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41)__________. The mystery involves a change in the atmoshpere—a hole, or thinning, of the ozone ...
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Modemtechnologymaynothaveimprovedtheworldallthatmuchbut.itcertainlyhasmadelifenoisier.Un-muffledmotorcyclesblaringcaralarmsandrovingboomboxescomefirstsecondandthirdonmylistofmostobnoxiousnoiseoffendersbuteveryonecouldcomeupwithhisownversionofauralhell--ifhecouldjustfindaquietspottoponderthematter.Yetwhattechnologyhasdoneothertechnologyisnowstartingtoundousingcomputerpowertozapthoseear-splittingnoisesintosilence.Previouslysilenceseekershadlittlerecourseexcepttostayinsideclosethewindowsandplugtheirears.Remedieslikethesearequaintlytermedpassivesystemsbecausetheyplacephysicalbarriersagainsttheunwantedsound.Nowcomputertechnologyisproducingafarmoreeffectiveactivesystemwhichdoesn’tjustcontaindeflectormaskthenoisebutannihilatesitelectronically.Thesystemworksbycounteringtheoffendingnoisewithanti-noiseasomewhatsinistersoundingtermthatcallstomindantimatterblackholesandotherPopularSciencemindbendersbutthatactuallyreferstosomethingquitesimple.Justasawaveonapondisflattenedwhenitmergeswithatroughthatisitsexactoppositeormirrorimagesocanasoundwavebymeetingitsopposite.Thisgeneraltheoryofsoundcancellationhasbeenaroundsincethe1930s.Inthefiftiesandsixtiesitmadeorakindofmagictrickamonglaboratoryacousticiansplayingaroundwiththefirstclunkymainframecomputers.Theadventoflow-costhigh-powermicroprocessorshasmadeactivenoise-cancellationsystemsacommercialpossibilityandahandfulofsmallelectronicsfirmsintheUnitedStatesandabroadarebringingthefirstonesontothesilencemarket.Silencebuffsmightbehopingthatthenoise-cancelingapparatuswilltaketheshapeofthe44MagnumwieldedbyDirtyHarrybutinfactactivesoundcontrolisnotquitethatactive.Thesystemmightmoreproperlyhedescribedasreactiveinthatitrespondstosoundwavesalreadyheadedtowardhumanears.Intheconfigurationthatisusualforsuchsystemsmicrophonesdetectthenoisesignalandsendittothesystem’smicroprocessorwhichalmostinstantlymodelsitandcreatesitsinverseforloudspeakerstofireattheoriginal.Becausethetwosoundsoccupy’thesamerangeoffrequenciesandtonestheinversesoundsexactlytikethenoiseitismeanttoeliminate:theanti-noisecancelingBeethoven’sFifthSymphonyisheardasBeethoven’sFifth.Theonlydifferenceisthateverypositivepressureproducedontheairbytheorchestraismatchedbyanegativepressureproducedbythecomputerandtherebysilencingthesound.Thesystemismosteffectiveasakindofmufflerinwhichmicrophonesmicroprocessorandloudspeakerareallinaunitencasingthedevicethatproducesthesoundstiflingitatitssource.Butitcanworkasaheadsettoonegatingthesoundatthelastmomentbeforeitdisturbsone’speaceofmind.Accordingtothepassageanactivenoise-cancellationsystem______.
Imaginethatyouareinhospitalwaitingtohaveanoperation.Itistimetogotothetheatre;theanesthetistapproachesyouandspeaks.ButinsteadofthereassuringwordsI’mjustgoingtogiveyousomethingtosendyouofftosleepyouhear:Letmetakeyouonatriptowardsdeath.TerrifyingMaybebutthatiswhathavingageneralanestheticisallabout.Ifyougiveasmallamountofananestheticdrugitwon’thaveanyeffect.Ifyougivemoreitwillputthepatientofftosleepbutifyougivemorestillitcankillthepatient.Inamodemhospitalbeforeyouaregivenananestheticananesthetistasksyouanumberofquestionstodecidewhichdrugstouse.Mostimportantlytheycheckthestateofyourheartandlungsandaskifyouhaveasthmaanginaorhaveeverhadaheartattack.Theywanttoknowaboutanydrugsyouaretakingsothattheydonotgiveyouananestheticthatreactsbadlywiththemandtheywillalsofindoutifyouhaveanyallergies.Aswellasputtingyoutosleeptheanesthetistisalsoresponsibleforcontrollingyourpain.ThenhowcantheanesthetisttellthattheyhaveputtheirpatientsfarenoughunderMostlybyexperience.Thereisnosuchthingasanawarenessmonitorthoughallthepatient’sbodyfunctionssuchasheartrategasesgoinginandoutandoxygenlevelsinthebloodaremonitored.Iftheanestheticisnotdeepenoughandthepatientbecomeslight’themonitorsshouldtelltheanesthetistthatsomethingiswronglongbeforethepatientbecomesaware.Thisiswhytheanesthetistwatchesthepatientcarefullythroughouttheoperation.Attheendofyouroperationtheanestheticisminedoff.Itmightseemsurprisingthattheanesthetistisoftentheunsungherooftheoperatingthestre.Manypeopleincludingsomenursingstaffdonotrealizethattheanesthetistfirsthastoqualifyasadoctor.TheythentakethreefurtherexaminationstoqualifyasanesthetistsbecauseofthenumberofthingstheyhavetotakeintoaccountwhencarryingouttheirworkTheydonotsimplyneedtoknowaboutthedrugstheyuse;theymustalsoknowaboutalltheotherdrugsonthemarketsothattheycanavoiddangerousinteractions.Theyhavetokeepabreastofanynewsurgicaltechniquetomakesuretheygiveanappropriateanestheticforanyoperation.Thejourneytowardsdeathhascomealongway.Butonefascinatingfactremains:whetheritisetheroracomplexcocktailbeingusedtoputsomeonetosleep:nooneyetknowsexactlyhowanestheticswork.Ananesthetistshouldbepresentthroughouttheoperationincase______.
WhatcanbesaidofthenormalprocessofagingfromalinguisticpointofviewIngeneral1thereisaclearand2relationship:no-onewouldhavemuchdifficulty3ababyayoungchildateenageramiddle-agedpersonoraveryoldpersonfromataperecording.Withchildren4ispossibleforspecialistsinlanguagedevelopmentandpeopleexperienced5childcaretomakeverydetailed6abouthowlanguagecorrelateswithageintheearlyyears.7isknownaboutthepatternsoflinguisticchangethataffectolderpeople.Itisplainthatourvoicequalityvocabularyandstylealter8wegrowolderbutresearch9thenatureofthesechangesisinitsearlieststages.However.acertainamountof10isavailableabouttheproductionand11ofspokenlanguagebyveryoldpeopleespeciallyregardingthephoneticchangesthattakeplace. Speechis12tobeaffectedbyreductionsinthe13ofthevocalorgans.Themusclesofthechest14thelungsbecomelesselastictheribs15mobile:asaresultrespiratoryefficiencyatage75isonlyabouthalf16atage30andthishas17fortheabilitytospeakloudlyrhythmicallyandwithgoodtoneInadditionspeechisaffectedbypoorermovementofthesoftpalateandchangesinthefacialskeletonespeciallyaroundthemouthandjaw.Thereareothermoregeneralsignsofage.Speechrateslowsandfluencymaybemoreerratic.Hearing18especiallyaftertheearlyfifties.Weakening19ofmemoryandattentionmayaffecttheabilitytocomprehendcomplexspeechpatterns.Butitis20allhadnews:vocabularyawarenessmaycontinuetogrowasmaystylisticability—skillsinnarrationforexample.Andgrammaticalabilityseemstobelittleaffected. 7
WhatcanbesaidofthenormalprocessofagingfromalinguisticpointofviewIngeneral1thereisaclearand2relationship:no-onewouldhavemuchdifficulty3ababyayoungchildateenageramiddle-agedpersonoraveryoldpersonfromataperecording.Withchildren4ispossibleforspecialistsinlanguagedevelopmentandpeopleexperienced5childcaretomakeverydetailed6abouthowlanguagecorrelateswithageintheearlyyears.7isknownaboutthepatternsoflinguisticchangethataffectolderpeople.Itisplainthatourvoicequalityvocabularyandstylealter8wegrowolderbutresearch9thenatureofthesechangesisinitsearlieststages.However.acertainamountof10isavailableabouttheproductionand11ofspokenlanguagebyveryoldpeopleespeciallyregardingthephoneticchangesthattakeplace. Speechis12tobeaffectedbyreductionsinthe13ofthevocalorgans.Themusclesofthechest14thelungsbecomelesselastictheribs15mobile:asaresultrespiratoryefficiencyatage75isonlyabouthalf16atage30andthishas17fortheabilitytospeakloudlyrhythmicallyandwithgoodtoneInadditionspeechisaffectedbypoorermovementofthesoftpalateandchangesinthefacialskeletonespeciallyaroundthemouthandjaw.Thereareothermoregeneralsignsofage.Speechrateslowsandfluencymaybemoreerratic.Hearing18especiallyaftertheearlyfifties.Weakening19ofmemoryandattentionmayaffecttheabilitytocomprehendcomplexspeechpatterns.Butitis20allhadnews:vocabularyawarenessmaycontinuetogrowasmaystylisticability—skillsinnarrationforexample.Andgrammaticalabilityseemstobelittleaffected. 15
Theenergycrisiswhichisbeingfeltaroundtheworldhasdramatizedhowthecarelessuseoftheearth’sresourceshasbroughtthewholeworldtothebrinkofdisaster.Theover-developmentofmotortransportwithitsincreaseofmorecarsmorehighwaysmorepollutionmoresuburbsmorecommutinghascontributedtothenear-destructionofourcitiesthebrokeupofthefamilyandthepollutionnotonlyoflocalairbutalsooftheearth’satmosphere.Thedisasterhasarrivedintheformoftheenergycrisis.Ourpresentsituationisunlikewarrevolutionordepression.Itisalsounlikethegreatnaturaldisastersofthepast.Worldwideresourcesexploitationandenergyusehavebroughtustoastatewherelong-rangeplanningisessential.Whatweneedisnotacontinuationofourpresentseriousstatewhichendangersthefutureofourcountryourchildrenandourearthbutamovementforwardtoanewnorminordertoworkrapidlyandeffectivelyonplanetaryproblems.Thiscountryhasbeenfallingbackunderthecontinuingexposuresoflossmoralityandtherevelationthatlawbreakinghasreachedintothehighestplacesintheland.Thereisastrongdemandformoralrevivalandforsomedevotionthatisvastenoughandyetpersonalenoughtoenlistthedevotionofall.Inthepastithasbeenonlyinawayindefenseoftheirowncountryandtheirownidealsthatandpeoplehavebeenabletodevotethemselveswholeheartedly.Thisisthefirsttimethatwehavebeenaskedtodefendourselvesandwhatweholddearincooperationwithalltheotherinhabitantsofthisplanetwhosharewithusthesameendangeredairandthesameendangeredoceans.Thereisacommonneedtoreassessourpresentcoursetochangethatcourseandtodevisenewmethodsthroughwhichtheworldcansurvive.Thisisapricelessopportunity.Tograspitweneedawidespreadunderstandingofnatureinthecrisisconfrontingus—andtheworld—acrisisthatisnopassinginconveniencenobyproductoftheambitionsoftheoil-producingcountriesnoenvironmentalists’merefearsnoby-productofanypresentsystemofgovernment.Whatwefaceistheoutcomeoftheinventionofthelastfourhundredyears.Whatweneedisatransformedlifestyle.Thisnewlifestylecanflowdirectlyfromscienceandtechnologybutitsacceptancedependsonasinceredevotiontofindingahigherqualityoflifefortheworld’schildrenandfuturegeneration.Whatcontributiondoestheauthorfeelpeoplemustnowmake
WhatcanbesaidofthenormalprocessofagingfromalinguisticpointofviewIngeneral1thereisaclearand2relationship:no-onewouldhavemuchdifficulty3ababyayoungchildateenageramiddle-agedpersonoraveryoldpersonfromataperecording.Withchildren4ispossibleforspecialistsinlanguagedevelopmentandpeopleexperienced5childcaretomakeverydetailed6abouthowlanguagecorrelateswithageintheearlyyears.7isknownaboutthepatternsoflinguisticchangethataffectolderpeople.Itisplainthatourvoicequalityvocabularyandstylealter8wegrowolderbutresearch9thenatureofthesechangesisinitsearlieststages.However.acertainamountof10isavailableabouttheproductionand11ofspokenlanguagebyveryoldpeopleespeciallyregardingthephoneticchangesthattakeplace. Speechis12tobeaffectedbyreductionsinthe13ofthevocalorgans.Themusclesofthechest14thelungsbecomelesselastictheribs15mobile:asaresultrespiratoryefficiencyatage75isonlyabouthalf16atage30andthishas17fortheabilitytospeakloudlyrhythmicallyandwithgoodtoneInadditionspeechisaffectedbypoorermovementofthesoftpalateandchangesinthefacialskeletonespeciallyaroundthemouthandjaw.Thereareothermoregeneralsignsofage.Speechrateslowsandfluencymaybemoreerratic.Hearing18especiallyaftertheearlyfifties.Weakening19ofmemoryandattentionmayaffecttheabilitytocomprehendcomplexspeechpatterns.Butitis20allhadnews:vocabularyawarenessmaycontinuetogrowasmaystylisticability—skillsinnarrationforexample.Andgrammaticalabilityseemstobelittleaffected. 5
Overthelast20yearsenergysystemsandserviceshaveexpanded.Californianowmeetsitsenergyneedsusingavarietyofsourcesfromtraditionalfossilfuelsandnucleartechnologiestorenewableenergyresourcessuchaswindsolargeothermalandbiomass.Technologicaladvancesandgovernmentstandardsandprogramshaveresultedinincreasedenergyefficiencymoreproductandserviceoptionsandacleanerenvironment.Deregulationhaspromotedcompetitioninenergycommoditiessuchasoilnaturalgasandnowelectricity.Intheneartermthemostdramaticchangesintheenergysectoraretakingplaceintheelectricityindustry.AsaresultofAssemblyBill1890Chapter854Statutesof1996manyCalifornianswillhavetheopportunitytochoosetheirelectricityproviderasofApril11998.ByJanuary11999theywillalsobeabletoshopforotherelectricservicessuchasmeteringoptions.46BecauseofthesechangesthisCaliforniaEnergyPlanemphasizesthenewcompetitioninelectricitygenerationincontrasttothediscussionofissuesinthepetroleumandnatural.gassectors.Howeverfuturestateenergypolicymayemphasizeothersectors.CompetitiveEnergyMarkets.California’senergyoversightagenciesmustfacilitatecompetitiontoensurethatthepromiseoflowerpricesandmorevalue-addedservicesarerealized.47Thiscanbeachievedthroughadoptionandenforcementoffairclearandeffectivemarketrulesandbyensuringthatconsumersareprovidedwithsufficientinformationtomakeinformedenergy-relateddecisionsGovernmentmustalsoreduceunnecessarybarrierstomarketentryandstreamlinethelicensingprocessforelectricgenerationfacilities.EconomicExpansion.Californiahasoneofthelargesteconomiesintheworld.48ConsequentlyCalifornia’seconomymustberobustinthefaceofuncertaintyprovidingforeconomicgrowthinconjunctionwithenvironmentalprotectionfortodayandforfuturegenerations.Maintainingtheenergyneedsoftoday’seconomyrequiresvastquantitiesofreliableenergyatreasonableprices.TomaintainorexpandCalifornia’sexcellenceasaworldclasseconomyrequirestechnologicaladvancementsthatenhanceproductivityandimprovetheenvironment.IntheenergyindustrytechnologicaladvancementmustfocusonincreasingdemandandsupplysideefficienciesimprovingtheenvironmentbycreatingcleanerenergyconversiontechnologiesatalllevelsofenergyproductionandenduseandsatisfyingCalifornia’smobilityrequirementsthroughdiversetransportationtechnologiesthatincreasefueleconomytakeadvantageofcleanerfuelsandexpandtransportationoptions.49Advancementsin-theseareasamongotherswillmakeCaliforniaagloballeaderintheworldmarketplaceforenergytechnologieswhilebenefitingallCalifornians.PublicInterest.CompetitiondoesnotprovidealltheanswerstoCalifornia’sneeds.UnlikecertaincommoditiesenergyisessentialforthehealthandsafetyofallCalifornians.Thusthestatemustensurethattheenergyinfrastructureissafecleanandreliable.Thepublicinterestalsodemandsthatenergybeavailableforhomeworkrecreationandtransportation.50Communitiescanhelpmeetthesepublicinterestdemandsthroughefficientlandusedesignsthatreducetotalenergydemandandtheadverseenvironmentalimpactsofenergyuse.California’senergyoversightagenciesmustcontinuetoworktogethertoavoidwherepossibledisruptionstothestate’senergysuppliesandtominimizeanyadverseimpacts.
EqualJusticeUnderLaw’readsthemottoatoptheU.S.SupremeCourtbuilding.Thewordsamloftybutforthethousandsofpeoplewhotrudgethroughthecriminal-justicesystemdailyandwhospeaknoEnglishthephrasemeanslegallynothing.Formanyofthesedefendantsthewordsarealsolegallyempty.AmericanjusticeforthosewhodonotcomprehendEnglishisanythingbutuniformletaloneunderstandable.Therearenonationwidestandardsforcourtinterpreterslittletrainingandvirtuallynomonitoring.EverybodygetsapieceofdueprocesssaysDavidFellmethaseniorcourtinterpreterinNewYorkcity.Buthowbigapiecedependsontheinterpreter.Horrorstoriesregularlyfillcourtdockets.InaNewYorkfederalcourtatranslatedundercoverwirequotesaCubandefendant:Idon’tevenhavethetenkilos.ThedefendantmeanskilosofcurrencyCubancentsbutthetranslatedstatementsuggestskilogramsofdrugs.InaNewJerseyhomicidetrialtheprosecutoraskswhetherthetestimonyofawitnessislengthierthanthetranslation.YesrespondsthePolishinterpreterbuteverythingelsewasnotimportant.CongresstriedtosurmountthelanguagebarriersinthefederalcourtsbypassinglegislationelevenyearsagoauthorizingGovernment-paidinterpretersforthosewhodonotspeakEnglish.Sofarthoughonly308peoplehavepassedtherigorousSpanish-onlyfederalcertificationprocess—acadrefartoosmalltohandlethe43000annualrequestsforinterpretersin60languages.Thesituationinthestatesisbreaker.LastyearCookCountyIHprocessed40000requestsandtheNewYorkcourtssoughtoutinterpreters250timesaday.AsinthefederalsystemSpanishisthelanguagemostindemand.Onlyahandfulofstatestesttheirinterpretersforlanguageskills.Thusinmanylocalcourtstranslationmaybeafree-lanceprojectforthesecretarywhospeaksalittleFrenchorafavorrequestedfromarelativeofthedefendant.AfamilymemberistheworstpersonyoucanusesaysMaureenDunnaninterpreterforthedeaf.Theyhavetheirownsideofthestoryandtheyaddandomitthings.Besidesinterpretationisasophisticatedart.Itdemandsnotonlyabroadvocabularyandinstantrecallbutalsotheabilitytoreproducetoneandnuanceandagoodworkingknowledgeofstreetslang.MostpeoplebelievethatifyouarebilingualyoucaninterpretsaysJackLeethoftheAdministrativeOfficeoftheU.S.Courts.That’saboutastrueassayingthatifyouhavetwohandsyoucanautomaticallybeaconcertpianist.Professionalinterpretersareamongthefirsttoadmitthesadstateoftranslationinthecourts.Theyareoftenrelegatedtoclericalstatuswithlowpayandaskedtoworkwithouttimetoprepare.SaysNewYorkinterpreterGabrielFelix:Wecoulduseacentraladministratordictionariesandinsomecourtsaplacetohangourcoatsachairandadesk.Somejurisdictionsaretryingtomakeimprovements.NewYorkandNewJerseyarebroadeningtheirtestingandsendingtheirinterpreterstoschoolforfurthertraining.TheFederalGovernmentisworkingonnewrequirementsforNavajoandHaitian-Creoleinterpreters.AndinLosAngelesafederallawsuitisdemandingcertifiedinterpretersinimmigrationproceedings.Fornowhoweverthequalityofcourtinterpretingaroundthecountrydependsontheluckofthedraw.Whichofthefollowingstatementistrueaccordingtothepassage
WhatcanbesaidofthenormalprocessofagingfromalinguisticpointofviewIngeneral1thereisaclearand2relationship:no-onewouldhavemuchdifficulty3ababyayoungchildateenageramiddle-agedpersonoraveryoldpersonfromataperecording.Withchildren4ispossibleforspecialistsinlanguagedevelopmentandpeopleexperienced5childcaretomakeverydetailed6abouthowlanguagecorrelateswithageintheearlyyears.7isknownaboutthepatternsoflinguisticchangethataffectolderpeople.Itisplainthatourvoicequalityvocabularyandstylealter8wegrowolderbutresearch9thenatureofthesechangesisinitsearlieststages.However.acertainamountof10isavailableabouttheproductionand11ofspokenlanguagebyveryoldpeopleespeciallyregardingthephoneticchangesthattakeplace. Speechis12tobeaffectedbyreductionsinthe13ofthevocalorgans.Themusclesofthechest14thelungsbecomelesselastictheribs15mobile:asaresultrespiratoryefficiencyatage75isonlyabouthalf16atage30andthishas17fortheabilitytospeakloudlyrhythmicallyandwithgoodtoneInadditionspeechisaffectedbypoorermovementofthesoftpalateandchangesinthefacialskeletonespeciallyaroundthemouthandjaw.Thereareothermoregeneralsignsofage.Speechrateslowsandfluencymaybemoreerratic.Hearing18especiallyaftertheearlyfifties.Weakening19ofmemoryandattentionmayaffecttheabilitytocomprehendcomplexspeechpatterns.Butitis20allhadnews:vocabularyawarenessmaycontinuetogrowasmaystylisticability—skillsinnarrationforexample.Andgrammaticalabilityseemstobelittleaffected. 11
WhatcanbesaidofthenormalprocessofagingfromalinguisticpointofviewIngeneral1thereisaclearand2relationship:no-onewouldhavemuchdifficulty3ababyayoungchildateenageramiddle-agedpersonoraveryoldpersonfromataperecording.Withchildren4ispossibleforspecialistsinlanguagedevelopmentandpeopleexperienced5childcaretomakeverydetailed6abouthowlanguagecorrelateswithageintheearlyyears.7isknownaboutthepatternsoflinguisticchangethataffectolderpeople.Itisplainthatourvoicequalityvocabularyandstylealter8wegrowolderbutresearch9thenatureofthesechangesisinitsearlieststages.However.acertainamountof10isavailableabouttheproductionand11ofspokenlanguagebyveryoldpeopleespeciallyregardingthephoneticchangesthattakeplace. Speechis12tobeaffectedbyreductionsinthe13ofthevocalorgans.Themusclesofthechest14thelungsbecomelesselastictheribs15mobile:asaresultrespiratoryefficiencyatage75isonlyabouthalf16atage30andthishas17fortheabilitytospeakloudlyrhythmicallyandwithgoodtoneInadditionspeechisaffectedbypoorermovementofthesoftpalateandchangesinthefacialskeletonespeciallyaroundthemouthandjaw.Thereareothermoregeneralsignsofage.Speechrateslowsandfluencymaybemoreerratic.Hearing18especiallyaftertheearlyfifties.Weakening19ofmemoryandattentionmayaffecttheabilitytocomprehendcomplexspeechpatterns.Butitis20allhadnews:vocabularyawarenessmaycontinuetogrowasmaystylisticability—skillsinnarrationforexample.Andgrammaticalabilityseemstobelittleaffected. 17
Overthelast20yearsenergysystemsandserviceshaveexpanded.Californianowmeetsitsenergyneedsusingavarietyofsourcesfromtraditionalfossilfuelsandnucleartechnologiestorenewableenergyresourcessuchaswindsolargeothermalandbiomass.Technologicaladvancesandgovernmentstandardsandprogramshaveresultedinincreasedenergyefficiencymoreproductandserviceoptionsandacleanerenvironment.Deregulationhaspromotedcompetitioninenergycommoditiessuchasoilnaturalgasandnowelectricity.Intheneartermthemostdramaticchangesintheenergysectoraretakingplaceintheelectricityindustry.AsaresultofAssemblyBill1890Chapter854Statutesof1996manyCalifornianswillhavetheopportunitytochoosetheirelectricityproviderasofApril11998.ByJanuary11999theywillalsobeabletoshopforotherelectricservicessuchasmeteringoptions.46BecauseofthesechangesthisCaliforniaEnergyPlanemphasizesthenewcompetitioninelectricitygenerationincontrasttothediscussionofissuesinthepetroleumandnatural.gassectors.Howeverfuturestateenergypolicymayemphasizeothersectors.CompetitiveEnergyMarkets.California’senergyoversightagenciesmustfacilitatecompetitiontoensurethatthepromiseoflowerpricesandmorevalue-addedservicesarerealized.47Thiscanbeachievedthroughadoptionandenforcementoffairclearandeffectivemarketrulesandbyensuringthatconsumersareprovidedwithsufficientinformationtomakeinformedenergy-relateddecisionsGovernmentmustalsoreduceunnecessarybarrierstomarketentryandstreamlinethelicensingprocessforelectricgenerationfacilities.EconomicExpansion.Californiahasoneofthelargesteconomiesintheworld.48ConsequentlyCalifornia’seconomymustberobustinthefaceofuncertaintyprovidingforeconomicgrowthinconjunctionwithenvironmentalprotectionfortodayandforfuturegenerations.Maintainingtheenergyneedsoftoday’seconomyrequiresvastquantitiesofreliableenergyatreasonableprices.TomaintainorexpandCalifornia’sexcellenceasaworldclasseconomyrequirestechnologicaladvancementsthatenhanceproductivityandimprovetheenvironment.IntheenergyindustrytechnologicaladvancementmustfocusonincreasingdemandandsupplysideefficienciesimprovingtheenvironmentbycreatingcleanerenergyconversiontechnologiesatalllevelsofenergyproductionandenduseandsatisfyingCalifornia’smobilityrequirementsthroughdiversetransportationtechnologiesthatincreasefueleconomytakeadvantageofcleanerfuelsandexpandtransportationoptions.49Advancementsin-theseareasamongotherswillmakeCaliforniaagloballeaderintheworldmarketplaceforenergytechnologieswhilebenefitingallCalifornians.PublicInterest.CompetitiondoesnotprovidealltheanswerstoCalifornia’sneeds.UnlikecertaincommoditiesenergyisessentialforthehealthandsafetyofallCalifornians.Thusthestatemustensurethattheenergyinfrastructureissafecleanandreliable.Thepublicinterestalsodemandsthatenergybeavailableforhomeworkrecreationandtransportation.50Communitiescanhelpmeetthesepublicinterestdemandsthroughefficientlandusedesignsthatreducetotalenergydemandandtheadverseenvironmentalimpactsofenergyuse.California’senergyoversightagenciesmustcontinuetoworktogethertoavoidwherepossibledisruptionstothestate’senergysuppliesandtominimizeanyadverseimpacts.
EqualJusticeUnderLaw’readsthemottoatoptheU.S.SupremeCourtbuilding.Thewordsamloftybutforthethousandsofpeoplewhotrudgethroughthecriminal-justicesystemdailyandwhospeaknoEnglishthephrasemeanslegallynothing.Formanyofthesedefendantsthewordsarealsolegallyempty.AmericanjusticeforthosewhodonotcomprehendEnglishisanythingbutuniformletaloneunderstandable.Therearenonationwidestandardsforcourtinterpreterslittletrainingandvirtuallynomonitoring.EverybodygetsapieceofdueprocesssaysDavidFellmethaseniorcourtinterpreterinNewYorkcity.Buthowbigapiecedependsontheinterpreter.Horrorstoriesregularlyfillcourtdockets.InaNewYorkfederalcourtatranslatedundercoverwirequotesaCubandefendant:Idon’tevenhavethetenkilos.ThedefendantmeanskilosofcurrencyCubancentsbutthetranslatedstatementsuggestskilogramsofdrugs.InaNewJerseyhomicidetrialtheprosecutoraskswhetherthetestimonyofawitnessislengthierthanthetranslation.YesrespondsthePolishinterpreterbuteverythingelsewasnotimportant.CongresstriedtosurmountthelanguagebarriersinthefederalcourtsbypassinglegislationelevenyearsagoauthorizingGovernment-paidinterpretersforthosewhodonotspeakEnglish.Sofarthoughonly308peoplehavepassedtherigorousSpanish-onlyfederalcertificationprocess—acadrefartoosmalltohandlethe43000annualrequestsforinterpretersin60languages.Thesituationinthestatesisbreaker.LastyearCookCountyIHprocessed40000requestsandtheNewYorkcourtssoughtoutinterpreters250timesaday.AsinthefederalsystemSpanishisthelanguagemostindemand.Onlyahandfulofstatestesttheirinterpretersforlanguageskills.Thusinmanylocalcourtstranslationmaybeafree-lanceprojectforthesecretarywhospeaksalittleFrenchorafavorrequestedfromarelativeofthedefendant.AfamilymemberistheworstpersonyoucanusesaysMaureenDunnaninterpreterforthedeaf.Theyhavetheirownsideofthestoryandtheyaddandomitthings.Besidesinterpretationisasophisticatedart.Itdemandsnotonlyabroadvocabularyandinstantrecallbutalsotheabilitytoreproducetoneandnuanceandagoodworkingknowledgeofstreetslang.MostpeoplebelievethatifyouarebilingualyoucaninterpretsaysJackLeethoftheAdministrativeOfficeoftheU.S.Courts.That’saboutastrueassayingthatifyouhavetwohandsyoucanautomaticallybeaconcertpianist.Professionalinterpretersareamongthefirsttoadmitthesadstateoftranslationinthecourts.Theyareoftenrelegatedtoclericalstatuswithlowpayandaskedtoworkwithouttimetoprepare.SaysNewYorkinterpreterGabrielFelix:Wecoulduseacentraladministratordictionariesandinsomecourtsaplacetohangourcoatsachairandadesk.Somejurisdictionsaretryingtomakeimprovements.NewYorkandNewJerseyarebroadeningtheirtestingandsendingtheirinterpreterstoschoolforfurthertraining.TheFederalGovernmentisworkingonnewrequirementsforNavajoandHaitian-Creoleinterpreters.AndinLosAngelesafederallawsuitisdemandingcertifiedinterpretersinimmigrationproceedings.Fornowhoweverthequalityofcourtinterpretingaroundthecountrydependsontheluckofthedraw.ThetwoexamplesinParagraph2arecitedtoprove______.
Universitiestheworldoverlovesymbolsfrommedievalscholasticgarbatdegreeceremoniestotheowlsandscrollsofscholasticbadge.ButformanyuniversitiesespeciallyinBritainandelsewhereinEuropeamoreaccurateemblemwouldincludeslummybuildingsdogearedbooksanddemoralizeddons.That’swhyBritain’sgovernmentisnextweekriskingdefeatintheHouseofCommonstobringmoreprivatemoneyintothecountry’suniversities’--andwhyEuropeananddevelopingcountriesnowbusyexpandinghighereducationneedtothinkhardabouthowmuchgovernmentinvolvementisgoodforuniversities. 41__________.America’sflourishinguniversitiesexemplifytheformerEurope’sthelatter.Britain’sgovernmentwantstomovetowardstheAmericanmodal.Thesubjectofnextweek’srebellionisabillthatwouldallowEnglishuniversitiesScotlandandWalesaredifferenttochargeupto3000pounds5460dollarsintuitionfeesinsteadofthecurrentflatrate1125.Studentswillborrowthemoneythroughastaterunloanschemeandpayitbackoncetheyareearningenough. 42__________.Butitreflectsanimportantshiftinthinking. Firstthatthenewmoneyuniversitiesneedshouldcomefromgraduatesratherthanthegeneraltaxpayer.Secondandmostcruciallyitabandonstheegalitarianassumptionthatalluniversitiesareequallydeserving. Thatiscommendablejustbecauseacourseischeapdoesnotmeanitisworthlessandtheexistenceofcostlyonesisnotinitselfasignofiniquitoussocialdivision.Yetoldthinkinghasdeeproots.Bandyingphrasessuchas"excellenceforall"and"educationforthemanynotthefew"politiciansespeciallyleftwingoneswanttodaptheuniversityeducatedlabelonevermorepeopleregardlessofmeritcostorpracticality. 43__________.Ithumiliatesthetalentedbutdisadvantagedwhosesuccessisthendevaluedanditinfuriatesthetalentedwhoarenotdeemedunderprivilegedenoughandwhofeeltheirmeritsignoredanditmakesuniversitiesdoajobtheyareboundtobebadat. Publicfundingisaddictiveandthewithdrawalsymptomsarepainful.44__________.Inflatedtuitionfeesareabigworryandalumnipreferencelooksunfair.ButoverallAmerica’ssystemlookssustainableinawaythattheOldWorld’sdoesnot. Inshortthemodeltostriveforisvariedinstitutionschargingvariedfees.Notallcoursesneedlastthreeyearsorbringafullhonorsdegree.45__________. Itisbettertodosomethingswellratherthaneverythingindifferently.Itisbecausepoliticianshaveforgottenthatsomeoftheworld’soldestuniversitiesriskafuturethatisalotlessgloriousthantheirpast. A.Somewillbelongeranddeeper;othersshorterandshallower.SomeuniversitiesmayspecializeasteachingonlyinstitutionslikeAmerica’sliberalartscolleges.Othersmaywanttoconcentratemainlyonresearch.Allmusthavetherighttoselecttheirintake. B.Universitiescanindeedgivethedisadvantagedalegup—buttheywilldoitmuchbetterifthestatestandshack.MicromanaginguniversityadmissionsastheBritishgovernmenthasbeentryingtodoongroundsofclasswithtargetsquotasfinesandstricturesrisksthesameconsequencesassimilarAmericanexperimentsbasedonracialpreference. C.AlisonWolfaBritisheconomisttermsthisthe"twoaspiringoodfiveaspirinbetter"approachtouniversityfinance.Itisdeeplyflawed.Inrealitythereisnoprovenconnectionbetweenspendingonuniversitiesandprosperitynorcantherebe. D.ButasBritishdonsandpoliticiansstragglewiththeseissuesandtheirEuropeancounterpartsponderwhetheronedaytheymightjusthavetodosomethingsimilarthemessageforemergingeconomieslikeChinaandIndiawhoareinvestingheavilyintheirownsystemsofhighereducationisclear—avoidanationalizedanduniformsystemandgoforonethatisdiverseandindependentAmerica’suniversitieshavetheirproblems. E.Itisaverylimitedstartfacedwithsweetenersforstudentsfrompoorbackgrounds.Thebestuniversitiesworrythatthemaximumfeeshouldbemanytimeshigher. F.IndeedfacedwithagingpopulationsBritainandmostEuropeancountriesarguablyshouldbeencouragingtheiryoungpeopletostartearningearlierintheirlivesratherthanlater. G.Therearebroadlytwomodelsforrunninguniversities.Theycanbeautonomousinstitutionsmainlydependentonprivateincomesuchasfeesdonationsandinvestmentsortheycanbestatefinancedandasaresultstaterun. 43
WhatcanbesaidofthenormalprocessofagingfromalinguisticpointofviewIngeneral1thereisaclearand2relationship:no-onewouldhavemuchdifficulty3ababyayoungchildateenageramiddle-agedpersonoraveryoldpersonfromataperecording.Withchildren4ispossibleforspecialistsinlanguagedevelopmentandpeopleexperienced5childcaretomakeverydetailed6abouthowlanguagecorrelateswithageintheearlyyears.7isknownaboutthepatternsoflinguisticchangethataffectolderpeople.Itisplainthatourvoicequalityvocabularyandstylealter8wegrowolderbutresearch9thenatureofthesechangesisinitsearlieststages.However.acertainamountof10isavailableabouttheproductionand11ofspokenlanguagebyveryoldpeopleespeciallyregardingthephoneticchangesthattakeplace. Speechis12tobeaffectedbyreductionsinthe13ofthevocalorgans.Themusclesofthechest14thelungsbecomelesselastictheribs15mobile:asaresultrespiratoryefficiencyatage75isonlyabouthalf16atage30andthishas17fortheabilitytospeakloudlyrhythmicallyandwithgoodtoneInadditionspeechisaffectedbypoorermovementofthesoftpalateandchangesinthefacialskeletonespeciallyaroundthemouthandjaw.Thereareothermoregeneralsignsofage.Speechrateslowsandfluencymaybemoreerratic.Hearing18especiallyaftertheearlyfifties.Weakening19ofmemoryandattentionmayaffecttheabilitytocomprehendcomplexspeechpatterns.Butitis20allhadnews:vocabularyawarenessmaycontinuetogrowasmaystylisticability—skillsinnarrationforexample.Andgrammaticalabilityseemstobelittleaffected. 19
Universitiestheworldoverlovesymbolsfrommedievalscholasticgarbatdegreeceremoniestotheowlsandscrollsofscholasticbadge.ButformanyuniversitiesespeciallyinBritainandelsewhereinEuropeamoreaccurateemblemwouldincludeslummybuildingsdogearedbooksanddemoralizeddons.That’swhyBritain’sgovernmentisnextweekriskingdefeatintheHouseofCommonstobringmoreprivatemoneyintothecountry’suniversities’--andwhyEuropeananddevelopingcountriesnowbusyexpandinghighereducationneedtothinkhardabouthowmuchgovernmentinvolvementisgoodforuniversities. 41__________.America’sflourishinguniversitiesexemplifytheformerEurope’sthelatter.Britain’sgovernmentwantstomovetowardstheAmericanmodal.Thesubjectofnextweek’srebellionisabillthatwouldallowEnglishuniversitiesScotlandandWalesaredifferenttochargeupto3000pounds5460dollarsintuitionfeesinsteadofthecurrentflatrate1125.Studentswillborrowthemoneythroughastaterunloanschemeandpayitbackoncetheyareearningenough. 42__________.Butitreflectsanimportantshiftinthinking. Firstthatthenewmoneyuniversitiesneedshouldcomefromgraduatesratherthanthegeneraltaxpayer.Secondandmostcruciallyitabandonstheegalitarianassumptionthatalluniversitiesareequallydeserving. Thatiscommendablejustbecauseacourseischeapdoesnotmeanitisworthlessandtheexistenceofcostlyonesisnotinitselfasignofiniquitoussocialdivision.Yetoldthinkinghasdeeproots.Bandyingphrasessuchas"excellenceforall"and"educationforthemanynotthefew"politiciansespeciallyleftwingoneswanttodaptheuniversityeducatedlabelonevermorepeopleregardlessofmeritcostorpracticality. 43__________.Ithumiliatesthetalentedbutdisadvantagedwhosesuccessisthendevaluedanditinfuriatesthetalentedwhoarenotdeemedunderprivilegedenoughandwhofeeltheirmeritsignoredanditmakesuniversitiesdoajobtheyareboundtobebadat. Publicfundingisaddictiveandthewithdrawalsymptomsarepainful.44__________.Inflatedtuitionfeesareabigworryandalumnipreferencelooksunfair.ButoverallAmerica’ssystemlookssustainableinawaythattheOldWorld’sdoesnot. Inshortthemodeltostriveforisvariedinstitutionschargingvariedfees.Notallcoursesneedlastthreeyearsorbringafullhonorsdegree.45__________. Itisbettertodosomethingswellratherthaneverythingindifferently.Itisbecausepoliticianshaveforgottenthatsomeoftheworld’soldestuniversitiesriskafuturethatisalotlessgloriousthantheirpast. A.Somewillbelongeranddeeper;othersshorterandshallower.SomeuniversitiesmayspecializeasteachingonlyinstitutionslikeAmerica’sliberalartscolleges.Othersmaywanttoconcentratemainlyonresearch.Allmusthavetherighttoselecttheirintake. B.Universitiescanindeedgivethedisadvantagedalegup—buttheywilldoitmuchbetterifthestatestandshack.MicromanaginguniversityadmissionsastheBritishgovernmenthasbeentryingtodoongroundsofclasswithtargetsquotasfinesandstricturesrisksthesameconsequencesassimilarAmericanexperimentsbasedonracialpreference. C.AlisonWolfaBritisheconomisttermsthisthe"twoaspiringoodfiveaspirinbetter"approachtouniversityfinance.Itisdeeplyflawed.Inrealitythereisnoprovenconnectionbetweenspendingonuniversitiesandprosperitynorcantherebe. D.ButasBritishdonsandpoliticiansstragglewiththeseissuesandtheirEuropeancounterpartsponderwhetheronedaytheymightjusthavetodosomethingsimilarthemessageforemergingeconomieslikeChinaandIndiawhoareinvestingheavilyintheirownsystemsofhighereducationisclear—avoidanationalizedanduniformsystemandgoforonethatisdiverseandindependentAmerica’suniversitieshavetheirproblems. E.Itisaverylimitedstartfacedwithsweetenersforstudentsfrompoorbackgrounds.Thebestuniversitiesworrythatthemaximumfeeshouldbemanytimeshigher. F.IndeedfacedwithagingpopulationsBritainandmostEuropeancountriesarguablyshouldbeencouragingtheiryoungpeopletostartearningearlierintheirlivesratherthanlater. G.Therearebroadlytwomodelsforrunninguniversities.Theycanbeautonomousinstitutionsmainlydependentonprivateincomesuchasfeesdonationsandinvestmentsortheycanbestatefinancedandasaresultstaterun. 41
WhatcanbesaidofthenormalprocessofagingfromalinguisticpointofviewIngeneral1thereisaclearand2relationship:no-onewouldhavemuchdifficulty3ababyayoungchildateenageramiddle-agedpersonoraveryoldpersonfromataperecording.Withchildren4ispossibleforspecialistsinlanguagedevelopmentandpeopleexperienced5childcaretomakeverydetailed6abouthowlanguagecorrelateswithageintheearlyyears.7isknownaboutthepatternsoflinguisticchangethataffectolderpeople.Itisplainthatourvoicequalityvocabularyandstylealter8wegrowolderbutresearch9thenatureofthesechangesisinitsearlieststages.However.acertainamountof10isavailableabouttheproductionand11ofspokenlanguagebyveryoldpeopleespeciallyregardingthephoneticchangesthattakeplace. Speechis12tobeaffectedbyreductionsinthe13ofthevocalorgans.Themusclesofthechest14thelungsbecomelesselastictheribs15mobile:asaresultrespiratoryefficiencyatage75isonlyabouthalf16atage30andthishas17fortheabilitytospeakloudlyrhythmicallyandwithgoodtoneInadditionspeechisaffectedbypoorermovementofthesoftpalateandchangesinthefacialskeletonespeciallyaroundthemouthandjaw.Thereareothermoregeneralsignsofage.Speechrateslowsandfluencymaybemoreerratic.Hearing18especiallyaftertheearlyfifties.Weakening19ofmemoryandattentionmayaffecttheabilitytocomprehendcomplexspeechpatterns.Butitis20allhadnews:vocabularyawarenessmaycontinuetogrowasmaystylisticability—skillsinnarrationforexample.Andgrammaticalabilityseemstobelittleaffected. 1
AtYaleUniversitysometenstudentsliveoffcampusinacooperativehometheycalltheGreenHouse.41__________.Lateatnighttheydrivetothestoreandquietlyjumpintoitscar-sizeddumpsterpickingoutunopenedpackagesofstillfreshfood.Theyfindmilkeggsbreadandcookieschocolatesoupvegetablesevenfrozenpizzasandsoymilk.NotonlyaremostGreenHouseresidentsvegetarianbuttheyarealsomoderatefreegansmeaningthattheyeatmainlywhattheycangetforfree.Thesestudentsofcoursearetryingtoleaveassmallanecologicalfootprintaspossible.42__________.AcrossAmericaotherdevoutenvironmentaliststireoffthegridbuildingshacksinthewildernesswithoutrunningwaterorelectricity.Frustratedwithenvironmentaldestructionandwastetheyhaverenouncedthesystemthatfostersandperpetuatesit.Suchasceticanti-consumerismmaybethemostdramaticsideofenvironmentalismanditleadstoculturalfermentthatcansetintomotionpoliticalandeconomicchange.Itspractitionersfocusonpersonalsacrificehopingthattheiridealsandasceticismwillspreadlikeareligion.43__________.Ourpoliticalandeconomicsystemsaredeeplyimmature.Environmentalistsneedmspendjustasmuchenergyorganizingpoliticalandeconomicenvironmentalism.Alsoold-fashionedenvironmentalismoftenassumesthatbusinessisopposedtoenvironmentalprotection.InfactthousandsofUScompaniesarediscoveringoftenwiththehelpofenergyconsultantshowmuchmoneytheyhavetostandfrombecomingenvironmentallyefficient:savingenergyandrecyclingwithinindustry.TherecentbookNaturalCapitalism:CreatingtheNextIndustrialRevolutionbyPaulHawkenetalnowtranslatedintoChineseshouldgetsomeofthecreditforbringingaboutthistransformationinattitudes.ParadoxicallytheUSisboththebirthplaceofglobalenvironmentalismandtheworld’sbiggestenvironmentalspender.RomanticismtheEuropeanandAmericanliteraryandartisticmovementthatfoundGodinthewildernesshadastronglongtermimpactonAmericanthinkingstartinginthemiddlethirdofthe19thcentury.InparticularrenewedattentiontotheessaysofHenryDavidThoreau1817-62helpedlaunchmodernenvironmentalismacenturyafterhisdeath.44__________WhythediscrepancyMostenvironmentaldamagecannotbeboileddowntothechoicesmadebyindividuals.Ratherindividualsarelockedintoasysteminwhichheavyindustrycommitsthemajorityofecologicalcrimesbuttressedbyaneconomicsystemthatsquandersnaturalresources.Thegovernmentgivesawayminingrightsandopenspublicforeststologgerspracticallyforfree——andbigbusinessspendsmillionsofdollarstomakesurepoliticianskeepondoingso.45__________.Formanyenvironmentalproblemsthesolutionisorganizedpoliticalpressureandentrepreneurialinnovation.A.AttimesthemoralconvictionandworldviewoftheGreenHouseappearasallencompassingasareligiousfaith.GreenHouseinmatesliveinthemostenvironmentallypiouswayonecouldconceiveofinthecity.B.Buteffectiveenvironmentalismrequiresmorethanwordsmorethanculturalchange.Itrequireslegalandeconomicreform.Itdemandshistoricallyunprecedentedpoliciesincorporatingthevalueofcherishednaturalresourcesinmarketcalculations.Itcallsforneworganizationsandentrepreneurialcommitment.AnyonehaveanyideasC.Butonedrawbackoffocusingenvironmentalistenergyonabstainingfrompersonalconsumptionisthatsuchanapproachcandistractpeoplefromthelargermusesofenvironmentaldestructionwhichcannotbeaffectedbyindividualchoicestoconsumeornottoconsume.D.Othergovernmentsubsidiessupportseveralfilthyindustries.Whilethegovernmentpaysfornewfreewaysthussubsidizingautomobilesitignorestrainsandbusnetworks.Pollutersdon’tpaytherealcostofexternalitiessuchastoxicwasteandairandwaterpollution.E.TheyrecyclecansbottlesandpapermeticulouslysortingthemintothebinscollectedbymunicipaltrucksinAmericancities.Theyreusegreywatermeaningthattheyplugthedrainwhentheyshowerandthenusebucketstoflushthetoiletwiththeoldsoapywater.Topreventfoodfromgoingtowastetheyevengetmostoftheirgroceriesoutofthetrashofanupscalegrocerystore.F.Weshouldrecallhoweverthatenvironmentalistshaveoftenbeenfobbedoffwithtokengesturesidletalkandunimplementedtreaties.EvenPresidentBushwhohastheworstenvironmentalrecordofanyAmericanpresidentsofarhasmasteredtheartoflargelyemptyenvironmentalistrhetoric.G.YettodayAmericawithonly596oftheworld’spopulationproduces2496ofglobalcarbondioxideemissions.TheUSlikemanyotherrichcountrieshascleanedupitsairandwaterbutitisstillthebiggestcontributortothegreatestenvironmentalthreateverglobalclimatechang
EqualJusticeUnderLaw’readsthemottoatoptheU.S.SupremeCourtbuilding.Thewordsamloftybutforthethousandsofpeoplewhotrudgethroughthecriminal-justicesystemdailyandwhospeaknoEnglishthephrasemeanslegallynothing.Formanyofthesedefendantsthewordsarealsolegallyempty.AmericanjusticeforthosewhodonotcomprehendEnglishisanythingbutuniformletaloneunderstandable.Therearenonationwidestandardsforcourtinterpreterslittletrainingandvirtuallynomonitoring.EverybodygetsapieceofdueprocesssaysDavidFellmethaseniorcourtinterpreterinNewYorkcity.Buthowbigapiecedependsontheinterpreter.Horrorstoriesregularlyfillcourtdockets.InaNewYorkfederalcourtatranslatedundercoverwirequotesaCubandefendant:Idon’tevenhavethetenkilos.ThedefendantmeanskilosofcurrencyCubancentsbutthetranslatedstatementsuggestskilogramsofdrugs.InaNewJerseyhomicidetrialtheprosecutoraskswhetherthetestimonyofawitnessislengthierthanthetranslation.YesrespondsthePolishinterpreterbuteverythingelsewasnotimportant.CongresstriedtosurmountthelanguagebarriersinthefederalcourtsbypassinglegislationelevenyearsagoauthorizingGovernment-paidinterpretersforthosewhodonotspeakEnglish.Sofarthoughonly308peoplehavepassedtherigorousSpanish-onlyfederalcertificationprocess—acadrefartoosmalltohandlethe43000annualrequestsforinterpretersin60languages.Thesituationinthestatesisbreaker.LastyearCookCountyIHprocessed40000requestsandtheNewYorkcourtssoughtoutinterpreters250timesaday.AsinthefederalsystemSpanishisthelanguagemostindemand.Onlyahandfulofstatestesttheirinterpretersforlanguageskills.Thusinmanylocalcourtstranslationmaybeafree-lanceprojectforthesecretarywhospeaksalittleFrenchorafavorrequestedfromarelativeofthedefendant.AfamilymemberistheworstpersonyoucanusesaysMaureenDunnaninterpreterforthedeaf.Theyhavetheirownsideofthestoryandtheyaddandomitthings.Besidesinterpretationisasophisticatedart.Itdemandsnotonlyabroadvocabularyandinstantrecallbutalsotheabilitytoreproducetoneandnuanceandagoodworkingknowledgeofstreetslang.MostpeoplebelievethatifyouarebilingualyoucaninterpretsaysJackLeethoftheAdministrativeOfficeoftheU.S.Courts.That’saboutastrueassayingthatifyouhavetwohandsyoucanautomaticallybeaconcertpianist.Professionalinterpretersareamongthefirsttoadmitthesadstateoftranslationinthecourts.Theyareoftenrelegatedtoclericalstatuswithlowpayandaskedtoworkwithouttimetoprepare.SaysNewYorkinterpreterGabrielFelix:Wecoulduseacentraladministratordictionariesandinsomecourtsaplacetohangourcoatsachairandadesk.Somejurisdictionsaretryingtomakeimprovements.NewYorkandNewJerseyarebroadeningtheirtestingandsendingtheirinterpreterstoschoolforfurthertraining.TheFederalGovernmentisworkingonnewrequirementsforNavajoandHaitian-Creoleinterpreters.AndinLosAngelesafederallawsuitisdemandingcertifiedinterpretersinimmigrationproceedings.Fornowhoweverthequalityofcourtinterpretingaroundthecountrydependsontheluckofthedraw.Whatisthepassagemainlyabout
Imaginethatyouareinhospitalwaitingtohaveanoperation.Itistimetogotothetheatre;theanesthetistapproachesyouandspeaks.ButinsteadofthereassuringwordsI’mjustgoingtogiveyousomethingtosendyouofftosleepyouhear:Letmetakeyouonatriptowardsdeath.TerrifyingMaybebutthatiswhathavingageneralanestheticisallabout.Ifyougiveasmallamountofananestheticdrugitwon’thaveanyeffect.Ifyougivemoreitwillputthepatientofftosleepbutifyougivemorestillitcankillthepatient.Inamodemhospitalbeforeyouaregivenananestheticananesthetistasksyouanumberofquestionstodecidewhichdrugstouse.Mostimportantlytheycheckthestateofyourheartandlungsandaskifyouhaveasthmaanginaorhaveeverhadaheartattack.Theywanttoknowaboutanydrugsyouaretakingsothattheydonotgiveyouananestheticthatreactsbadlywiththemandtheywillalsofindoutifyouhaveanyallergies.Aswellasputtingyoutosleeptheanesthetistisalsoresponsibleforcontrollingyourpain.ThenhowcantheanesthetisttellthattheyhaveputtheirpatientsfarenoughunderMostlybyexperience.Thereisnosuchthingasanawarenessmonitorthoughallthepatient’sbodyfunctionssuchasheartrategasesgoinginandoutandoxygenlevelsinthebloodaremonitored.Iftheanestheticisnotdeepenoughandthepatientbecomeslight’themonitorsshouldtelltheanesthetistthatsomethingiswronglongbeforethepatientbecomesaware.Thisiswhytheanesthetistwatchesthepatientcarefullythroughouttheoperation.Attheendofyouroperationtheanestheticisminedoff.Itmightseemsurprisingthattheanesthetistisoftentheunsungherooftheoperatingthestre.Manypeopleincludingsomenursingstaffdonotrealizethattheanesthetistfirsthastoqualifyasadoctor.TheythentakethreefurtherexaminationstoqualifyasanesthetistsbecauseofthenumberofthingstheyhavetotakeintoaccountwhencarryingouttheirworkTheydonotsimplyneedtoknowaboutthedrugstheyuse;theymustalsoknowaboutalltheotherdrugsonthemarketsothattheycanavoiddangerousinteractions.Theyhavetokeepabreastofanynewsurgicaltechniquetomakesuretheygiveanappropriateanestheticforanyoperation.Thejourneytowardsdeathhascomealongway.Butonefascinatingfactremains:whetheritisetheroracomplexcocktailbeingusedtoputsomeonetosleep:nooneyetknowsexactlyhowanestheticswork.WhatdoesthewordtheatreSentence2Paragraph1probablymean’
AtYaleUniversitysometenstudentsliveoffcampusinacooperativehometheycalltheGreenHouse.41__________.Lateatnighttheydrivetothestoreandquietlyjumpintoitscar-sizeddumpsterpickingoutunopenedpackagesofstillfreshfood.Theyfindmilkeggsbreadandcookieschocolatesoupvegetablesevenfrozenpizzasandsoymilk.NotonlyaremostGreenHouseresidentsvegetarianbuttheyarealsomoderatefreegansmeaningthattheyeatmainlywhattheycangetforfree.Thesestudentsofcoursearetryingtoleaveassmallanecologicalfootprintaspossible.42__________.AcrossAmericaotherdevoutenvironmentaliststireoffthegridbuildingshacksinthewildernesswithoutrunningwaterorelectricity.Frustratedwithenvironmentaldestructionandwastetheyhaverenouncedthesystemthatfostersandperpetuatesit.Suchasceticanti-consumerismmaybethemostdramaticsideofenvironmentalismanditleadstoculturalfermentthatcansetintomotionpoliticalandeconomicchange.Itspractitionersfocusonpersonalsacrificehopingthattheiridealsandasceticismwillspreadlikeareligion.43__________.Ourpoliticalandeconomicsystemsaredeeplyimmature.Environmentalistsneedmspendjustasmuchenergyorganizingpoliticalandeconomicenvironmentalism.Alsoold-fashionedenvironmentalismoftenassumesthatbusinessisopposedtoenvironmentalprotection.InfactthousandsofUScompaniesarediscoveringoftenwiththehelpofenergyconsultantshowmuchmoneytheyhavetostandfrombecomingenvironmentallyefficient:savingenergyandrecyclingwithinindustry.TherecentbookNaturalCapitalism:CreatingtheNextIndustrialRevolutionbyPaulHawkenetalnowtranslatedintoChineseshouldgetsomeofthecreditforbringingaboutthistransformationinattitudes.ParadoxicallytheUSisboththebirthplaceofglobalenvironmentalismandtheworld’sbiggestenvironmentalspender.RomanticismtheEuropeanandAmericanliteraryandartisticmovementthatfoundGodinthewildernesshadastronglongtermimpactonAmericanthinkingstartinginthemiddlethirdofthe19thcentury.InparticularrenewedattentiontotheessaysofHenryDavidThoreau1817-62helpedlaunchmodernenvironmentalismacenturyafterhisdeath.44__________WhythediscrepancyMostenvironmentaldamagecannotbeboileddowntothechoicesmadebyindividuals.Ratherindividualsarelockedintoasysteminwhichheavyindustrycommitsthemajorityofecologicalcrimesbuttressedbyaneconomicsystemthatsquandersnaturalresources.Thegovernmentgivesawayminingrightsandopenspublicforeststologgerspracticallyforfree——andbigbusinessspendsmillionsofdollarstomakesurepoliticianskeepondoingso.45__________.Formanyenvironmentalproblemsthesolutionisorganizedpoliticalpressureandentrepreneurialinnovation.A.AttimesthemoralconvictionandworldviewoftheGreenHouseappearasallencompassingasareligiousfaith.GreenHouseinmatesliveinthemostenvironmentallypiouswayonecouldconceiveofinthecity.B.Buteffectiveenvironmentalismrequiresmorethanwordsmorethanculturalchange.Itrequireslegalandeconomicreform.Itdemandshistoricallyunprecedentedpoliciesincorporatingthevalueofcherishednaturalresourcesinmarketcalculations.Itcallsforneworganizationsandentrepreneurialcommitment.AnyonehaveanyideasC.Butonedrawbackoffocusingenvironmentalistenergyonabstainingfrompersonalconsumptionisthatsuchanapproachcandistractpeoplefromthelargermusesofenvironmentaldestructionwhichcannotbeaffectedbyindividualchoicestoconsumeornottoconsume.D.Othergovernmentsubsidiessupportseveralfilthyindustries.Whilethegovernmentpaysfornewfreewaysthussubsidizingautomobilesitignorestrainsandbusnetworks.Pollutersdon’tpaytherealcostofexternalitiessuchastoxicwasteandairandwaterpollution.E.TheyrecyclecansbottlesandpapermeticulouslysortingthemintothebinscollectedbymunicipaltrucksinAmericancities.Theyreusegreywatermeaningthattheyplugthedrainwhentheyshowerandthenusebucketstoflushthetoiletwiththeoldsoapywater.Topreventfoodfromgoingtowastetheyevengetmostoftheirgroceriesoutofthetrashofanupscalegrocerystore.F.Weshouldrecallhoweverthatenvironmentalistshaveoftenbeenfobbedoffwithtokengesturesidletalkandunimplementedtreaties.EvenPresidentBushwhohastheworstenvironmentalrecordofanyAmericanpresidentsofarhasmasteredtheartoflargelyemptyenvironmentalistrhetoric.G.YettodayAmericawithonly596oftheworld’spopulationproduces2496ofglobalcarbondioxideemissions.TheUSlikemanyotherrichcountrieshascleanedupitsairandwaterbutitisstillthebiggestcontributortothegreatestenvironmentalthreateverglobalclimatechang
Imaginethatyouareinhospitalwaitingtohaveanoperation.Itistimetogotothetheatre;theanesthetistapproachesyouandspeaks.ButinsteadofthereassuringwordsI’mjustgoingtogiveyousomethingtosendyouofftosleepyouhear:Letmetakeyouonatriptowardsdeath.TerrifyingMaybebutthatiswhathavingageneralanestheticisallabout.Ifyougiveasmallamountofananestheticdrugitwon’thaveanyeffect.Ifyougivemoreitwillputthepatientofftosleepbutifyougivemorestillitcankillthepatient.Inamodemhospitalbeforeyouaregivenananestheticananesthetistasksyouanumberofquestionstodecidewhichdrugstouse.Mostimportantlytheycheckthestateofyourheartandlungsandaskifyouhaveasthmaanginaorhaveeverhadaheartattack.Theywanttoknowaboutanydrugsyouaretakingsothattheydonotgiveyouananestheticthatreactsbadlywiththemandtheywillalsofindoutifyouhaveanyallergies.Aswellasputtingyoutosleeptheanesthetistisalsoresponsibleforcontrollingyourpain.ThenhowcantheanesthetisttellthattheyhaveputtheirpatientsfarenoughunderMostlybyexperience.Thereisnosuchthingasanawarenessmonitorthoughallthepatient’sbodyfunctionssuchasheartrategasesgoinginandoutandoxygenlevelsinthebloodaremonitored.Iftheanestheticisnotdeepenoughandthepatientbecomeslight’themonitorsshouldtelltheanesthetistthatsomethingiswronglongbeforethepatientbecomesaware.Thisiswhytheanesthetistwatchesthepatientcarefullythroughouttheoperation.Attheendofyouroperationtheanestheticisminedoff.Itmightseemsurprisingthattheanesthetistisoftentheunsungherooftheoperatingthestre.Manypeopleincludingsomenursingstaffdonotrealizethattheanesthetistfirsthastoqualifyasadoctor.TheythentakethreefurtherexaminationstoqualifyasanesthetistsbecauseofthenumberofthingstheyhavetotakeintoaccountwhencarryingouttheirworkTheydonotsimplyneedtoknowaboutthedrugstheyuse;theymustalsoknowaboutalltheotherdrugsonthemarketsothattheycanavoiddangerousinteractions.Theyhavetokeepabreastofanynewsurgicaltechniquetomakesuretheygiveanappropriateanestheticforanyoperation.Thejourneytowardsdeathhascomealongway.Butonefascinatingfactremains:whetheritisetheroracomplexcocktailbeingusedtoputsomeonetosleep:nooneyetknowsexactlyhowanestheticswork.Whichofthefollowingstatementsistrueaccordingtothepassage
Theenergycrisiswhichisbeingfeltaroundtheworldhasdramatizedhowthecarelessuseoftheearth’sresourceshasbroughtthewholeworldtothebrinkofdisaster.Theover-developmentofmotortransportwithitsincreaseofmorecarsmorehighwaysmorepollutionmoresuburbsmorecommutinghascontributedtothenear-destructionofourcitiesthebrokeupofthefamilyandthepollutionnotonlyoflocalairbutalsooftheearth’satmosphere.Thedisasterhasarrivedintheformoftheenergycrisis.Ourpresentsituationisunlikewarrevolutionordepression.Itisalsounlikethegreatnaturaldisastersofthepast.Worldwideresourcesexploitationandenergyusehavebroughtustoastatewherelong-rangeplanningisessential.Whatweneedisnotacontinuationofourpresentseriousstatewhichendangersthefutureofourcountryourchildrenandourearthbutamovementforwardtoanewnorminordertoworkrapidlyandeffectivelyonplanetaryproblems.Thiscountryhasbeenfallingbackunderthecontinuingexposuresoflossmoralityandtherevelationthatlawbreakinghasreachedintothehighestplacesintheland.Thereisastrongdemandformoralrevivalandforsomedevotionthatisvastenoughandyetpersonalenoughtoenlistthedevotionofall.Inthepastithasbeenonlyinawayindefenseoftheirowncountryandtheirownidealsthatandpeoplehavebeenabletodevotethemselveswholeheartedly.Thisisthefirsttimethatwehavebeenaskedtodefendourselvesandwhatweholddearincooperationwithalltheotherinhabitantsofthisplanetwhosharewithusthesameendangeredairandthesameendangeredoceans.Thereisacommonneedtoreassessourpresentcoursetochangethatcourseandtodevisenewmethodsthroughwhichtheworldcansurvive.Thisisapricelessopportunity.Tograspitweneedawidespreadunderstandingofnatureinthecrisisconfrontingus—andtheworld—acrisisthatisnopassinginconveniencenobyproductoftheambitionsoftheoil-producingcountriesnoenvironmentalists’merefearsnoby-productofanypresentsystemofgovernment.Whatwefaceistheoutcomeoftheinventionofthelastfourhundredyears.Whatweneedisatransformedlifestyle.Thisnewlifestylecanflowdirectlyfromscienceandtechnologybutitsacceptancedependsonasinceredevotiontofindingahigherqualityoflifefortheworld’schildrenandfuturegeneration.Accordingtotheauthorwhatisoneexampleofourlossofmorality
AtYaleUniversitysometenstudentsliveoffcampusinacooperativehometheycalltheGreenHouse.41__________.Lateatnighttheydrivetothestoreandquietlyjumpintoitscar-sizeddumpsterpickingoutunopenedpackagesofstillfreshfood.Theyfindmilkeggsbreadandcookieschocolatesoupvegetablesevenfrozenpizzasandsoymilk.NotonlyaremostGreenHouseresidentsvegetarianbuttheyarealsomoderatefreegansmeaningthattheyeatmainlywhattheycangetforfree.Thesestudentsofcoursearetryingtoleaveassmallanecologicalfootprintaspossible.42__________.AcrossAmericaotherdevoutenvironmentaliststireoffthegridbuildingshacksinthewildernesswithoutrunningwaterorelectricity.Frustratedwithenvironmentaldestructionandwastetheyhaverenouncedthesystemthatfostersandperpetuatesit.Suchasceticanti-consumerismmaybethemostdramaticsideofenvironmentalismanditleadstoculturalfermentthatcansetintomotionpoliticalandeconomicchange.Itspractitionersfocusonpersonalsacrificehopingthattheiridealsandasceticismwillspreadlikeareligion.43__________.Ourpoliticalandeconomicsystemsaredeeplyimmature.Environmentalistsneedmspendjustasmuchenergyorganizingpoliticalandeconomicenvironmentalism.Alsoold-fashionedenvironmentalismoftenassumesthatbusinessisopposedtoenvironmentalprotection.InfactthousandsofUScompaniesarediscoveringoftenwiththehelpofenergyconsultantshowmuchmoneytheyhavetostandfrombecomingenvironmentallyefficient:savingenergyandrecyclingwithinindustry.TherecentbookNaturalCapitalism:CreatingtheNextIndustrialRevolutionbyPaulHawkenetalnowtranslatedintoChineseshouldgetsomeofthecreditforbringingaboutthistransformationinattitudes.ParadoxicallytheUSisboththebirthplaceofglobalenvironmentalismandtheworld’sbiggestenvironmentalspender.RomanticismtheEuropeanandAmericanliteraryandartisticmovementthatfoundGodinthewildernesshadastronglongtermimpactonAmericanthinkingstartinginthemiddlethirdofthe19thcentury.InparticularrenewedattentiontotheessaysofHenryDavidThoreau1817-62helpedlaunchmodernenvironmentalismacenturyafterhisdeath.44__________WhythediscrepancyMostenvironmentaldamagecannotbeboileddowntothechoicesmadebyindividuals.Ratherindividualsarelockedintoasysteminwhichheavyindustrycommitsthemajorityofecologicalcrimesbuttressedbyaneconomicsystemthatsquandersnaturalresources.Thegovernmentgivesawayminingrightsandopenspublicforeststologgerspracticallyforfree——andbigbusinessspendsmillionsofdollarstomakesurepoliticianskeepondoingso.45__________.Formanyenvironmentalproblemsthesolutionisorganizedpoliticalpressureandentrepreneurialinnovation.A.AttimesthemoralconvictionandworldviewoftheGreenHouseappearasallencompassingasareligiousfaith.GreenHouseinmatesliveinthemostenvironmentallypiouswayonecouldconceiveofinthecity.B.Buteffectiveenvironmentalismrequiresmorethanwordsmorethanculturalchange.Itrequireslegalandeconomicreform.Itdemandshistoricallyunprecedentedpoliciesincorporatingthevalueofcherishednaturalresourcesinmarketcalculations.Itcallsforneworganizationsandentrepreneurialcommitment.AnyonehaveanyideasC.Butonedrawbackoffocusingenvironmentalistenergyonabstainingfrompersonalconsumptionisthatsuchanapproachcandistractpeoplefromthelargermusesofenvironmentaldestructionwhichcannotbeaffectedbyindividualchoicestoconsumeornottoconsume.D.Othergovernmentsubsidiessupportseveralfilthyindustries.Whilethegovernmentpaysfornewfreewaysthussubsidizingautomobilesitignorestrainsandbusnetworks.Pollutersdon’tpaytherealcostofexternalitiessuchastoxicwasteandairandwaterpollution.E.TheyrecyclecansbottlesandpapermeticulouslysortingthemintothebinscollectedbymunicipaltrucksinAmericancities.Theyreusegreywatermeaningthattheyplugthedrainwhentheyshowerandthenusebucketstoflushthetoiletwiththeoldsoapywater.Topreventfoodfromgoingtowastetheyevengetmostoftheirgroceriesoutofthetrashofanupscalegrocerystore.F.Weshouldrecallhoweverthatenvironmentalistshaveoftenbeenfobbedoffwithtokengesturesidletalkandunimplementedtreaties.EvenPresidentBushwhohastheworstenvironmentalrecordofanyAmericanpresidentsofarhasmasteredtheartoflargelyemptyenvironmentalistrhetoric.G.YettodayAmericawithonly596oftheworld’spopulationproduces2496ofglobalcarbondioxideemissions.TheUSlikemanyotherrichcountrieshascleanedupitsairandwaterbutitisstillthebiggestcontributortothegreatestenvironmentalthreateverglobalclimatechang
AfterdecadesofexilefromU.S.courtsthescienceofliedetectionisgainingnewacceptance.ButthefederalgovernmentwantstoputastoptoitandtheU.S.SupremeCourthasnowagreedtoconsiderarequestfromtheDepartmentofJusticetobarthetechnologyfrommilitarycourts.Uncertaintiessurroundthescienceofliedetectionwhichusesadevicecalledpolygraph.In1991PresidentGeorgeBushbannedliedetectorevidenceinmilitarycourts.ButthatbanhassincebeenoverturnedbytheU.S.CourtofMilitaryAppealswhichruledthatitrestrictsdefendants’rightstopresentevidenceoftheirinnocence.Inthepasttwoyearssomefederalcourtshavealsoruledthatpolygraphevidencecanbeheard.ThisfollowsadecisionbytheSupremeCourtin1993thatgavefederaljudgesmorediscretiontodecideontheadmissibilityofevidence.Apolygraphconsistsofmonitorsforpulseratesweatingandbreathingrate.Thedeviceissupposedtouncoverliesbyrecordingincreasesinthesemeasuresasthesubjectanswersquestions.Criticshavealwaysarguedthatcunningdefendantscancontroltheirphysiologicalresponsesandswaypolygraphresults.Butsupportersofthetechniquearguethatrecentresearchhasfoundittobereliable.ApsychologistnamedCharlesHontsatastateuniversityinIdahopointstolaboratorystudiessomeofthembeinghisowninwhichstudent-subjectswereofferedcashtoswaythetestresults.ThisargumentisrejectedbyLeonardSaxeapsychologistataBostonuniversity.Thereisahugedifferencebetweenstudentsinalabandadefendanthesays.Guiltydefendantshavetimeinwhichtorehearsetheirliesandcanevencometobelievethemtobetrue.Saxebelievesthattheentiretheoreticalbasisofliedetectionisinvalid.Itassumesyouwillbemorenervouslyingthantellingthetruth.Buthesaysthatforsomepeopleliesaretrivialwhilecertaintruthcanbehardtoswallow.DavidFaigrnanoftheUniversityofCaliforniasaysthatiftheSupremeCourtupholdsthemilitaryappealcourt’sdecisiontoallowpolygraphevidencepolygraphbans.wouldbeoverturnedinfederalcourtsacrossU.S.Thatwillputabigburdenonjudgestounderstandthescienceandleadtoalotmore’experttestimonyinthecourtshepredicts.Thejusticedepartmentfearsthatthiswillgreatlyincreasethecostoftrials.WhyhasPresidentBush’sbanonliedetectorevidenceinmilitarycourtsin1991beenover-turned
WhatcanbesaidofthenormalprocessofagingfromalinguisticpointofviewIngeneral1thereisaclearand2relationship:no-onewouldhavemuchdifficulty3ababyayoungchildateenageramiddle-agedpersonoraveryoldpersonfromataperecording.Withchildren4ispossibleforspecialistsinlanguagedevelopmentandpeopleexperienced5childcaretomakeverydetailed6abouthowlanguagecorrelateswithageintheearlyyears.7isknownaboutthepatternsoflinguisticchangethataffectolderpeople.Itisplainthatourvoicequalityvocabularyandstylealter8wegrowolderbutresearch9thenatureofthesechangesisinitsearlieststages.However.acertainamountof10isavailableabouttheproductionand11ofspokenlanguagebyveryoldpeopleespeciallyregardingthephoneticchangesthattakeplace. Speechis12tobeaffectedbyreductionsinthe13ofthevocalorgans.Themusclesofthechest14thelungsbecomelesselastictheribs15mobile:asaresultrespiratoryefficiencyatage75isonlyabouthalf16atage30andthishas17fortheabilitytospeakloudlyrhythmicallyandwithgoodtoneInadditionspeechisaffectedbypoorermovementofthesoftpalateandchangesinthefacialskeletonespeciallyaroundthemouthandjaw.Thereareothermoregeneralsignsofage.Speechrateslowsandfluencymaybemoreerratic.Hearing18especiallyaftertheearlyfifties.Weakening19ofmemoryandattentionmayaffecttheabilitytocomprehendcomplexspeechpatterns.Butitis20allhadnews:vocabularyawarenessmaycontinuetogrowasmaystylisticability—skillsinnarrationforexample.Andgrammaticalabilityseemstobelittleaffected. 13
DirectionsYouhaveanappointmentnextFridaywithyoursupervisoraboutyourthesisbutyouareunabletokeepitbemusesomethingunexpectedhashappened:Writealettertohimaccordingtothefollowingoutline:1expressyourapologyforyourinabilitytokeepit;2giveyourreasonsforit;3suggestotherremedies.Youshouldwriteabouti00wordsonANSWERSHEET2.Donotsignyourownnameattheendoftheletter.UseLiXininstead.Youdonotneedtowritetheaddress.
WhatcanbesaidofthenormalprocessofagingfromalinguisticpointofviewIngeneral1thereisaclearand2relationship:no-onewouldhavemuchdifficulty3ababyayoungchildateenageramiddle-agedpersonoraveryoldpersonfromataperecording.Withchildren4ispossibleforspecialistsinlanguagedevelopmentandpeopleexperienced5childcaretomakeverydetailed6abouthowlanguagecorrelateswithageintheearlyyears.7isknownaboutthepatternsoflinguisticchangethataffectolderpeople.Itisplainthatourvoicequalityvocabularyandstylealter8wegrowolderbutresearch9thenatureofthesechangesisinitsearlieststages.However.acertainamountof10isavailableabouttheproductionand11ofspokenlanguagebyveryoldpeopleespeciallyregardingthephoneticchangesthattakeplace. Speechis12tobeaffectedbyreductionsinthe13ofthevocalorgans.Themusclesofthechest14thelungsbecomelesselastictheribs15mobile:asaresultrespiratoryefficiencyatage75isonlyabouthalf16atage30andthishas17fortheabilitytospeakloudlyrhythmicallyandwithgoodtoneInadditionspeechisaffectedbypoorermovementofthesoftpalateandchangesinthefacialskeletonespeciallyaroundthemouthandjaw.Thereareothermoregeneralsignsofage.Speechrateslowsandfluencymaybemoreerratic.Hearing18especiallyaftertheearlyfifties.Weakening19ofmemoryandattentionmayaffecttheabilitytocomprehendcomplexspeechpatterns.Butitis20allhadnews:vocabularyawarenessmaycontinuetogrowasmaystylisticability—skillsinnarrationforexample.Andgrammaticalabilityseemstobelittleaffected. 9
AfterdecadesofexilefromU.S.courtsthescienceofliedetectionisgainingnewacceptance.ButthefederalgovernmentwantstoputastoptoitandtheU.S.SupremeCourthasnowagreedtoconsiderarequestfromtheDepartmentofJusticetobarthetechnologyfrommilitarycourts.Uncertaintiessurroundthescienceofliedetectionwhichusesadevicecalledpolygraph.In1991PresidentGeorgeBushbannedliedetectorevidenceinmilitarycourts.ButthatbanhassincebeenoverturnedbytheU.S.CourtofMilitaryAppealswhichruledthatitrestrictsdefendants’rightstopresentevidenceoftheirinnocence.Inthepasttwoyearssomefederalcourtshavealsoruledthatpolygraphevidencecanbeheard.ThisfollowsadecisionbytheSupremeCourtin1993thatgavefederaljudgesmorediscretiontodecideontheadmissibilityofevidence.Apolygraphconsistsofmonitorsforpulseratesweatingandbreathingrate.Thedeviceissupposedtouncoverliesbyrecordingincreasesinthesemeasuresasthesubjectanswersquestions.Criticshavealwaysarguedthatcunningdefendantscancontroltheirphysiologicalresponsesandswaypolygraphresults.Butsupportersofthetechniquearguethatrecentresearchhasfoundittobereliable.ApsychologistnamedCharlesHontsatastateuniversityinIdahopointstolaboratorystudiessomeofthembeinghisowninwhichstudent-subjectswereofferedcashtoswaythetestresults.ThisargumentisrejectedbyLeonardSaxeapsychologistataBostonuniversity.Thereisahugedifferencebetweenstudentsinalabandadefendanthesays.Guiltydefendantshavetimeinwhichtorehearsetheirliesandcanevencometobelievethemtobetrue.Saxebelievesthattheentiretheoreticalbasisofliedetectionisinvalid.Itassumesyouwillbemorenervouslyingthantellingthetruth.Buthesaysthatforsomepeopleliesaretrivialwhilecertaintruthcanbehardtoswallow.DavidFaigrnanoftheUniversityofCaliforniasaysthatiftheSupremeCourtupholdsthemilitaryappealcourt’sdecisiontoallowpolygraphevidencepolygraphbans.wouldbeoverturnedinfederalcourtsacrossU.S.Thatwillputabigburdenonjudgestounderstandthescienceandleadtoalotmore’experttestimonyinthecourtshepredicts.Thejusticedepartmentfearsthatthiswillgreatlyincreasethecostoftrials.WhatdoCharlesHonts’laboratorystudiessuggest
WhatcanbesaidofthenormalprocessofagingfromalinguisticpointofviewIngeneral1thereisaclearand2relationship:no-onewouldhavemuchdifficulty3ababyayoungchildateenageramiddle-agedpersonoraveryoldpersonfromataperecording.Withchildren4ispossibleforspecialistsinlanguagedevelopmentandpeopleexperienced5childcaretomakeverydetailed6abouthowlanguagecorrelateswithageintheearlyyears.7isknownaboutthepatternsoflinguisticchangethataffectolderpeople.Itisplainthatourvoicequalityvocabularyandstylealter8wegrowolderbutresearch9thenatureofthesechangesisinitsearlieststages.However.acertainamountof10isavailableabouttheproductionand11ofspokenlanguagebyveryoldpeopleespeciallyregardingthephoneticchangesthattakeplace. Speechis12tobeaffectedbyreductionsinthe13ofthevocalorgans.Themusclesofthechest14thelungsbecomelesselastictheribs15mobile:asaresultrespiratoryefficiencyatage75isonlyabouthalf16atage30andthishas17fortheabilitytospeakloudlyrhythmicallyandwithgoodtoneInadditionspeechisaffectedbypoorermovementofthesoftpalateandchangesinthefacialskeletonespeciallyaroundthemouthandjaw.Thereareothermoregeneralsignsofage.Speechrateslowsandfluencymaybemoreerratic.Hearing18especiallyaftertheearlyfifties.Weakening19ofmemoryandattentionmayaffecttheabilitytocomprehendcomplexspeechpatterns.Butitis20allhadnews:vocabularyawarenessmaycontinuetogrowasmaystylisticability—skillsinnarrationforexample.Andgrammaticalabilityseemstobelittleaffected. 3
Modemtechnologymaynothaveimprovedtheworldallthatmuchbut.itcertainlyhasmadelifenoisier.Un-muffledmotorcyclesblaringcaralarmsandrovingboomboxescomefirstsecondandthirdonmylistofmostobnoxiousnoiseoffendersbuteveryonecouldcomeupwithhisownversionofauralhell--ifhecouldjustfindaquietspottoponderthematter.Yetwhattechnologyhasdoneothertechnologyisnowstartingtoundousingcomputerpowertozapthoseear-splittingnoisesintosilence.Previouslysilenceseekershadlittlerecourseexcepttostayinsideclosethewindowsandplugtheirears.Remedieslikethesearequaintlytermedpassivesystemsbecausetheyplacephysicalbarriersagainsttheunwantedsound.Nowcomputertechnologyisproducingafarmoreeffectiveactivesystemwhichdoesn’tjustcontaindeflectormaskthenoisebutannihilatesitelectronically.Thesystemworksbycounteringtheoffendingnoisewithanti-noiseasomewhatsinistersoundingtermthatcallstomindantimatterblackholesandotherPopularSciencemindbendersbutthatactuallyreferstosomethingquitesimple.Justasawaveonapondisflattenedwhenitmergeswithatroughthatisitsexactoppositeormirrorimagesocanasoundwavebymeetingitsopposite.Thisgeneraltheoryofsoundcancellationhasbeenaroundsincethe1930s.Inthefiftiesandsixtiesitmadeorakindofmagictrickamonglaboratoryacousticiansplayingaroundwiththefirstclunkymainframecomputers.Theadventoflow-costhigh-powermicroprocessorshasmadeactivenoise-cancellationsystemsacommercialpossibilityandahandfulofsmallelectronicsfirmsintheUnitedStatesandabroadarebringingthefirstonesontothesilencemarket.Silencebuffsmightbehopingthatthenoise-cancelingapparatuswilltaketheshapeofthe44MagnumwieldedbyDirtyHarrybutinfactactivesoundcontrolisnotquitethatactive.Thesystemmightmoreproperlyhedescribedasreactiveinthatitrespondstosoundwavesalreadyheadedtowardhumanears.Intheconfigurationthatisusualforsuchsystemsmicrophonesdetectthenoisesignalandsendittothesystem’smicroprocessorwhichalmostinstantlymodelsitandcreatesitsinverseforloudspeakerstofireattheoriginal.Becausethetwosoundsoccupy’thesamerangeoffrequenciesandtonestheinversesoundsexactlytikethenoiseitismeanttoeliminate:theanti-noisecancelingBeethoven’sFifthSymphonyisheardasBeethoven’sFifth.Theonlydifferenceisthateverypositivepressureproducedontheairbytheorchestraismatchedbyanegativepressureproducedbythecomputerandtherebysilencingthesound.Thesystemismosteffectiveasakindofmufflerinwhichmicrophonesmicroprocessorandloudspeakerareallinaunitencasingthedevicethatproducesthesoundstiflingitatitssource.Butitcanworkasaheadsettoonegatingthesoundatthelastmomentbeforeitdisturbsone’speaceofmind.WhichofthefollowingstatementsisNOTtrueaccordingtothepassage
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