolunteerpressedabutton.Theelectricalactivityofthevolunteer’sbrainhisbrainwavepatternwasrecordedbytheEEGfromthebutton’spress.Eachvolunteerwasgiven30secondstoreadthepuzzleandanother60to90secondstosolveit.Somepeopleworkeditout;othersdidnot.ThesignificantpointthoughwasthattheEEGpredictedwhowouldfallwhere.Thosevolunteerswhowentontohaveaninsightinthiscasethatontheironeandonlyvisittothesecondfloortheycouldusenotjustthelighthuttheheatproducedbyabulbasevidenceofanactiveswitchhadhaddifferentbrainwaveactivityfromthosewhonevergotit.Intherightfrontalcortexapartofthebrainassociatedwithshiftingmentalstatestherewasanincreaseinhigh-frequencygammawavesthosewith47-48cyclesasecond.Moreoverthedifferencewasnoticeableuptoeightsecondsbeforethevolunteerrealisedhehadfoundthesolution.Dr.Sheththinksthismayhecapturingthetransformationalthoughtinactionbeforethebrain’sownerisconsciouslyawareofit.Thisfindingposesfascinatingquestionsabouthowthebrainreallyworks.Consciousthoughtitseemsdoesnotsolveproblems.Insteadunconsciousprocessinghappensinthebackgroundandonlydeliverstheanswertoconsciousnessonceithasbeenarrivedat.Foodforfurtherthoughtindeed.Dr.BhattacharyaandDr.Sheth’sanswertothequestioninthefirstparagraphmaybethat
InPlato’sUtopiaherearethreeclasses:thecommonpeoplethesoldiersandtheguardianschosenbythelegislator.ThemainproblemasPlatoperceivesistoinsurethattheguardiansshallcarryouttheintentionofthelegislator.Forthispurposethefirstthingheproposesiseducation. Educationisdividedintotwopartsmusicandgymnastics.46Eachhasawidermeaningthanatpresent:“music”meanseverythingthatisintheprovinceofthemusesand“gymnastics”meanseverythingconcernedwithphysicaltrainingfitness.“Music”isalmostaswideaswhatisnowcalled“culture”and“gymnastics”issomewhatwiderthanwhat“athletics”meaninthemodernsense. CultureistobedevotedtomakingmengentlemeninthesensewhichlargelyowingtoPlatoisfamiliarinEngland.TheAthensofhisdaywasinonerespectanalogoustoEnglandinthenineteenthcentury:47therewasineachanaristocracyenjoyingwealthandsocialprestigebuthavingnomonopolyofpoliticalpower;andineachthearistocracyhadtosecureasmuchpowerasitcouldbymeansofimpressivebehavior.InPlato’sUtopiahoweverthearistocracyrulesunchecked. Gravitydecorumandcourageseemtobethequalitiesmainlytobecultivatedineducation.48Thereistobearigidcensorshipfromveryearlyyearsovertheliteraturetowhichtheyounghaveaccessandthemusictheyareallowedtohear.Mothersandnursesaretotelltheirchildrenonlyauthorizedstories.Alsothereisacensorshipofmusic.TheLydianandIonianharmoniesaretobeforbiddenthefirstbecauseitexpressessorrowthesecondbecauseitisrelaxed.49OnlytheDorianforcourageandthePhrygianfortemperancearetobeallowedandpermissiblerhythmsmustbesimpleandsuchasareexpressiveofacourageousandharmoniouslife. Asforgymnasticsthetrainingofthebodyistobeveryaustere.Nooneistoeatfishormeatcookedotherwisethanroastedandtheremustbenosaucesorcandies.Peoplebroughtuponhisregimenhesayswillhavenoneedofdoctors.Gymnasticsappliestothetrainingofmindaswell.Uptoacertainagetheyoungaretoseenouglinessorvice.50Butatasuitablemomenttheymustbeexposedto“enchantments”bothintheshapeofterrorsthatmustnotterrifyandofbadpleasuresthatmustnotseducethewill.Onlyaftertheyhavewithstoodthesetestswilltheybejudgedfittobeguardians. Eachhasawidermeaningthanatpresent:musicmeanseverythingthatisintheprovinceofthemusesandgymnasticsmeanseverythingconcernedwithphysicaltrainingfitness.
Digitalphotographyisstillnewenoughthatmostofushaveyettoformanopinionaboutit1developapointofview.Butthishasn’tstoppedmanyfilmandcomputerfansfromagreeing2theearlyconventionalwisdomaboutdigitalcameras—they’reneat3foryourPCbutthey’renotsuitableforeverydaypicturetaking. Thefansarewrong.Morethananythingelsedigitalcamerasareradically4whatphotographymeansandwhatitcanbe.Thevenerablemediumofphotography5weknowitisbeginningtoseemoutof6withthewaywelive.Inourcomputerandcamcorder7savingpicturesasdigital8andwatchingthemonTVisnolesspractical—andinmanywaysmore9thanfumblingwithrollsoffilmthatmustbesentofftobe10. Paperisalsoterribly11.Picturesthatareincorrectlyframed12orlightedarenonethelesscommittedtofilmandultimatelyprocessedintoprints. Thedigitalmediumchangesthe13.Stillimagesthatare14digitallycanimmediatelybeshownonacomputer15aTVscreenorasmallliquidcrystaldisplayLCDbuiltrightintothecamera.Andsincethepointsoflightthat16animagearesavedasaseriesofdigitalbitsinelectronicmemory17beingpermanentlyetchedontofilmtheycanbeerasedretouchedandtransmitted18. What’sitliketo19withoneofthesedigitalcamerasIt’salittlelikeafirstdate—excitingconfusingandfraughtwith20. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.18
[A]RefuseGimmicks [B]BeWaryofPriceLevels [C]SayNotoUselessThings [D]NeverPayListPrice [E]StanduptoTemptations [F]Switch—orThreatento [G]Don’tBuyonImpulse InrecentyearsthebasicmarketprinciplesofcompetitionandchoicehaveexpandedintonewaspectsofAmericanlife.Consumersnowfaceabewilderingarrayofoptionsforairtravelphoneservicemedicalcareevenpostalservice.CarbuyerscanshopontheInternetforthebestpriceatanydealershipintheirarea.Insomepartsofthecountryhomeownerscanpurchaseelectricityfromamenuofcompanies.Allthischoicetranslatesintounprecedentedconsumerpower. Oneofthepersistentmythsofcapitalistcultureisthatbusinesspeoplelovecompetition.Theydon’t.Theyspendtheirwakinghoursplottingwaystoavoiditandkeeppriceshigh.Thesedaystheyuseinformationtechnologiesthatgivethemintricatedataonindividualshoppersandthenpresentmultiplepricestogeteachconsumertocoughupthemaximumheiswillingtopay.Theairlineshavemasteredthisgameofferingmanylevelsoffares. SohowcanyoumakethemostofyournewpowerasaconsumerHerearerulestohelpyoufindyourway. 41.______ IntheNewEconomycompetitionissostrongthatfewerstoresandservicesareimmunetopricepressuresosharpenyourbargainingskills.Askretailerstomatchpricesyou’veseenontheInternet.Askatthecheckoutcounterifthereareanycouponsordiscountsyoucanuse.Askhotelclerksiftherearebetterratesavailable.You’llbesurprisedhowoftentheanswerisyes. 42.______ Ascompetitionheatsupandpushespricesdownbusinessesscrambletoboosttheirprofitsbyheapingonextras:rustproofingyourcarservicecontractsonyourapplianceprepaidgasolineforyourrentalcar.Thesestuntsaredevisedtomakeyoupaymoreatthelastminuteandprobablyaren’tagooddeal. 43.______ Theinformationhighwayisatwo-waystreet.Asaconsumeryoucangetmoredata.ButwhileyouareroamingtheWebbusinessesarestudyingyourhabitsandvulnerabilities. HaveaweaknessforchocolatesDon’tbesurprisedifAmazon.Comofferstosellyouaboxwhileyou’rebrowsingforbooks.They’reusingawrinkleonthelast-minutemarketingpitchperfectedbyMcDonald’s:“Wouldyoulikefrieswiththat”Theployworksremarkablywell. 44.______ Versioningisatacticusedbybusinessestoseparatestatus-consciousconsumersfromthebargain-hungryones—sincetheformermeanbiggerprofitmargins.“Deluxe”and“platinum”arecodewordsusedtoenticestatusseekerstoopentheirwallets. Addathirdpricelevelandthepursesofevenbargain-hungryshopperscanbepriedopen.Researchshowsthatmanyconsumerswhomightpickthelower-pricedoptionwhengivenjusttwochoiceswillchoosethemedium-pricedalternativeifgiventhree.“Consumerstrytoavoidextremeoptions”writeCarlShapiroandHalR.VarianintheirbookInformationRules. Consumersin.theNewEconomyfacemoredemandsontheirtimeandattentionthaneverbeforesothey’reinclinedtomakethemostfamiliarchoice.Considerthis:ithadbeenadecadeandahalfsincethebreakupofAT＆Tyetitisstillbyfarthelargestlong-distanceprovider—evenwhileotherphonecompaniesoffer$50worthoffreeserviceforswitching.Morethaneveritpaystochangeservicesandbrands. Ifyoudon’twantthehasslesofswitchingrememberthatbusinessesareeagertohangontoconsumers.Thenexttimeyougetatemptingofferfromacredit-cardissueroraphonecompanycallyourcurrentproviderandaskthemtomatchthedeal.You’llbepleasedtofindhowoftenthey’llagree. 44
CharlesDarwinwedhiscousinEmmaandspawned10childrenincludingfourbrilliantscientists.AlbertEinstein’ssecondwifeElsawashisfirstcousin.QueenVictoriasaidIdotohers.Sohavemillionsworldwide.InpartsofSaudiArabia39%ofallmarriagesarebetweenfirstcousins.IntheU.S.thoughthepracticebearsastigmaofinbreedingjustthissideofincest.Thetabooisnotonlysocialhutlegislative;24statesbanthemarriageoffirstcousins:fiveothersallowitonlyifthecoupleisunabletobearchildren.Amajorreasonforthisbanisthebeliefthatkidsoffirstcousinsaretragicallysusceptibletoseriouscongenitalillnesses.Thatviewmayhavetochange.AcomprehensivestudypublishedrecentlyintheJournalofGeneticCounselingindicatessuchchildrenrunanonlyslightlyhigherriskofsignificantgeneticdisorderslikecongenitalheartdefects—abouttwopercentagepointsabovetheaverage3%to4%.Saysthestudy’sleadauthorRobinBennettpresident-electoftheNationalSocietyofGeneticCounselorswhichfundedthestudy:Asidefromathoroughmedicalfamilyhistorythereisnoneedtoofferanygenetictestingonthebasisofconsanguinityalone.Publicationofthestudywilldomorethantweakpublicawareness;itwillenlightendoctorswhohaveurgedcousincouplesnottohavechildren.JustthisweeksaysBennettIsawa23-year-oldwomanwhohadhadatuballigationbecauseherparentswerecousinsandherdoctortoldhersheshouldn’thavechildren.TheAmericanproscriptionagainstcousinmarriagesgrewinthe19thcenturyaswildernesssettlerstriedtodistinguishthemselvesfromthesavageIndianssaysMartinauthorofthebookForbiddenRelatives:TheAmericanMythofCousinMarriage.ThetruthisthatEuropeansweremarryingtheircousinsandNativeAmericanswerenot.Anddoesn’tGodhavesternwordsonthesubjectChristieSmith37aNevadawritersaysshefeltguiltywhenshefellinlovewithherfirstcousin’ssonMark.IwastryingsohardtoconvincemyselfnottohavethesefeelingssherecallsthatIwenttotheBiblelookingforconfirmationthatitwaswrong.AndwhatIfoundwastheexactopposite:supportforcousinmarriages.ThepatriarchJacobmarriedtwoofhisfirstcousinsRachelandLeah.SmithmarriedMarkin1999.Themedicalbanislifted;thesocialstainmaytakelongertodisappear.Itcanbeinferredfromthelastparagraphthat
DomobilephonescauseexplosionsatpetrolstationsThatquestionhasjustbeenexhaustivelyansweredbyAdamBurgessaresearcherattheUniversityofKentinEngland.OddlyhoweverDrBurgessisnotaphysicistbutasociologist.Fortheconcernrestsnotonscientificevidenceofanydangerbutisinsteadtheresultofsociologicalfactors:itisanurbanmythsupportedandpropagatedbyofficialsourcesbutnolessamythforthat.DrBurgesspresentedhisfindingsthisweekattheannualconferenceoftheBritishSociologicalAssociation. Mobilephonesstartedtobecomewidespreadinthelate1980swhentheoilindustrywasinthemiddleofaconcertedsafetydriveDrBurgessnotes.Thiswasinlargepart.aresponsetothePiperAlphadisasterin1988when167peoplediedinanexplosiononanoilplatformofftheScottishcoast.41__________Sonobodyquestionedtheprecautionarybanontheuseofmobilephonesatpetrolstations.Theworrywasthatanelectricalsparkmightigniteexplosivefumes. 42__________Butitwastoolate.Themythhadtakenhold. OneproblemsaysDrBurgessisthatthenumberofpetrol-stationfiresincreasedinthelate1990sjustasmobilephoneswereproliferating.RichardCoatesBP’sfire-safetyadviserinvestigatedmanyofthe243suchfiresthatoccurredaroundtheworldbetween1993and2004.Heconcludedthatmostwereindeedcausedbysparksignitingpetrolvapourbutthesparksthemselvesweretheresultofstaticelectricitynotelectricalequipment.Mostdriverswillhaveexperiencedamildelectricshockwhenclimbingoutoftheirvehicles.Itiscausedbyfrictionbetweendriverandseatwiththeresultthatbothendupelectricallycharged.Whenthedrivertouchesthemetalframeofthevehicletheresultissometimesaspark.43__________ 44__________Onee-mailcontainedfictitiousexamplesofsuchexplosionssaidtohavehappenedinIndonesiaandAustralia.AnothersupposedlysentoutbyShellfounditswayontoaninternalwebsiteatExxonsaysDrBurgesswhereitwastreatedasauthoritativebyemployees.Suchmemosgenerallyexplainstaticfiresquiteaccuratelybutmistakenlyattributethemtomobilephones.OfficialdenialssaysDrBurgesssimplyinflamethesuspicionsofconspiracytheorists. 45__________WarningsignsaboundinBritainAmericaCanadaandAustralia.ThecityofSaoPauloinBrazilintroducedabanlastyear.AndearlierthismonthamemberofConnecticut’ssenateproposedmakingtheuseofmobilephonesinpetrolstationsinthatstatepunishablebya$250fine. [A]Thesafetydrivedidnotapplymerelytooffshoreoperations:employeesatsomeBritishoil-companyofficesarenowrequiredtousehandrailswhilewalkingupanddownstairsforexample. [B]Asaresultthecompanyhadtopayahugeamountofcompensationtothefamiliesofthevictimsandlawsuitsconcerningthosefiresseemedtobeendless. [C]Afurthercomplicationwastheriseoftheinternetwherehoaxmemosmanyclaimingtooriginatefromoilcompanieswarnedofthedangerofusingmobilephonesinpetrolstations. [D]ThisisparticularlynoticeableinBritain.Thecountrythatledthewayinbanningmobilephonesatpetrolstationsisalsothecountrythathastakenthestrongestlineonthesafetyofmobile-phoneusebychildren. [E]Despitethelackofevidencethatmobilephonescancauseexplosionsbansremaininplacearoundtheworldthoughtherulesvarywidely. [F]Bytilelate1990showeverphonemakers—havingconductedtheirownresearch—realizedthattherewasnodangerofphonescausingexplosionssincetheycouldnotgeneratetherequiredsparks. [G]Thisseemstohavebecomemorecommonasplasticcarinteriorssyntheticgarmentsandrubber-soledshoeshaveproliferated. 44
Concreteisprobablyusedmorewidelythananyothersubstanceexceptwateryetitremainslargelyunappreciated.Somepeopleviewthe20thcenturyastheatomicagethespaceagethecomputerage—butanargumentcanbemadethatitwastheconcreteagesayscementspecialistHendrikVanOss.It’samiraclematerial.IndeedmorethanatonofconcreteisproducedeachyearforeverymanwomanandchildonEarth.Yetconcreteisgenerallyignoredoutsidetheengineeringworldavictimofitsownubiquityandtheindustry’sconservativepaceofdevelopment.Nowthankstoenvironmentalpressuresandentrepreneurialinnovationanewgenerationofconcretesisemerging.Thishigh-techassortmentofconcreteconfectionspromisestobestrongerlighterandmoreenvironmentallyfriendlythaneverbefore.Concreteisalsoaclimate-changevillain.Itismadebymixingwaterwithanaggregatesuchassandorgravelandcement.Cementisusuallymadebyheatinglimestoneandclaytoover2500degreesF.Theresultingchemicalreactionalongwithfuelburnedtoheatthekilnproducesbetween7%and10%ofglobalcarbon-dioxideemissions.Whenwehavetorepeatedlyregeneratethesematerialsbecausethey’renotdurablewereleasemoreemissionssaysVictorLiwhohascreatedaconcretesuffusedbysyntheticfibersthatmakeitstrongermoredurableandabletobendlikeametal.Li’screationdoesnotrequirereinforcementapropertysharedbyotherconcretesthatusechemicaladditives.UsinglesswatermakesconcretestrongerbutuntilthedevelopmentofplasticizersitalsomadeconcretestickydryandhardtohandlesaysChristianMeyeracivilengineeringprofessoratColumbiaUniversity.MakingstrongerconcretessaysLiallowslesstobeusedreducingwasteandgivingarchitectsmorefreedom.Youcanhavesuchfuturisticdesignsifyoudon’thavetoputrebarinthereorstructuralbeamssaysVanOss.Amoredirectlygreenc6neretehasbeendevelopedbytheAustraliancompanyTecEeo.Theyaddmagnesiumtotheircementformingaporousconcretethatactuallyscrubscarbondioxidefromtheair.Whileexpertsagreethatthesenewconcretewillsomedaybewidelyusedthetimetableisuncertain.Concretecompaniesareresponsivetoenvironmentalconcernsandarealwayslookingtostretchtheutilityoftheirproductbuttheconstructionindustryisslowtochange.WhenyoustartmonkeyingaroundwithmaterialsthegoverningbodiesthebuildingdepartmentsareverycautiousbeforetheyletyouuseanunprovenmaterialMeyersays.InthenextfewdecadessaysVanOssbuildingcodeswillchangeopeningthewayforinnovativematerials.Butwhilenewconcretesmaybestrongerandmoredurabletheyarealsomoreexpensive—andwhetherthetendencyofdevelopersandthepublictofocusonshort-termratherthanlong-termcostswillalsochangeisanothermatter.Bysayingavictimofitsownubiquityandtheindustry’sconservativepaceofdevelopmentLine5-6Para.1theauthormeansthat
Thenewspapermustprovideforthereaderthefactsunalloyedunslantedobjectivelyselectedfacts.Butinthesedaysofcomplexnewsitmustprovidemore;itmustsupplyinterpretationthemeaningofthefacts.ThisisthemostimportantassignmentConfrontingAmericanjournalism—tomakecleartothereadertheproblemsofthedaytomakeinternationalnewsasunderstandableascommunitynewstorecognizethatthereisnolongeranysuchthingwiththepossibleexceptionofsuchscribblingassocietyandclubnewsas“local”newsbecauseanyeventintheinternationalareahasalocalreactioninmanpowerdraftineconomicstrainintermsindeedofourverywayoflife. 46Thereisinjournalismawidespreadviewthatwhenyouembarkoninterpretationyouareenteringchoppyanddangerouswaterstheswirlingtidesofopinion.Thisisnonsense. Theopponentsofinterpretationinsistthatthewriterandtheeditorshallconfinehimselftothe“facts”.Thisinsistenceraisestwoquestions:WhatarethefactsAnd:Arethebarefactsenough Astothefirstqueryconsiderhowaso-called“factual”storycomesabout.Thereportercollectssayfiftyfacts;outofthesefiftyhisspaceallotmentbeingnecessarilyrestrictedheselectsthetenwhichheconsidersmostimportant.ThisisJudgmentNumberOne.ThenheorhiseditordecideswhichofthesetenfactsshallconstitutetheleadofthepieceThisisimportantdecisionbecausemanyreadersdonotproceedbeyondthefirstparagraph.ThisisJudgmentNumberTwo.47Thenthenighteditordetermineswhetherthearticleshallbepresentedonpageonewhereithasalargeimpactoronpagetwenty-fourwhereithaslittle.JudgmentNumberThree. Thusinthepresentationofaso-called“factual”or“objective”storyatleastthreejudgmentsareinvolved.48Andtheyarejudgmentsnotatallunlikethoseinvolvedininterpretationinwhichreporterandeditorcallingupontheirresearchresourcestheirgeneralbackgroundandtheir“newsneutralism”arriveataconclusionastothesignificanceofthenews. 49Thetwoareasofjudgmentpresentationofthenewsanditsinterpretationarebothobjectiveratherthansubjectiveprocesses—asobjectivethatisasanyhumanbeingcanbe.Noteinpassing:eventhoughcompleteobjectivitycanneverbeachievedneverthelesstheidealmustalwaysbethebeacononthemurkynewschannels.50Ifaneditorisintentonslantingthenewshecandoitinotherwaysandmoreeffectivelythanbyinterpretationandhecandoitbytheselectionofthosefactsthatpropuphisparticularplea.Orhecandoitbythepayhegivesastory—promotingittopageoneordemotingittopagethirty. Thereisinjournalismawidespreadviewthatwhenyouembarkoninterpretationyouareenteringchoppyanddangerouswaterstheswirlingtidesofopinion.
Digitalphotographyisstillnewenoughthatmostofushaveyettoformanopinionaboutit1developapointofview.Butthishasn’tstoppedmanyfilmandcomputerfansfromagreeing2theearlyconventionalwisdomaboutdigitalcameras—they’reneat3foryourPCbutthey’renotsuitableforeverydaypicturetaking. Thefansarewrong.Morethananythingelsedigitalcamerasareradically4whatphotographymeansandwhatitcanbe.Thevenerablemediumofphotography5weknowitisbeginningtoseemoutof6withthewaywelive.Inourcomputerandcamcorder7savingpicturesasdigital8andwatchingthemonTVisnolesspractical—andinmanywaysmore9thanfumblingwithrollsoffilmthatmustbesentofftobe10. Paperisalsoterribly11.Picturesthatareincorrectlyframed12orlightedarenonethelesscommittedtofilmandultimatelyprocessedintoprints. Thedigitalmediumchangesthe13.Stillimagesthatare14digitallycanimmediatelybeshownonacomputer15aTVscreenorasmallliquidcrystaldisplayLCDbuiltrightintothecamera.Andsincethepointsoflightthat16animagearesavedasaseriesofdigitalbitsinelectronicmemory17beingpermanentlyetchedontofilmtheycanbeerasedretouchedandtransmitted18. What’sitliketo19withoneofthesedigitalcamerasIt’salittlelikeafirstdate—excitingconfusingandfraughtwith20. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.6
MosttownsuptoElizabethantimesweresmallerthanamodernvillageandeachofthemwasbuiltarounditsweeklymarketwherelocalproducewasbroughtforsaleandthetownfolkssoldtheirworktothepeoplefromthecountrysideandprovidedthemwithrefreshmentfortheday.Tradewasvirtuallyconfinedtothatonedayeveninatownofathousandorsopeople.Onmarketdayscraftsmenputuptheirstallsintheopenairwhilstononeortwootherdaysduringtheweekthetownsmanwouldpackuphisloavesornailsorclothandsetoutearlytodoaday’stradeinthemarketofanadjoiningtownwherehoweverhewouldbechargedaheavytollfortheprivilegeandgetalessfavourablespotforhisstandthanthelocalcraftsmen.AnotherchanceforhimtomakeasalewastothecongregationgatheredforSundaymorningworship.Althoughnotradewasallowedanywhereduringthehoursoftheserviceexceptatannualfairtimesafterchurchtherewouldbesometradeatthechurchdoorwithdepartingcountryfolk.Thetradeofmarketswasalmostwhollyconcernedwithexchangingtheproductsofthenearbycountrysideandthegoodssoldinthemarketbutparticularlyinfoodretaildealingwasdistrustedasakindofprofiteering.Evenwhentherewasenoughtradebeingdonetoaffordalivelihoodtoanenterprisingmanreadytobuywholesaleandsellretailtownauthoritieswerereluctanttoallowit.Yettherewereplainlypeoplewhoweretemptedtoforestallthemarketbybuyinggoodsoutsideitandtoregratethemthatistoresellthematahigherprice.Theconstantlyrepeatedrulesagainstthesepracticesandtheendlesslyrecurringprosecutionsmentionedintherecordsofallthelargertownsprovethatsomewell-informedandsharp-wittedpeopledidthesethings.Everytownmadeitsownlawsandifitwasbigenoughtohavecraftguildstheseassociationswouldregulatethebusinessoftheirmembersandtriedtoenforceastrictmonopolyoftheirowntrades.Yetwhiletheguildleadersascraftsmenfollowedfiercelyprotectionistpoliciesatthesametimeasleadingtownsmentheywantedtoseeabigbusymarketyieldingahandsomerevenueinvariousduesandtolls.Conflictsofinterestledtoendlessminuteregulationschangeableofteninconsistentfrequentlyabsurd.TherewasatimeinthefourteenthcenturyforexamplewhenLondonfishmongerswerenotallowedtohandleanyfishthathadnotalreadybeenexposedforsaleforthreedaysbythemenwhocaughtit.Craftsmenmightprefertotradeintheirowntownbecause
Thenewspapermustprovideforthereaderthefactsunalloyedunslantedobjectivelyselectedfacts.Butinthesedaysofcomplexnewsitmustprovidemore;itmustsupplyinterpretationthemeaningofthefacts.ThisisthemostimportantassignmentConfrontingAmericanjournalism—tomakecleartothereadertheproblemsofthedaytomakeinternationalnewsasunderstandableascommunitynewstorecognizethatthereisnolongeranysuchthingwiththepossibleexceptionofsuchscribblingassocietyandclubnewsas“local”newsbecauseanyeventintheinternationalareahasalocalreactioninmanpowerdraftineconomicstrainintermsindeedofourverywayoflife. 46Thereisinjournalismawidespreadviewthatwhenyouembarkoninterpretationyouareenteringchoppyanddangerouswaterstheswirlingtidesofopinion.Thisisnonsense. Theopponentsofinterpretationinsistthatthewriterandtheeditorshallconfinehimselftothe“facts”.Thisinsistenceraisestwoquestions:WhatarethefactsAnd:Arethebarefactsenough Astothefirstqueryconsiderhowaso-called“factual”storycomesabout.Thereportercollectssayfiftyfacts;outofthesefiftyhisspaceallotmentbeingnecessarilyrestrictedheselectsthetenwhichheconsidersmostimportant.ThisisJudgmentNumberOne.ThenheorhiseditordecideswhichofthesetenfactsshallconstitutetheleadofthepieceThisisimportantdecisionbecausemanyreadersdonotproceedbeyondthefirstparagraph.ThisisJudgmentNumberTwo.47Thenthenighteditordetermineswhetherthearticleshallbepresentedonpageonewhereithasalargeimpactoronpagetwenty-fourwhereithaslittle.JudgmentNumberThree. Thusinthepresentationofaso-called“factual”or“objective”storyatleastthreejudgmentsareinvolved.48Andtheyarejudgmentsnotatallunlikethoseinvolvedininterpretationinwhichreporterandeditorcallingupontheirresearchresourcestheirgeneralbackgroundandtheir“newsneutralism”arriveataconclusionastothesignificanceofthenews. 49Thetwoareasofjudgmentpresentationofthenewsanditsinterpretationarebothobjectiveratherthansubjectiveprocesses—asobjectivethatisasanyhumanbeingcanbe.Noteinpassing:eventhoughcompleteobjectivitycanneverbeachievedneverthelesstheidealmustalwaysbethebeacononthemurkynewschannels.50Ifaneditorisintentonslantingthenewshecandoitinotherwaysandmoreeffectivelythanbyinterpretationandhecandoitbytheselectionofthosefactsthatpropuphisparticularplea.Orhecandoitbythepayhegivesastory—promotingittopageoneordemotingittopagethirty. Ifaneditorisintentonslantingthenewshecandoitinotherwaysandmoreeffectivelythanbyinterpretationandhecandoitbytheselectionofthosefactsthatpropuphisparticularplea
Digitalphotographyisstillnewenoughthatmostofushaveyettoformanopinionaboutit1developapointofview.Butthishasn’tstoppedmanyfilmandcomputerfansfromagreeing2theearlyconventionalwisdomaboutdigitalcameras—they’reneat3foryourPCbutthey’renotsuitableforeverydaypicturetaking. Thefansarewrong.Morethananythingelsedigitalcamerasareradically4whatphotographymeansandwhatitcanbe.Thevenerablemediumofphotography5weknowitisbeginningtoseemoutof6withthewaywelive.Inourcomputerandcamcorder7savingpicturesasdigital8andwatchingthemonTVisnolesspractical—andinmanywaysmore9thanfumblingwithrollsoffilmthatmustbesentofftobe10. Paperisalsoterribly11.Picturesthatareincorrectlyframed12orlightedarenonethelesscommittedtofilmandultimatelyprocessedintoprints. Thedigitalmediumchangesthe13.Stillimagesthatare14digitallycanimmediatelybeshownonacomputer15aTVscreenorasmallliquidcrystaldisplayLCDbuiltrightintothecamera.Andsincethepointsoflightthat16animagearesavedasaseriesofdigitalbitsinelectronicmemory17beingpermanentlyetchedontofilmtheycanbeerasedretouchedandtransmitted18. What’sitliketo19withoneofthesedigitalcamerasIt’salittlelikeafirstdate—excitingconfusingandfraughtwith20. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.4
CharlesDarwinwedhiscousinEmmaandspawned10childrenincludingfourbrilliantscientists.AlbertEinstein’ssecondwifeElsawashisfirstcousin.QueenVictoriasaidIdotohers.Sohavemillionsworldwide.InpartsofSaudiArabia39%ofallmarriagesarebetweenfirstcousins.IntheU.S.thoughthepracticebearsastigmaofinbreedingjustthissideofincest.Thetabooisnotonlysocialhutlegislative;24statesbanthemarriageoffirstcousins:fiveothersallowitonlyifthecoupleisunabletobearchildren.Amajorreasonforthisbanisthebeliefthatkidsoffirstcousinsaretragicallysusceptibletoseriouscongenitalillnesses.Thatviewmayhavetochange.AcomprehensivestudypublishedrecentlyintheJournalofGeneticCounselingindicatessuchchildrenrunanonlyslightlyhigherriskofsignificantgeneticdisorderslikecongenitalheartdefects—abouttwopercentagepointsabovetheaverage3%to4%.Saysthestudy’sleadauthorRobinBennettpresident-electoftheNationalSocietyofGeneticCounselorswhichfundedthestudy:Asidefromathoroughmedicalfamilyhistorythereisnoneedtoofferanygenetictestingonthebasisofconsanguinityalone.Publicationofthestudywilldomorethantweakpublicawareness;itwillenlightendoctorswhohaveurgedcousincouplesnottohavechildren.JustthisweeksaysBennettIsawa23-year-oldwomanwhohadhadatuballigationbecauseherparentswerecousinsandherdoctortoldhersheshouldn’thavechildren.TheAmericanproscriptionagainstcousinmarriagesgrewinthe19thcenturyaswildernesssettlerstriedtodistinguishthemselvesfromthesavageIndianssaysMartinauthorofthebookForbiddenRelatives:TheAmericanMythofCousinMarriage.ThetruthisthatEuropeansweremarryingtheircousinsandNativeAmericanswerenot.Anddoesn’tGodhavesternwordsonthesubjectChristieSmith37aNevadawritersaysshefeltguiltywhenshefellinlovewithherfirstcousin’ssonMark.IwastryingsohardtoconvincemyselfnottohavethesefeelingssherecallsthatIwenttotheBiblelookingforconfirmationthatitwaswrong.AndwhatIfoundwastheexactopposite:supportforcousinmarriages.ThepatriarchJacobmarriedtwoofhisfirstcousinsRachelandLeah.SmithmarriedMarkin1999.Themedicalbanislifted;thesocialstainmaytakelongertodisappear.ThewordconsanguinityLine6Para.3isclosestinmeaningto
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