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Part B Directions: The following paragraphs are given in a wrong order. For Questions 41-45, you ...
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StudythefollowingpicturescarefullyandwriteanessayentitledAfterPicnics. Intheessayyoushould 1describethepictures 2giveyourcommentonthephenomenaand 3suggestpossiblemeasurestochangethem. Youshouldwriteabout160--200wordsneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.20points
Toavoidthevariousfoolishopinionstowhichmankindisliablenosuperhumangeniusisrequired.Afewsimpleruleswillkeepyounotfromallerrorsbutfromsillyerrors. Ifthematterisonethatcanbesettledbyobservationmaketheobservationyourself.AristotlecouldhaveavoidedthemistakeofthinkingthatwomenhavefewerteeththanmenbythesimpledeviceofaskingMrs.Aristotletokeephermouthopenwhilehecounted.Hedidnotdosobecausehethoughtheknew.Thinkingthatyouknowwheninfactyoudon’’tisafatalmistaketowhichweareallliable. Manymattershoweverarelesseasilybroughttothetestofexperience.Iflikemostofmankindyouhavestrongconvictionsonmanysuchmatterstherearewaysinwhichyoucanmakeyourselfawareofyourownprejudice.Ifanopinioncontrarytoyourownmakesyouangrythatisasignthatyousubconsciouslyareawareofhavingnogoodreasonforthinkingasyoudo.IfsomeonemaintainsthattwoandtwoarefiveorthatIcelandisontheequatoryoufeelpityratherthanangerunlessyouknowsolittleofarithmeticorgeographythathisopinionshakesyourowncontraryconviction.Themostsavagecontroversiesarethoseaboutmattersastowhichthereisnogoodevidenceeitherway.Sowheneveryoufindyourselfgettingangryaboutadifferenceofopinionbeonyourguard;youwillprobablyfindonexaminationthatyourbeliefisgoingbeyondwhattheevidencejustifies. Forthosewhohaveenoughpsychologicalimaginationitisagoodplantoimagineanargumentwithapersonhavingadifferentopinion.Thishasoneadvantageandonlyoneascomparedwithactualconversationwithopponents;thisoneadvantageisthatthemethodisnotsubjecttothesamelimitationsoftimeandspace.MahatmaGandhi圣雄甘地considereditunfortunatetohaverailwaysandsteamboatsandmachinery;hewouldhavelikedtoundothewholeoftheindustrialrevolution.YoumayneverhaveanopportunityofactuallymeetinganyonewhoholdsthisopinionbecauseinWesterncountriesmostpeopletaketheadvantageofmoderntechnologyforgranted.ButifyouwanttomakesurethatyouarerightinagreeingwiththeprevailingopinionyouwillfinditagoodplantotesttheargumentsthatoccurtoyoubyconsideringwhatGandhimighthavesaidinrefutationofthem.Ihavesometimesbeenledactuallytochangemymindasaresultofthiskindofimaginarydialogue.FurthermoreIhavefrequentlyfoundmyselfgrowingmoreagreeablethroughrealizingthepossiblereasonablenessofahypotheticalopponent. Theauthorintendstotellusthat
Rumorhasitthatmorethan20booksoncreationism/evolutionareinthepublisher’’spipelines.Afewhavealreadyappeared.Thegoalofallwillbetotrytoexplaintoaconfusedandoftenunenlightenedcitizenrythattherearenottwoequallyvalidscientifictheoriesfortheoriginandevolutionofuniverseandlife.Cosmologygeologyandbiologyhaveprovidedaconsistentunifiedandconstantlyimprovingaccountofwhathappened.Scientificcreationismwhichisbeingpushedbysomeforequaltimeintheclassroomswheneverthescientificaccountsofevolutionaregivenisbasedonreligionnotscience.Virtuallyallscientistsandthemajorityofnonfundamentalistreligiousleadershavecometoregardscientificcreationismasbadscienceandbadreligion. ThefirstfourchaptersofKitcher’’sbookgiveaverybriefintroductiontoevolution.Atappropriateplacesheintroducesthecriticismsofthecreationistsandprovidesanswers.Inthelastthreechaptershetakesoffhisglovesandgivesthecreationistsagoodbeating.Hedescribestheirprogrammesandtacticsandforthoseunfamiliarwiththewaysofcreationiststheextentoftheirdeceptionanddistortionmaycomeasanunpleasantsurprise.WhentheirbasicmotivationisreligiousonemighthaveexpectedmoreChristianbehavior. Kitcherisaphilosopherandthismayaccountinpartforthecharityandeffectivenessofhisarguments.Thenonspecialistwillbeabletoobtainatleastanotionofthesortsofdataandargumentthatsupportevolutionarytheory.Thefinalchaptersonthecreationistswillbeextremelycleartoall.OnthedustjacketofthisfinebookStephenJayGouldsays:Thisbookstandsforreasonitself.Andsoitdoes―andallwouldbewellwerereasontheonlyjudgeinthecreationism/evolutiondebate. Kitchers’’sbookisintendedto_________________.
Forcenturiesthenatureofthebrainwasshroudedinmystery.Aristotleissaidtohave1itwasacoldspongewhosemaintaskwasto2theblood.LaterLeonardodaVinci3thebrainasacuriousvoidfilledbythreetinybulbousstructures4inastraightline5theeyeball. Notallearlytheorieswerequitesomisguided6.Fromthefirststudies7languagedeficitsitwas8thatthebrainplayedsomedirectpartinlanguageuse.In1836an9FrenchcountrydoctorMaxDaxclaimedthatinfortyaphasic患失语症的patientshehadseen10oflanguageabilityalways11withdamagetothelefthalfofthebrain.Thirtyyearslaterthisclaimwas12provedbytheFrenchsurgeonPaulBroca.Hehadstudiedaphasic13inpatientswhowerefoundtohavebraindamage14theleftfrontallobe.Brocawasstruckbythecontrastwithrighthemispheredamage15seemedtohavelittleeffectonspeech.TheareaBrocaisolatedandtheaphasiaassociatedwithitnow16hisnameBroca’’saphasia. TenyearsafterBroca’’s17KarlWernickeayoungresearcherinGermanymadeanotherstartling18whichultimately19himtoproposenotjustanewlanguageareabutanoveralltheoryof20languageishandledinthebrain.
Theimmunesystemisequalincomplexitytothecombinedintricaciesofthebrainandnervoussystem.Thesuccessoftheimmunesystemindefendingthebodyreliesonadynamicregulatorycommunicationsnetworkconsistingofmillionsandmillionsofcells.Organizedintosetsandsubsetsthesecellspassinformationbackandforthlikecloudsofbeesswarmingaroundahive.Theresultisasensitivesystemofchecksandbalancesthatproducesanimmuneresponsethatispromptappropriateeffectiveandself-limiting. Attheheartoftheimmunesystemistheabilitytodistinguishbetweenselfandnon-self.Whenimmunedefendersencountercellsororganismscarryingforeignornon-selfmoleculestheimmunetroopsmovequicklytoeliminatetheinvaders.Virtuallyeverybodycellcarriesdistinctivemoleculesthatidentifyitasself.Thebody’’simmunedefensesdonotnormallyattacktissuesthatcarryaselfmarker.Ratherimmunecellsandotherbodycellscoexistpeaceablyinastateknownasself-tolerance.Whenanormallyfunctioningimmunesystemattacksanon-selfmoleculethesystemhastheabilitytorememberthespecificsoftheforeignbody.Uponsubsequentencounterswiththesamespeciesofmoleculestheimmunesystemreactsaccordingly.Withthepossibleexceptionofantibodiespassedduringlactation哺乳期thisso-calledimmunesystemmemoryisnotinherited.Despitetheoccurrenceofavirusinyourfamilyyourimmunesystemmustlearnfromexperiencewiththemanymillionsofdistinctivenon-selfmoleculesintheseaofmicrobesinwhichwelive.Learningnecessitatesproducingtheappropriatemoleculesandcellstomatchupwithandcounteracteachnon-selfinvader. Anysubstancecapableofstimulatinganimmuneresponseiscalledanantigen.Tissuesorcellsfromanotherindividualexceptanidenticaltwinwhosecellscarryidenticalself-markersactasantigens;becausetheimmunesystemrecognizestransplantedtissuesasforeignitrejectsthem.Thebodywillevenrejectnourishingproteinsunlesstheyarefirstbrokendownbythedigestivesystemintotheirprimarynon-antigenicbuildingblocks.Anantigenannouncesitsforeignnessbymeansofintricateandcharacteristicshapescalledepitopes抗原决定基whichstickoutfromitssurface.Mostantigenseventhesimplestmicrobescarryseveraldifferentkindsofepitopesontheirsurfacesomemayevencarryseveralhundred.Someepitopeswillbemoreeffectivethanothersatstimulatinganimmuneresponse.Onlyinabnormalsituationsdoestheimmunesystemwronglyidentifyselfasnon-selfandexecuteamisdirectedimmuneattack.Theresultcanbeso-calledautoimmunedisease.Thepainfulsideeffectsofthesediseasesarecausedbyaperson’’simmunesystemactuallyattackingitself Therememberingpowerofaperson’’simmunesystemis
Anyonewhohasfollowedrecenthistoricalliteraturecantestifytotherevolutionthatistakingplaceinhistoricalstudiesthatcurrentlyfashionablesubjectscomedirectlyfromthesociologycatalog:childhoodworkleisure.Thenewsubjectsareaccompaniedbynewmethods.Wherehistoryoncewasprimarilynarrativeitisnowentirelyanalytic.TheoldquestionsWhathappenedandHowdidithappenhavegivenwaytothequestionWhydidithappen46ProminentamongthemethodsusedtoanswerthequestionWhyispsychoanalysisanditsusehasgivenrisetopsychohistory. Psychohistorydoesnotmerelyusepsychologicalexplanationsinhistoricalcontexts.Historianshavealwaysusedsuchexplanationswhentheywereappropriateandwhentherewassufficientevidenceforthem.Butthispracticaluseofpsychologyisnotwhatpsychohistoriansintend.TheyarecommittednotjusttopsychologyingeneralbuttoFreudianpsychoanalysis.Thiscommitmentpreventsacommitmenttohistoryashistorianshavealwaysunderstoodit.47Psychohistoryderivesitsfactsnotfromhistorythedetailedrecordsofeventsandtheirsequencesbutfrompsychoanalysisoftheindividualswhomadehistoryanddeducesitstheoriesnotfromthisorthatinstanceintheirlivesbutfromaviewofhumannaturethattranscendsgoesbeyondhistory.Itdeniesthebasiccriterionofhistoricalevidence:thatevidencebepubliclyaccessibletoandthereforeassessablebyallhistorians.Anditviolatesthebasicbeliefofhistoricalmethod:thathistoriansbealerttothenegativeinstancesthatwouldrefutetheirtheses.48Psychohistoriansconvincedoftheabsoluterightnessoftheirtheoriesarealsoconvincedthattheirsisthedeepestexplanationofanyeventthatotherexplanationsfallshortoftruth. Psychohistoryisnotcontenttoviolatethedisciplineofhistory;italsoviolatesthepastitself.49Itdeniestothepastanyintegrityandwillofitsowninwhichpeopleactedoutofavarietyofmotivesandinwhicheventshadmanycausesandeffects.Itimposesuponthepastthesamedeterminismthatitimposesuponthepresentthusrobbingpeopleandeventsoftheirindividualityandoftheircomplexity.50Insteadofrespectingtheparticularityofthepastitassimilatesalleventspastandpresentintoasingledeterministicschemathatispresumedtobetrueatalltimesandinallcircumstances
Forcenturiesthenatureofthebrainwasshroudedinmystery.Aristotleissaidtohave1itwasacoldspongewhosemaintaskwasto2theblood.LaterLeonardodaVinci3thebrainasacuriousvoidfilledbythreetinybulbousstructures4inastraightline5theeyeball. Notallearlytheorieswerequitesomisguided6.Fromthefirststudies7languagedeficitsitwas8thatthebrainplayedsomedirectpartinlanguageuse.In1836an9FrenchcountrydoctorMaxDaxclaimedthatinfortyaphasic患失语症的patientshehadseen10oflanguageabilityalways11withdamagetothelefthalfofthebrain.Thirtyyearslaterthisclaimwas12provedbytheFrenchsurgeonPaulBroca.Hehadstudiedaphasic13inpatientswhowerefoundtohavebraindamage14theleftfrontallobe.Brocawasstruckbythecontrastwithrighthemispheredamage15seemedtohavelittleeffectonspeech.TheareaBrocaisolatedandtheaphasiaassociatedwithitnow16hisnameBroca’’saphasia. TenyearsafterBroca’’s17KarlWernickeayoungresearcherinGermanymadeanotherstartling18whichultimately19himtoproposenotjustanewlanguageareabutanoveralltheoryof20languageishandledinthebrain.
Forcenturiesthenatureofthebrainwasshroudedinmystery.Aristotleissaidtohave1itwasacoldspongewhosemaintaskwasto2theblood.LaterLeonardodaVinci3thebrainasacuriousvoidfilledbythreetinybulbousstructures4inastraightline5theeyeball. Notallearlytheorieswerequitesomisguided6.Fromthefirststudies7languagedeficitsitwas8thatthebrainplayedsomedirectpartinlanguageuse.In1836an9FrenchcountrydoctorMaxDaxclaimedthatinfortyaphasic患失语症的patientshehadseen10oflanguageabilityalways11withdamagetothelefthalfofthebrain.Thirtyyearslaterthisclaimwas12provedbytheFrenchsurgeonPaulBroca.Hehadstudiedaphasic13inpatientswhowerefoundtohavebraindamage14theleftfrontallobe.Brocawasstruckbythecontrastwithrighthemispheredamage15seemedtohavelittleeffectonspeech.TheareaBrocaisolatedandtheaphasiaassociatedwithitnow16hisnameBroca’’saphasia. TenyearsafterBroca’’s17KarlWernickeayoungresearcherinGermanymadeanotherstartling18whichultimately19himtoproposenotjustanewlanguageareabutanoveralltheoryof20languageishandledinthebrain.
Forcenturiesthenatureofthebrainwasshroudedinmystery.Aristotleissaidtohave1itwasacoldspongewhosemaintaskwasto2theblood.LaterLeonardodaVinci3thebrainasacuriousvoidfilledbythreetinybulbousstructures4inastraightline5theeyeball. Notallearlytheorieswerequitesomisguided6.Fromthefirststudies7languagedeficitsitwas8thatthebrainplayedsomedirectpartinlanguageuse.In1836an9FrenchcountrydoctorMaxDaxclaimedthatinfortyaphasic患失语症的patientshehadseen10oflanguageabilityalways11withdamagetothelefthalfofthebrain.Thirtyyearslaterthisclaimwas12provedbytheFrenchsurgeonPaulBroca.Hehadstudiedaphasic13inpatientswhowerefoundtohavebraindamage14theleftfrontallobe.Brocawasstruckbythecontrastwithrighthemispheredamage15seemedtohavelittleeffectonspeech.TheareaBrocaisolatedandtheaphasiaassociatedwithitnow16hisnameBroca’’saphasia. TenyearsafterBroca’’s17KarlWernickeayoungresearcherinGermanymadeanotherstartling18whichultimately19himtoproposenotjustanewlanguageareabutanoveralltheoryof20languageishandledinthebrain.
Forcenturiesthenatureofthebrainwasshroudedinmystery.Aristotleissaidtohave1itwasacoldspongewhosemaintaskwasto2theblood.LaterLeonardodaVinci3thebrainasacuriousvoidfilledbythreetinybulbousstructures4inastraightline5theeyeball. Notallearlytheorieswerequitesomisguided6.Fromthefirststudies7languagedeficitsitwas8thatthebrainplayedsomedirectpartinlanguageuse.In1836an9FrenchcountrydoctorMaxDaxclaimedthatinfortyaphasic患失语症的patientshehadseen10oflanguageabilityalways11withdamagetothelefthalfofthebrain.Thirtyyearslaterthisclaimwas12provedbytheFrenchsurgeonPaulBroca.Hehadstudiedaphasic13inpatientswhowerefoundtohavebraindamage14theleftfrontallobe.Brocawasstruckbythecontrastwithrighthemispheredamage15seemedtohavelittleeffectonspeech.TheareaBrocaisolatedandtheaphasiaassociatedwithitnow16hisnameBroca’’saphasia. TenyearsafterBroca’’s17KarlWernickeayoungresearcherinGermanymadeanotherstartling18whichultimately19himtoproposenotjustanewlanguageareabutanoveralltheoryof20languageishandledinthebrain. Forcenturiesthenatureofthebrainwasshroudedinmystery.Aristotleissaidtohave1itwasacoldspongewhosemaintaskwasto2theblood.LaterLeonardodaVinci3thebrainasacuriousvoidfilledbythreetinybulbousstructures4inastraightline5theeyeball. Notallearlytheorieswerequitesomisguided6.Fromthefirststudies7languagedeficitsitwas8thatthebrainplayedsomedirectpartinlanguageuse.In1836an9FrenchcountrydoctorMaxDaxclaimedthatinfortyaphasic患失语症的patientshehadseen10oflanguageabilityalways11withdamagetothelefthalfofthebrain.Thirtyyearslaterthisclaimwas12provedbytheFrenchsurgeonPaulBroca.Hehadstudiedaphasic13inpatientswhowerefoundtohavebraindamage14theleftfrontallobe.Brocawasstruckbythecontrastwithrighthemispheredamage15seemedtohavelittleeffectonspeech.TheareaBrocaisolatedandtheaphasiaassociatedwithitnow16hisnameBroca’’saphasia. TenyearsafterBroca’’s17KarlWernickeayoungresearcherinGermanymadeanotherstartling18whichultimately19himtoproposenotjustanewlanguageareabutanoveralltheoryof20languageishandledinthebrain.
Forcenturiesthenatureofthebrainwasshroudedinmystery.Aristotleissaidtohave1itwasacoldspongewhosemaintaskwasto2theblood.LaterLeonardodaVinci3thebrainasacuriousvoidfilledbythreetinybulbousstructures4inastraightline5theeyeball. Notallearlytheorieswerequitesomisguided6.Fromthefirststudies7languagedeficitsitwas8thatthebrainplayedsomedirectpartinlanguageuse.In1836an9FrenchcountrydoctorMaxDaxclaimedthatinfortyaphasic患失语症的patientshehadseen10oflanguageabilityalways11withdamagetothelefthalfofthebrain.Thirtyyearslaterthisclaimwas12provedbytheFrenchsurgeonPaulBroca.Hehadstudiedaphasic13inpatientswhowerefoundtohavebraindamage14theleftfrontallobe.Brocawasstruckbythecontrastwithrighthemispheredamage15seemedtohavelittleeffectonspeech.TheareaBrocaisolatedandtheaphasiaassociatedwithitnow16hisnameBroca’’saphasia. TenyearsafterBroca’’s17KarlWernickeayoungresearcherinGermanymadeanotherstartling18whichultimately19himtoproposenotjustanewlanguageareabutanoveralltheoryof20languageishandledinthebrain.
Theimmunesystemisequalincomplexitytothecombinedintricaciesofthebrainandnervoussystem.Thesuccessoftheimmunesystemindefendingthebodyreliesonadynamicregulatorycommunicationsnetworkconsistingofmillionsandmillionsofcells.Organizedintosetsandsubsetsthesecellspassinformationbackandforthlikecloudsofbeesswarmingaroundahive.Theresultisasensitivesystemofchecksandbalancesthatproducesanimmuneresponsethatispromptappropriateeffectiveandself-limiting. Attheheartoftheimmunesystemistheabilitytodistinguishbetweenselfandnon-self.Whenimmunedefendersencountercellsororganismscarryingforeignornon-selfmoleculestheimmunetroopsmovequicklytoeliminatetheinvaders.Virtuallyeverybodycellcarriesdistinctivemoleculesthatidentifyitasself.Thebody’’simmunedefensesdonotnormallyattacktissuesthatcarryaselfmarker.Ratherimmunecellsandotherbodycellscoexistpeaceablyinastateknownasself-tolerance.Whenanormallyfunctioningimmunesystemattacksanon-selfmoleculethesystemhastheabilitytorememberthespecificsoftheforeignbody.Uponsubsequentencounterswiththesamespeciesofmoleculestheimmunesystemreactsaccordingly.Withthepossibleexceptionofantibodiespassedduringlactation哺乳期thisso-calledimmunesystemmemoryisnotinherited.Despitetheoccurrenceofavirusinyourfamilyyourimmunesystemmustlearnfromexperiencewiththemanymillionsofdistinctivenon-selfmoleculesintheseaofmicrobesinwhichwelive.Learningnecessitatesproducingtheappropriatemoleculesandcellstomatchupwithandcounteracteachnon-selfinvader. Anysubstancecapableofstimulatinganimmuneresponseiscalledanantigen.Tissuesorcellsfromanotherindividualexceptanidenticaltwinwhosecellscarryidenticalself-markersactasantigens;becausetheimmunesystemrecognizestransplantedtissuesasforeignitrejectsthem.Thebodywillevenrejectnourishingproteinsunlesstheyarefirstbrokendownbythedigestivesystemintotheirprimarynon-antigenicbuildingblocks.Anantigenannouncesitsforeignnessbymeansofintricateandcharacteristicshapescalledepitopes抗原决定基whichstickoutfromitssurface.Mostantigenseventhesimplestmicrobescarryseveraldifferentkindsofepitopesontheirsurfacesomemayevencarryseveralhundred.Someepitopeswillbemoreeffectivethanothersatstimulatinganimmuneresponse.Onlyinabnormalsituationsdoestheimmunesystemwronglyidentifyselfasnon-selfandexecuteamisdirectedimmuneattack.Theresultcanbeso-calledautoimmunedisease.Thepainfulsideeffectsofthesediseasesarecausedbyaperson’’simmunesystemactuallyattackingitself Theprincipaltaskoftheimmunesystemisto
Rumorhasitthatmorethan20booksoncreationism/evolutionareinthepublisher’’spipelines.Afewhavealreadyappeared.Thegoalofallwillbetotrytoexplaintoaconfusedandoftenunenlightenedcitizenrythattherearenottwoequallyvalidscientifictheoriesfortheoriginandevolutionofuniverseandlife.Cosmologygeologyandbiologyhaveprovidedaconsistentunifiedandconstantlyimprovingaccountofwhathappened.Scientificcreationismwhichisbeingpushedbysomeforequaltimeintheclassroomswheneverthescientificaccountsofevolutionaregivenisbasedonreligionnotscience.Virtuallyallscientistsandthemajorityofnonfundamentalistreligiousleadershavecometoregardscientificcreationismasbadscienceandbadreligion. ThefirstfourchaptersofKitcher’’sbookgiveaverybriefintroductiontoevolution.Atappropriateplacesheintroducesthecriticismsofthecreationistsandprovidesanswers.Inthelastthreechaptershetakesoffhisglovesandgivesthecreationistsagoodbeating.Hedescribestheirprogrammesandtacticsandforthoseunfamiliarwiththewaysofcreationiststheextentoftheirdeceptionanddistortionmaycomeasanunpleasantsurprise.WhentheirbasicmotivationisreligiousonemighthaveexpectedmoreChristianbehavior. Kitcherisaphilosopherandthismayaccountinpartforthecharityandeffectivenessofhisarguments.Thenonspecialistwillbeabletoobtainatleastanotionofthesortsofdataandargumentthatsupportevolutionarytheory.Thefinalchaptersonthecreationistswillbeextremelycleartoall.OnthedustjacketofthisfinebookStephenJayGouldsays:Thisbookstandsforreasonitself.Andsoitdoes―andallwouldbewellwerereasontheonlyjudgeinthecreationism/evolutiondebate. Thispassageappearstobeadigestof_________________.
Forcenturiesthenatureofthebrainwasshroudedinmystery.Aristotleissaidtohave1itwasacoldspongewhosemaintaskwasto2theblood.LaterLeonardodaVinci3thebrainasacuriousvoidfilledbythreetinybulbousstructures4inastraightline5theeyeball. Notallearlytheorieswerequitesomisguided6.Fromthefirststudies7languagedeficitsitwas8thatthebrainplayedsomedirectpartinlanguageuse.In1836an9FrenchcountrydoctorMaxDaxclaimedthatinfortyaphasic患失语症的patientshehadseen10oflanguageabilityalways11withdamagetothelefthalfofthebrain.Thirtyyearslaterthisclaimwas12provedbytheFrenchsurgeonPaulBroca.Hehadstudiedaphasic13inpatientswhowerefoundtohavebraindamage14theleftfrontallobe.Brocawasstruckbythecontrastwithrighthemispheredamage15seemedtohavelittleeffectonspeech.TheareaBrocaisolatedandtheaphasiaassociatedwithitnow16hisnameBroca’’saphasia. TenyearsafterBroca’’s17KarlWernickeayoungresearcherinGermanymadeanotherstartling18whichultimately19himtoproposenotjustanewlanguageareabutanoveralltheoryof20languageishandledinthebrain.
Toavoidthevariousfoolishopinionstowhichmankindisliablenosuperhumangeniusisrequired.Afewsimpleruleswillkeepyounotfromallerrorsbutfromsillyerrors. Ifthematterisonethatcanbesettledbyobservationmaketheobservationyourself.AristotlecouldhaveavoidedthemistakeofthinkingthatwomenhavefewerteeththanmenbythesimpledeviceofaskingMrs.Aristotletokeephermouthopenwhilehecounted.Hedidnotdosobecausehethoughtheknew.Thinkingthatyouknowwheninfactyoudon’’tisafatalmistaketowhichweareallliable. Manymattershoweverarelesseasilybroughttothetestofexperience.Iflikemostofmankindyouhavestrongconvictionsonmanysuchmatterstherearewaysinwhichyoucanmakeyourselfawareofyourownprejudice.Ifanopinioncontrarytoyourownmakesyouangrythatisasignthatyousubconsciouslyareawareofhavingnogoodreasonforthinkingasyoudo.IfsomeonemaintainsthattwoandtwoarefiveorthatIcelandisontheequatoryoufeelpityratherthanangerunlessyouknowsolittleofarithmeticorgeographythathisopinionshakesyourowncontraryconviction.Themostsavagecontroversiesarethoseaboutmattersastowhichthereisnogoodevidenceeitherway.Sowheneveryoufindyourselfgettingangryaboutadifferenceofopinionbeonyourguard;youwillprobablyfindonexaminationthatyourbeliefisgoingbeyondwhattheevidencejustifies. Forthosewhohaveenoughpsychologicalimaginationitisagoodplantoimagineanargumentwithapersonhavingadifferentopinion.Thishasoneadvantageandonlyoneascomparedwithactualconversationwithopponents;thisoneadvantageisthatthemethodisnotsubjecttothesamelimitationsoftimeandspace.MahatmaGandhi圣雄甘地considereditunfortunatetohaverailwaysandsteamboatsandmachinery;hewouldhavelikedtoundothewholeoftheindustrialrevolution.YoumayneverhaveanopportunityofactuallymeetinganyonewhoholdsthisopinionbecauseinWesterncountriesmostpeopletaketheadvantageofmoderntechnologyforgranted.ButifyouwanttomakesurethatyouarerightinagreeingwiththeprevailingopinionyouwillfinditagoodplantotesttheargumentsthatoccurtoyoubyconsideringwhatGandhimighthavesaidinrefutationofthem.Ihavesometimesbeenledactuallytochangemymindasaresultofthiskindofimaginarydialogue.FurthermoreIhavefrequentlyfoundmyselfgrowingmoreagreeablethroughrealizingthepossiblereasonablenessofahypotheticalopponent. Theauthortriestoconvinceusofthefactthat
Forcenturiesthenatureofthebrainwasshroudedinmystery.Aristotleissaidtohave1itwasacoldspongewhosemaintaskwasto2theblood.LaterLeonardodaVinci3thebrainasacuriousvoidfilledbythreetinybulbousstructures4inastraightline5theeyeball. Notallearlytheorieswerequitesomisguided6.Fromthefirststudies7languagedeficitsitwas8thatthebrainplayedsomedirectpartinlanguageuse.In1836an9FrenchcountrydoctorMaxDaxclaimedthatinfortyaphasic患失语症的patientshehadseen10oflanguageabilityalways11withdamagetothelefthalfofthebrain.Thirtyyearslaterthisclaimwas12provedbytheFrenchsurgeonPaulBroca.Hehadstudiedaphasic13inpatientswhowerefoundtohavebraindamage14theleftfrontallobe.Brocawasstruckbythecontrastwithrighthemispheredamage15seemedtohavelittleeffectonspeech.TheareaBrocaisolatedandtheaphasiaassociatedwithitnow16hisnameBroca’’saphasia. TenyearsafterBroca’’s17KarlWernickeayoungresearcherinGermanymadeanotherstartling18whichultimately19himtoproposenotjustanewlanguageareabutanoveralltheoryof20languageishandledinthebrain.
Forcenturiesthenatureofthebrainwasshroudedinmystery.Aristotleissaidtohave1itwasacoldspongewhosemaintaskwasto2theblood.LaterLeonardodaVinci3thebrainasacuriousvoidfilledbythreetinybulbousstructures4inastraightline5theeyeball. Notallearlytheorieswerequitesomisguided6.Fromthefirststudies7languagedeficitsitwas8thatthebrainplayedsomedirectpartinlanguageuse.In1836an9FrenchcountrydoctorMaxDaxclaimedthatinfortyaphasic患失语症的patientshehadseen10oflanguageabilityalways11withdamagetothelefthalfofthebrain.Thirtyyearslaterthisclaimwas12provedbytheFrenchsurgeonPaulBroca.Hehadstudiedaphasic13inpatientswhowerefoundtohavebraindamage14theleftfrontallobe.Brocawasstruckbythecontrastwithrighthemispheredamage15seemedtohavelittleeffectonspeech.TheareaBrocaisolatedandtheaphasiaassociatedwithitnow16hisnameBroca’’saphasia. TenyearsafterBroca’’s17KarlWernickeayoungresearcherinGermanymadeanotherstartling18whichultimately19himtoproposenotjustanewlanguageareabutanoveralltheoryof20languageishandledinthebrain.
Forcenturiesthenatureofthebrainwasshroudedinmystery.Aristotleissaidtohave1itwasacoldspongewhosemaintaskwasto2theblood.LaterLeonardodaVinci3thebrainasacuriousvoidfilledbythreetinybulbousstructures4inastraightline5theeyeball. Notallearlytheorieswerequitesomisguided6.Fromthefirststudies7languagedeficitsitwas8thatthebrainplayedsomedirectpartinlanguageuse.In1836an9FrenchcountrydoctorMaxDaxclaimedthatinfortyaphasic患失语症的patientshehadseen10oflanguageabilityalways11withdamagetothelefthalfofthebrain.Thirtyyearslaterthisclaimwas12provedbytheFrenchsurgeonPaulBroca.Hehadstudiedaphasic13inpatientswhowerefoundtohavebraindamage14theleftfrontallobe.Brocawasstruckbythecontrastwithrighthemispheredamage15seemedtohavelittleeffectonspeech.TheareaBrocaisolatedandtheaphasiaassociatedwithitnow16hisnameBroca’’saphasia. TenyearsafterBroca’’s17KarlWernickeayoungresearcherinGermanymadeanotherstartling18whichultimately19himtoproposenotjustanewlanguageareabutanoveralltheoryof20languageishandledinthebrain.
Anyonewhohasfollowedrecenthistoricalliteraturecantestifytotherevolutionthatistakingplaceinhistoricalstudiesthatcurrentlyfashionablesubjectscomedirectlyfromthesociologycatalog:childhoodworkleisure.Thenewsubjectsareaccompaniedbynewmethods.Wherehistoryoncewasprimarilynarrativeitisnowentirelyanalytic.TheoldquestionsWhathappenedandHowdidithappenhavegivenwaytothequestionWhydidithappen46ProminentamongthemethodsusedtoanswerthequestionWhyispsychoanalysisanditsusehasgivenrisetopsychohistory. Psychohistorydoesnotmerelyusepsychologicalexplanationsinhistoricalcontexts.Historianshavealwaysusedsuchexplanationswhentheywereappropriateandwhentherewassufficientevidenceforthem.Butthispracticaluseofpsychologyisnotwhatpsychohistoriansintend.TheyarecommittednotjusttopsychologyingeneralbuttoFreudianpsychoanalysis.Thiscommitmentpreventsacommitmenttohistoryashistorianshavealwaysunderstoodit.47Psychohistoryderivesitsfactsnotfromhistorythedetailedrecordsofeventsandtheirsequencesbutfrompsychoanalysisoftheindividualswhomadehistoryanddeducesitstheoriesnotfromthisorthatinstanceintheirlivesbutfromaviewofhumannaturethattranscendsgoesbeyondhistory.Itdeniesthebasiccriterionofhistoricalevidence:thatevidencebepubliclyaccessibletoandthereforeassessablebyallhistorians.Anditviolatesthebasicbeliefofhistoricalmethod:thathistoriansbealerttothenegativeinstancesthatwouldrefutetheirtheses.48Psychohistoriansconvincedoftheabsoluterightnessoftheirtheoriesarealsoconvincedthattheirsisthedeepestexplanationofanyeventthatotherexplanationsfallshortoftruth. Psychohistoryisnotcontenttoviolatethedisciplineofhistory;italsoviolatesthepastitself.49Itdeniestothepastanyintegrityandwillofitsowninwhichpeopleactedoutofavarietyofmotivesandinwhicheventshadmanycausesandeffects.Itimposesuponthepastthesamedeterminismthatitimposesuponthepresentthusrobbingpeopleandeventsoftheirindividualityandoftheircomplexity.50Insteadofrespectingtheparticularityofthepastitassimilatesalleventspastandpresentintoasingledeterministicschemathatispresumedtobetrueatalltimesandinallcircumstances Anyonewhohasfollowedrecenthistoricalliteraturecantestifytotherevolutionthatistakingplaceinhistoricalstudiesthatcurrentlyfashionablesubjectscomedirectlyfromthesociologycatalog:childhoodworkleisure.Thenewsubjectsareaccompaniedbynewmethods.Wherehistoryoncewasprimarilynarrativeitisnowentirelyanalytic.TheoldquestionsWhathappenedandHowdidithappenhavegivenwaytothequestionWhydidithappen46ProminentamongthemethodsusedtoanswerthequestionWhyispsychoanalysisanditsusehasgivenrisetopsychohistory. Psychohistorydoesnotmerelyusepsychologicalexplanationsinhistoricalcontexts.Historianshavealwaysusedsuchexplanationswhentheywereappropriateandwhentherewassufficientevidenceforthem.Butthispracticaluseofpsychologyisnotwhatpsychohistoriansintend.TheyarecommittednotjusttopsychologyingeneralbuttoFreudianpsychoanalysis.Thiscommitmentpreventsacommitmenttohistoryashistorianshavealwaysunderstoodit.47Psychohistoryderivesitsfactsnotfromhistorythedetailedrecordsofeventsandtheirsequencesbutfrompsychoanalysisoftheindividualswhomadehistoryanddeducesitstheoriesnotfromthisorthatinstanceintheirlivesbutfromaviewofhumannaturethattranscendsgoesbeyondhistory.Itdeniesthebasiccriterionofhistoricalevidence:thatevidencebepubliclyaccessibletoandthereforeassessablebyallhistorians.Anditviolatesthebasicbeliefofhistoricalmethod:thathistoriansbealerttothenegativeinstancesthatwouldrefutetheirtheses.48Psychohistoriansconvincedoftheabsoluterightnessoftheirtheoriesarealsoconvincedthattheirsisthedeepestexplanationofanyeventthatotherexplanationsfallshortoftruth. Psychohistoryisnotcontenttoviolatethedisciplineofhistory;italsoviolatesthepastitself.49Itdeniestothepastanyintegrityandwillofitsowninwhichpeopleactedoutofavarietyofmotivesandinwhicheventshadmanycausesandeffects.Itimposesuponthepastthesamedeterminismthatitimposesuponthepresentthusrobbingpeopleandeventsoftheirindividualityandoftheircomplexity.50Insteadofrespectingtheparticularityofthepastitassimilatesalleventspastandpresentintoasingledeterministicschemathatispresumedtobetrueatalltimesandinallcircumstances
Toavoidthevariousfoolishopinionstowhichmankindisliablenosuperhumangeniusisrequired.Afewsimpleruleswillkeepyounotfromallerrorsbutfromsillyerrors. Ifthematterisonethatcanbesettledbyobservationmaketheobservationyourself.AristotlecouldhaveavoidedthemistakeofthinkingthatwomenhavefewerteeththanmenbythesimpledeviceofaskingMrs.Aristotletokeephermouthopenwhilehecounted.Hedidnotdosobecausehethoughtheknew.Thinkingthatyouknowwheninfactyoudon’’tisafatalmistaketowhichweareallliable. Manymattershoweverarelesseasilybroughttothetestofexperience.Iflikemostofmankindyouhavestrongconvictionsonmanysuchmatterstherearewaysinwhichyoucanmakeyourselfawareofyourownprejudice.Ifanopinioncontrarytoyourownmakesyouangrythatisasignthatyousubconsciouslyareawareofhavingnogoodreasonforthinkingasyoudo.IfsomeonemaintainsthattwoandtwoarefiveorthatIcelandisontheequatoryoufeelpityratherthanangerunlessyouknowsolittleofarithmeticorgeographythathisopinionshakesyourowncontraryconviction.Themostsavagecontroversiesarethoseaboutmattersastowhichthereisnogoodevidenceeitherway.Sowheneveryoufindyourselfgettingangryaboutadifferenceofopinionbeonyourguard;youwillprobablyfindonexaminationthatyourbeliefisgoingbeyondwhattheevidencejustifies. Forthosewhohaveenoughpsychologicalimaginationitisagoodplantoimagineanargumentwithapersonhavingadifferentopinion.Thishasoneadvantageandonlyoneascomparedwithactualconversationwithopponents;thisoneadvantageisthatthemethodisnotsubjecttothesamelimitationsoftimeandspace.MahatmaGandhi圣雄甘地considereditunfortunatetohaverailwaysandsteamboatsandmachinery;hewouldhavelikedtoundothewholeoftheindustrialrevolution.YoumayneverhaveanopportunityofactuallymeetinganyonewhoholdsthisopinionbecauseinWesterncountriesmostpeopletaketheadvantageofmoderntechnologyforgranted.ButifyouwanttomakesurethatyouarerightinagreeingwiththeprevailingopinionyouwillfinditagoodplantotesttheargumentsthatoccurtoyoubyconsideringwhatGandhimighthavesaidinrefutationofthem.Ihavesometimesbeenledactuallytochangemymindasaresultofthiskindofimaginarydialogue.FurthermoreIhavefrequentlyfoundmyselfgrowingmoreagreeablethroughrealizingthepossiblereasonablenessofahypotheticalopponent. Mostpeopleareunlikelytobesubjecttosillyerrors
Sciencehaslonghadanuneasyrelationshipwithotheraspectsofculture.ThinkofGallileo’s17th-centurytrialforhisrebellingbeliefbeforetheCatholicChurchorpoetWilliamBlake’’sharshremarksagainstthemechanisticworldviewofIsaacNewton.Theschismbetweenscienceandthehumanitieshasifanythingdeepenedinthiscentury. Untilrecentlythescientificcommunitywassopowerfulthatitcouldaffordtoignoreitscriticsbutnolonger.AsfundingforsciencehasdeclinedscientistshaveattackedantiscienceinseveralbooksnotablyHigherSuperstitionbyPaulR.GrossabiologistattheUniversityofVirginiaandNormanLevittamathematicianatRutgersUniversity;andTheDemon-HauntedWorldbyCarlSaganofCornellUniversity. DefendersofsciencehavealsovoicedtheirconcernsatmeetingssuchasTheFlightfromScienceandReasonheldinNewYorkCityin1995andScienceintheAgeofMisinformationwhichassembledlastJunenearBuffalo. Antiscienceclearlymeansdifferentthingstodifferentpeople.GrossandLevittfindfaultprimarilywithsociologistsphilosophersandotheracademicswhohavequestionedscience’’sobjectivity.Saganismoreconcernedwiththosewhobelieveinghostscreationismandotherphenomenathatcontradictthescientificworldview. Asurveyofnewsstoriesin1996revealsthattheantisciencetaghasbeenattachedtomanyothergroupsaswellfromauthoritieswhoadvocatedtheeliminationofthelastremainingstocksofsmallpoxvirustoRepublicanswhoadvocateddecreasedfundingforbasicresearch. FewwoulddisputethatthetermappliestotheUnabomberwhosemanifestopublishedin1995scornsscienceandlongsforreturntoapretechnologicalUtopia.ButsurelythatdoesnotmeanenvironmentalistsconcernedaboutuncontrolledindustrialgrowthareantiscienceasanessayinUSNews&WorldReportlastMayseemedtosuggest. Theenvironmentalistsinevitablyrespondtosuchcritics.ThetrueenemiesofsciencearguesPaulEhrtichofStanfordUniversityapioneerofenvironmentalstudiesarethosewhoquestiontheevidencesupportingglobalwarmingthedepletionoftheozonelayerandotherconsequencesofindustrialgrowth. Indeedsomeobserversfearthattheantiscienceepithetisindangerofbecomingmeaningless.Theterm’’antiscience’’canlumptogethertoomanyquitedifferentthingsnotesHarvardUniversityphilosopherGeraldHoltoninhis1993workScienceandAnti-Science.Theyhaveincommononlyonethingthattheytendtoannoyorthreatenthosewhoregardthemselvesasmoreenlightened. Theauthor’’sattitudetowardtheissueofsciencevs.antiscienceis____________.
Sciencehaslonghadanuneasyrelationshipwithotheraspectsofculture.ThinkofGallileo’s17th-centurytrialforhisrebellingbeliefbeforetheCatholicChurchorpoetWilliamBlake’’sharshremarksagainstthemechanisticworldviewofIsaacNewton.Theschismbetweenscienceandthehumanitieshasifanythingdeepenedinthiscentury. Untilrecentlythescientificcommunitywassopowerfulthatitcouldaffordtoignoreitscriticsbutnolonger.AsfundingforsciencehasdeclinedscientistshaveattackedantiscienceinseveralbooksnotablyHigherSuperstitionbyPaulR.GrossabiologistattheUniversityofVirginiaandNormanLevittamathematicianatRutgersUniversity;andTheDemon-HauntedWorldbyCarlSaganofCornellUniversity. DefendersofsciencehavealsovoicedtheirconcernsatmeetingssuchasTheFlightfromScienceandReasonheldinNewYorkCityin1995andScienceintheAgeofMisinformationwhichassembledlastJunenearBuffalo. Antiscienceclearlymeansdifferentthingstodifferentpeople.GrossandLevittfindfaultprimarilywithsociologistsphilosophersandotheracademicswhohavequestionedscience’’sobjectivity.Saganismoreconcernedwiththosewhobelieveinghostscreationismandotherphenomenathatcontradictthescientificworldview. Asurveyofnewsstoriesin1996revealsthattheantisciencetaghasbeenattachedtomanyothergroupsaswellfromauthoritieswhoadvocatedtheeliminationofthelastremainingstocksofsmallpoxvirustoRepublicanswhoadvocateddecreasedfundingforbasicresearch. FewwoulddisputethatthetermappliestotheUnabomberwhosemanifestopublishedin1995scornsscienceandlongsforreturntoapretechnologicalUtopia.ButsurelythatdoesnotmeanenvironmentalistsconcernedaboutuncontrolledindustrialgrowthareantiscienceasanessayinUSNews&WorldReportlastMayseemedtosuggest. Theenvironmentalistsinevitablyrespondtosuchcritics.ThetrueenemiesofsciencearguesPaulEhrtichofStanfordUniversityapioneerofenvironmentalstudiesarethosewhoquestiontheevidencesupportingglobalwarmingthedepletionoftheozonelayerandotherconsequencesofindustrialgrowth. Indeedsomeobserversfearthattheantiscienceepithetisindangerofbecomingmeaningless.Theterm’’antiscience’’canlumptogethertoomanyquitedifferentthingsnotesHarvardUniversityphilosopherGeraldHoltoninhis1993workScienceandAnti-Science.Theyhaveincommononlyonethingthattheytendtoannoyorthreatenthosewhoregardthemselvesasmoreenlightened. Paragraphs2and3arewrittento____________.
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