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下面哪项不属于中世纪大学的特点( )。
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下面哪种类型的学校不属于中世纪早期的教会学校
修道院学校
主教学校
教区学校
星期日学校
下面不属于中世纪教会学校的是
修道院学校
僧侣学校
主教学校
教区学校
不属于中世纪大学的是
牛津大学
剑桥大学
巴黎大学
哈佛大学
下列不属于中世纪大学的是
牛津大学
剑桥大学
巴黎大学
哈佛大学
关于中世纪的艺术下面错误的是
在中世纪的艺术当中表现zōng jiāo 情感
在中世纪的艺术当中表现神化了的人
在中世纪的艺术当中表现动物
在中世纪的艺术当中表现神
中世纪大学
中世纪大学兴起与意义
下面哪一项不属于中世纪农民的构成
民
农奴
奴隶
工人
简述中世纪大学形成和发展的原因特点及意义
下列高等教育机构中不属于古代高等教育机构的是
那烂陀
岳麓书院
康斯坦丁堡帝国大学
巴黎大学（中世纪大学）
关于中世纪西欧中世纪大学从最初形成时就已表现出自治的特点
中世纪大学分为先生大学和学生大学属于学生大学的是
意大利
英格兰
苏格兰
丹麦
西欧中世纪大学管理的特点及意义
试论中世纪大学的特点组织管理领导体制
下列不属于欧洲中世纪zōng jiāo 统治作用的是
政治
军事
经济
思想文化
下列不属于中世纪教会大学授课内容的是
天文学
几何学
农学
以上都不是
不属于中世纪世俗文学的是
城市文学
教会文学
骑士文学
英雄史诗
中世纪可以分为下面哪两个时期
上中世纪；下中世纪
前中世纪；后中世纪
南中世纪；北中世纪
上中世纪；中中世纪
中世纪大学分为先生大学和学生大学下列属于学生大学的是
意大利
英格兰
苏格兰
丹麦
中世纪大学的影响与意义
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Musiccomesinmanyforms;most countrieshaveastyleoftheirown.1theturnofthe centurywhenjazzwasbornAmericahadnoprominent2of itsown.Nooneknowsexactlywhenjazzwas3orbywhom. Butitbegantobe4intheearly1900s.JazzisAmerica’s contributionto5music.Incontrasttoclassicalmusic which6formalEuropeantraditionsjazzisspontaneous andfree-form.Itbubbleswithenergy7themoods interestsandemotionsofthepeople.Inthe1920jazz8 likeAmerica.And9itdoestoday.The10 ofthismusicareasinterestingasthemusic11 .AmericanNegroesorblacksastheyarecalledtodaywerethejazz 12.TheywerebroughttotheSouthernstates13 slaves.Theyweresoldtoplantationownersandforcedtoworklong 14.WhenaNegrodiedhisfriendsandrelatives 15aprocessiontocarrythebodytothecemetery.InNew Orleansabandoftenaccompaniesthe16.Onthewayto thecemeterythebandplayedslowsolemnmusicsuitedtotheoccasion. 17onthewayhomethemoodchanged.Spiritslifted.Death hadremovedoneoftheir18butthelivingweregladto bealive.Thebandplayed19musicimprovisingonboth theharmonyandthemelodyofthetunes20atthefuneral. Thismusicmadeeveryonewanttodance.Itwasanearlyformof jazz.
Text4 TwocenturiesagoMeriwetherLewis andWilliamClarkleftSt.Loistoexplorethenewlandsacquiredinthe LouisianaPurchaseGeorgeW.Bushsaidannouncinghisdesireforaprogramto sendmenandwomentoMars.Theymadethatjourneyinthespiritof discovery...Americahasventuredforthintospaceforthesame reasons.YettherearevitaldifferencesbetweenLewisand Clark’sexpeditionandaMarsmission.FirstLewisandClarkwereheadedtoa placeamenabletolife;hundredsofthousandsofpeoplewerealreadyliving there.SecondLewisandClarkwerecertaintodiscoverplacesandthingsof immediatevaluetothenewnation.ThirdtheLewisandClarkventurecostnext tonothingbytoday’sstandards.In1989NASAestimatedthatapeople-to-Mars programwouldcost$400billionwhichinflatesto$600billiontoday.Butthe factthatadestinationistantalizingdoesnotmeanthejourneymakessense evenconsideringthehumancallingtoexplore.AndMarsasadestinationfor peoplemakesabsolutelynosensewithcurrenttechnology. PresentsystemsforgettingfromEarth’ssurfacetolow-Earthorbitareso fantasticallyexpensivethatmerelylaunchingthe1000tonsorsoofspacecraft andequipmentaMarsmissionwouldrequirecouldbeaccomplishedonlybycutting health-carebenefitseducationspendingorotherimportantprogramsorby raisingtaxes.Absentsomeremarkablediscoveryastronautsgeologistsand biologistsonceonMarscoulddolittlemorethananalyzerocksandfeel awestruckbeholdingtheskyofanotherworld.Itisinteresting tonotethatwhenPresidentBushunveiledhisproposalhelistedtheserecent majorachievementsofspaceexploration:picturesoftheringsofSaturnandthe outerplanetsevidenceofwateronMarsandthemoonofJupiterdiscoveryof morethan100planetsoutsideoursolarsystemandstudyofthesoilofMars. Alltheseaccomplishmentscamefromautomatedprobesorautomatedspace telescopes.Bush’sproposalwhichcallsforreprogrammingsomeofNASA’s presentbudgetintotheMarseffortmightactuallyleadtoareductioninsuch unmannedsciencetheoneaspectofspaceexplorationthat’sworkingreally well.Ratherthanspendhundredsofbillionsofdollarstohurl tonstowardMarsusingcurrenttechnologywhynottakeadecadeortwodecades orhowevermuchtimeisrequiredresearchingnewlaunchsystemsandadvanced propulsionIfnewlaunchsystemscouldputweightintoorbitaffordablyandif advancedpropulsioncouldspeedupthatlongslowtransittoMarsthenthe dreamsofsteppingontotheRedPlanetmightbecomereality.Marswillstillbe therewhenthetechnologyisready.Thedrivetoexploreispart ofwhatmakesushumanandexplorationofthepasthasledtounexpected glories.Dreamsmustbetemperedbyrealismhowever.Forthemomentgoingto Marsishopelesslyunrealistic.Itcanbeinferredfromthelastparagraphthat
GenerallyspeakingaBritishiswidely regardedasaquietshyandconservativepersonwhois1 onlyamongthosewithwhomheisacquainted.Whenastrangerisat presentheoftenseemsnervouseven2.Youhavetotake acommutertrainanymorningoreveningto3thetruthof this.Serious-lookingbusinessmenandwomensitreadingtheir newspapersordozinginacorner;hardlyanybodytalkssincetodosowouldbe consideredquite4.5 thereisanunwrittenbutclearlyunderstoodcodeofbehaviorwhich oncebrokenmakestheoffenderimmediatelytheobjectof6 .IthasbeenknownasafactthataBritishhasa 7forthediscussionoftheirweatherandthatifgivena chancehewilltalkaboutit8.Some peoplearguethatitisbecausetheBritishweatherseldom9 forecastandhencebecomesasourceofinterestand10 toeveryone.Thismaybeso.11a Britishcannothavemuch12intheweathermenwhoafter promisingfinesunnyweatherforthefollowingdayareoftenprovedwrong 13acloudovertheAtlanticbringsrainyweathertoall districts!Themaninthestreetseemstobeasaccurate—orasinaccurate—as theweathermeninhis14.Foreignersmay besurprisedatthenumberofreferences15weatherthat theBritish16toeachotherinthecourseofasingleday. Veryoftenconversationalgreetingsare17bycommentson theweather.Nicedayisn’titBeautiful!maywellbeheardinsteadof GoodmorninghowareyouAlthoughtheforeignermayconsiderthis exaggeratedandcomicitis18.pointingoutthatitcould beusedtohisadvantage.IfhewantstostartaconversationwithaBritishbut isatalosstoknow19tobeginhecoulddowellto mentionthestateoftheweather.Itisasafesubjectwhichwill20 ananswerfromeventhemostreservedofthe British.
InPlato’sUtopiaherearethreeclasses:thecommonpeople thesoldiersandtheguardianschosenbythelegislator.Themainproblemas Platoperceivesistoinsurethattheguardiansshallcarryouttheintention ofthelegislator.Forthispurposethefirstthingheproposesis education.Educationisdividedintotwopartsmusicand gymnastics.46Eachhasawidermeaningthanatpresent:musicmeans everythingthatisintheprovinceofthemusesandgymnasticsmeans everythingconcernedwithphysicaltrainingfitness.Musicisalmostas wideaswhatisnowcalledcultureandgymnasticsissomewhatwiderthan whatathleticsmeaninthemodernsense.Cultureistobe devotedtomakingmengentlemeninthesensewhichlargelyowingtoPlatois familiarinEngland.TheAthensofhisdaywasinonerespectanalogousto Englandinthenineteenthcentury:47therewasineachanaristocracy enjoyingwealthandsocialprestigebuthavingnomonopolyofpoliticalpower; andineachthearistocracyhadtosecureasmuchpowerasitcouldbymeansof impressivebehavior.InPlato’sUtopiahoweverthearistocracyrules unchecked.Gravitydecorumandcourageseemtobethequalities mainlytobecultivatedineducation.48Thereistobearigidcensorship fromveryearlyyearsovertheliteraturetowhichtheyounghaveaccessandthe musictheyareallowedtohear.Mothersandnursesaretotelltheir childrenonlyauthorizedstories.Alsothereisacensorshipofmusic.The LydianandIonianharmoniesaretobeforbiddenthefirstbecauseitexpresses sorrowthesecondbecauseitisrelaxed.49OnlytheDorianforcourage andthePhrygianfortemperancearetobeallowedandpermissiblerhythms mustbesimpleandsuchasareexpressiveofacourageousandharmonious life.Asforgymnasticsthetrainingofthebodyistobe veryaustere.Nooneistoeatfishormeatcookedotherwisethanroastedand theremustbenosaucesorcandies.Peoplebroughtuponhisregimenhesays willhavenoneedofdoctors.Gymnasticsappliestothetrainingofmindas well.Uptoacertainagetheyoungaretoseenouglinessorvice.50But atasuitablemomenttheymustbeexposedtoenchantmentsbothintheshape ofterrorsthatmustnotterrifyandofbadpleasuresthatmustnotseducethe will.Onlyaftertheyhavewithstoodthesetestswilltheybejudgedfitto beguardians.
Directions:Writeanessayof160～200wordsbasedonthefollowingdrawings.Inyouressayyoushould: 1describethedrawingbriefly; 2explainitsintendedmeaningandthen 3stateyourpointsofview. YonshouldwriteneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.
GenerallyspeakingaBritishiswidely regardedasaquietshyandconservativepersonwhois1 onlyamongthosewithwhomheisacquainted.Whenastrangerisat presentheoftenseemsnervouseven2.Youhavetotake acommutertrainanymorningoreveningto3thetruthof this.Serious-lookingbusinessmenandwomensitreadingtheir newspapersordozinginacorner;hardlyanybodytalkssincetodosowouldbe consideredquite4.5 thereisanunwrittenbutclearlyunderstoodcodeofbehaviorwhich oncebrokenmakestheoffenderimmediatelytheobjectof6 .IthasbeenknownasafactthataBritishhasa 7forthediscussionoftheirweatherandthatifgivena chancehewilltalkaboutit8.Some peoplearguethatitisbecausetheBritishweatherseldom9 forecastandhencebecomesasourceofinterestand10 toeveryone.Thismaybeso.11a Britishcannothavemuch12intheweathermenwhoafter promisingfinesunnyweatherforthefollowingdayareoftenprovedwrong 13acloudovertheAtlanticbringsrainyweathertoall districts!Themaninthestreetseemstobeasaccurate—orasinaccurate—as theweathermeninhis14.Foreignersmay besurprisedatthenumberofreferences15weatherthat theBritish16toeachotherinthecourseofasingleday. Veryoftenconversationalgreetingsare17bycommentson theweather.Nicedayisn’titBeautiful!maywellbeheardinsteadof GoodmorninghowareyouAlthoughtheforeignermayconsiderthis exaggeratedandcomicitis18.pointingoutthatitcould beusedtohisadvantage.IfhewantstostartaconversationwithaBritishbut isatalosstoknow19tobeginhecoulddowellto mentionthestateoftheweather.Itisasafesubjectwhichwill20 ananswerfromeventhemostreservedofthe British.
Musiccomesinmanyforms;most countrieshaveastyleoftheirown.1theturnofthe centurywhenjazzwasbornAmericahadnoprominent2of itsown.Nooneknowsexactlywhenjazzwas3orbywhom. Butitbegantobe4intheearly1900s.JazzisAmerica’s contributionto5music.Incontrasttoclassicalmusic which6formalEuropeantraditionsjazzisspontaneous andfree-form.Itbubbleswithenergy7themoods interestsandemotionsofthepeople.Inthe1920jazz8 likeAmerica.And9itdoestoday.The10 ofthismusicareasinterestingasthemusic11 .AmericanNegroesorblacksastheyarecalledtodaywerethejazz 12.TheywerebroughttotheSouthernstates13 slaves.Theyweresoldtoplantationownersandforcedtoworklong 14.WhenaNegrodiedhisfriendsandrelatives 15aprocessiontocarrythebodytothecemetery.InNew Orleansabandoftenaccompaniesthe16.Onthewayto thecemeterythebandplayedslowsolemnmusicsuitedtotheoccasion. 17onthewayhomethemoodchanged.Spiritslifted.Death hadremovedoneoftheir18butthelivingweregladto bealive.Thebandplayed19musicimprovisingonboth theharmonyandthemelodyofthetunes20atthefuneral. Thismusicmadeeveryonewanttodance.Itwasanearlyformof jazz.
GenerallyspeakingaBritishiswidely regardedasaquietshyandconservativepersonwhois1 onlyamongthosewithwhomheisacquainted.Whenastrangerisat presentheoftenseemsnervouseven2.Youhavetotake acommutertrainanymorningoreveningto3thetruthof this.Serious-lookingbusinessmenandwomensitreadingtheir newspapersordozinginacorner;hardlyanybodytalkssincetodosowouldbe consideredquite4.5 thereisanunwrittenbutclearlyunderstoodcodeofbehaviorwhich oncebrokenmakestheoffenderimmediatelytheobjectof6 .IthasbeenknownasafactthataBritishhasa 7forthediscussionoftheirweatherandthatifgivena chancehewilltalkaboutit8.Some peoplearguethatitisbecausetheBritishweatherseldom9 forecastandhencebecomesasourceofinterestand10 toeveryone.Thismaybeso.11a Britishcannothavemuch12intheweathermenwhoafter promisingfinesunnyweatherforthefollowingdayareoftenprovedwrong 13acloudovertheAtlanticbringsrainyweathertoall districts!Themaninthestreetseemstobeasaccurate—orasinaccurate—as theweathermeninhis14.Foreignersmay besurprisedatthenumberofreferences15weatherthat theBritish16toeachotherinthecourseofasingleday. Veryoftenconversationalgreetingsare17bycommentson theweather.Nicedayisn’titBeautiful!maywellbeheardinsteadof GoodmorninghowareyouAlthoughtheforeignermayconsiderthis exaggeratedandcomicitis18.pointingoutthatitcould beusedtohisadvantage.IfhewantstostartaconversationwithaBritishbut isatalosstoknow19tobeginhecoulddowellto mentionthestateoftheweather.Itisasafesubjectwhichwill20 ananswerfromeventhemostreservedofthe British.
Text4 TwocenturiesagoMeriwetherLewis andWilliamClarkleftSt.Loistoexplorethenewlandsacquiredinthe LouisianaPurchaseGeorgeW.Bushsaidannouncinghisdesireforaprogramto sendmenandwomentoMars.Theymadethatjourneyinthespiritof discovery...Americahasventuredforthintospaceforthesame reasons.YettherearevitaldifferencesbetweenLewisand Clark’sexpeditionandaMarsmission.FirstLewisandClarkwereheadedtoa placeamenabletolife;hundredsofthousandsofpeoplewerealreadyliving there.SecondLewisandClarkwerecertaintodiscoverplacesandthingsof immediatevaluetothenewnation.ThirdtheLewisandClarkventurecostnext tonothingbytoday’sstandards.In1989NASAestimatedthatapeople-to-Mars programwouldcost$400billionwhichinflatesto$600billiontoday.Butthe factthatadestinationistantalizingdoesnotmeanthejourneymakessense evenconsideringthehumancallingtoexplore.AndMarsasadestinationfor peoplemakesabsolutelynosensewithcurrenttechnology. PresentsystemsforgettingfromEarth’ssurfacetolow-Earthorbitareso fantasticallyexpensivethatmerelylaunchingthe1000tonsorsoofspacecraft andequipmentaMarsmissionwouldrequirecouldbeaccomplishedonlybycutting health-carebenefitseducationspendingorotherimportantprogramsorby raisingtaxes.Absentsomeremarkablediscoveryastronautsgeologistsand biologistsonceonMarscoulddolittlemorethananalyzerocksandfeel awestruckbeholdingtheskyofanotherworld.Itisinteresting tonotethatwhenPresidentBushunveiledhisproposalhelistedtheserecent majorachievementsofspaceexploration:picturesoftheringsofSaturnandthe outerplanetsevidenceofwateronMarsandthemoonofJupiterdiscoveryof morethan100planetsoutsideoursolarsystemandstudyofthesoilofMars. Alltheseaccomplishmentscamefromautomatedprobesorautomatedspace telescopes.Bush’sproposalwhichcallsforreprogrammingsomeofNASA’s presentbudgetintotheMarseffortmightactuallyleadtoareductioninsuch unmannedsciencetheoneaspectofspaceexplorationthat’sworkingreally well.Ratherthanspendhundredsofbillionsofdollarstohurl tonstowardMarsusingcurrenttechnologywhynottakeadecadeortwodecades orhowevermuchtimeisrequiredresearchingnewlaunchsystemsandadvanced propulsionIfnewlaunchsystemscouldputweightintoorbitaffordablyandif advancedpropulsioncouldspeedupthatlongslowtransittoMarsthenthe dreamsofsteppingontotheRedPlanetmightbecomereality.Marswillstillbe therewhenthetechnologyisready.Thedrivetoexploreispart ofwhatmakesushumanandexplorationofthepasthasledtounexpected glories.Dreamsmustbetemperedbyrealismhowever.Forthemomentgoingto Marsishopelesslyunrealistic.AccordingtotheauthoronceonMarsastronautsgeologistsandbiologists
GenerallyspeakingaBritishiswidely regardedasaquietshyandconservativepersonwhois1 onlyamongthosewithwhomheisacquainted.Whenastrangerisat presentheoftenseemsnervouseven2.Youhavetotake acommutertrainanymorningoreveningto3thetruthof this.Serious-lookingbusinessmenandwomensitreadingtheir newspapersordozinginacorner;hardlyanybodytalkssincetodosowouldbe consideredquite4.5 thereisanunwrittenbutclearlyunderstoodcodeofbehaviorwhich oncebrokenmakestheoffenderimmediatelytheobjectof6 .IthasbeenknownasafactthataBritishhasa 7forthediscussionoftheirweatherandthatifgivena chancehewilltalkaboutit8.Some peoplearguethatitisbecausetheBritishweatherseldom9 forecastandhencebecomesasourceofinterestand10 toeveryone.Thismaybeso.11a Britishcannothavemuch12intheweathermenwhoafter promisingfinesunnyweatherforthefollowingdayareoftenprovedwrong 13acloudovertheAtlanticbringsrainyweathertoall districts!Themaninthestreetseemstobeasaccurate—orasinaccurate—as theweathermeninhis14.Foreignersmay besurprisedatthenumberofreferences15weatherthat theBritish16toeachotherinthecourseofasingleday. Veryoftenconversationalgreetingsare17bycommentson theweather.Nicedayisn’titBeautiful!maywellbeheardinsteadof GoodmorninghowareyouAlthoughtheforeignermayconsiderthis exaggeratedandcomicitis18.pointingoutthatitcould beusedtohisadvantage.IfhewantstostartaconversationwithaBritishbut isatalosstoknow19tobeginhecoulddowellto mentionthestateoftheweather.Itisasafesubjectwhichwill20 ananswerfromeventhemostreservedofthe British.
Text3 Fatehasnotbeenkindtothewestern greywhale.Itsnumbershavedwindledto130orsoleavingitcritically endangeredintheeyesoftheInternationalUnionfortheConservationof Nature.Fishing-netsspeedingshipspollutionandcoastaldevelopmentthreaten thefewthatremain.Mostrecentlydrillingforoilandgasintheirmain summerfeedinggroundsnearSakhalinislandoffRussia’sPacificcoasthas broughtfreshrisksforthelucklesscreatures.Yettherushtodevelop Sakhalin’soffshorefieldsmayyetbethesaviourofthespecies. Whendrillingwasfirstdiscussedinthe1990sthereweremuted complaints.WhenaconsortiumcalledSakhalin.EnergyledbyRoyalDutchShell announcedplanstobuildanoilplatformandlaypipelinesintheonlybaywhere thewhaleswereknowntocongregatetheseprotestsproliferated. Inresponsetheconsortiumestablishedanindependentpaneltoadviseit onhowbesttoprotectthewhalesandpromisedtofunditswork.Itsubsequently agreedtochangetherouteofthepipelineatthepanel’ssuggestionalthough itrefusedtomovetheplatformasothercriticshaddemanded.Italsoagreed eithertofollowthepanel’srecommendationsinfutureortoexplainpublicly whyitwasrejectingthem.Theplatformsandpipelinesarenow complete.SakhalinEnergyexporteditsfirstcargoofliquefiednaturalgaslast week.TheprojectsaysShellisanengineeringtriumphandacommercial successdespiteallthecontroversy.Buthasitbeenasuccess forthewhalesSakhalinEnergysaystheirnumberseemstobegrowingby2.5%a yearalthoughIanCraigthefirm’sbossadmitsthatthecausemightbe greaterscrutinyratherthanpopulationgrowth.Thescientistsonthepanel stillseemworried.Theycomplainthatthefirmhasnotalwaysprovidedthe informationtheyneedtoassessthethreattothewhales.Italsohasnotalways followedadvicethescientists’adviceabouthownoisyconstructionmightscare theanimalsawayforexampleorthespeedthatboatsshouldtraveltominimize theriskofhittingthewhales.Thescientistswarnthatthelossofjustafew fertilefemaleswouldbeenoughtotipthepopulationintoirrevocabledecline. Lastsummerthereseemedtobefarfewerwhalesaroundthannormal. OntheotherhandthepanelknowsthisonlybecauseSakhalinEnergyfunds lotsofresearchonthewhales.Asaresultithasdiscoveredthattheyhavea widerrangethanoriginallythoughtwhichmightexplainwhysofewofthem showedupoffSakhalinislandlastyear.Thereforeitishard toescapetheconclusionthatforcreatureswithalotassorryasthewestern greywhaleanearbyoilprojectissomethingofa blessing.ToeasetheprotestagainstitsprojectsSakhalinEnergy
GenerallyspeakingaBritishiswidely regardedasaquietshyandconservativepersonwhois1 onlyamongthosewithwhomheisacquainted.Whenastrangerisat presentheoftenseemsnervouseven2.Youhavetotake acommutertrainanymorningoreveningto3thetruthof this.Serious-lookingbusinessmenandwomensitreadingtheir newspapersordozinginacorner;hardlyanybodytalkssincetodosowouldbe consideredquite4.5 thereisanunwrittenbutclearlyunderstoodcodeofbehaviorwhich oncebrokenmakestheoffenderimmediatelytheobjectof6 .IthasbeenknownasafactthataBritishhasa 7forthediscussionoftheirweatherandthatifgivena chancehewilltalkaboutit8.Some peoplearguethatitisbecausetheBritishweatherseldom9 forecastandhencebecomesasourceofinterestand10 toeveryone.Thismaybeso.11a Britishcannothavemuch12intheweathermenwhoafter promisingfinesunnyweatherforthefollowingdayareoftenprovedwrong 13acloudovertheAtlanticbringsrainyweathertoall districts!Themaninthestreetseemstobeasaccurate—orasinaccurate—as theweathermeninhis14.Foreignersmay besurprisedatthenumberofreferences15weatherthat theBritish16toeachotherinthecourseofasingleday. Veryoftenconversationalgreetingsare17bycommentson theweather.Nicedayisn’titBeautiful!maywellbeheardinsteadof GoodmorninghowareyouAlthoughtheforeignermayconsiderthis exaggeratedandcomicitis18.pointingoutthatitcould beusedtohisadvantage.IfhewantstostartaconversationwithaBritishbut isatalosstoknow19tobeginhecoulddowellto mentionthestateoftheweather.Itisasafesubjectwhichwill20 ananswerfromeventhemostreservedofthe British.
GenerallyspeakingaBritishiswidely regardedasaquietshyandconservativepersonwhois1 onlyamongthosewithwhomheisacquainted.Whenastrangerisat presentheoftenseemsnervouseven2.Youhavetotake acommutertrainanymorningoreveningto3thetruthof this.Serious-lookingbusinessmenandwomensitreadingtheir newspapersordozinginacorner;hardlyanybodytalkssincetodosowouldbe consideredquite4.5 thereisanunwrittenbutclearlyunderstoodcodeofbehaviorwhich oncebrokenmakestheoffenderimmediatelytheobjectof6 .IthasbeenknownasafactthataBritishhasa 7forthediscussionoftheirweatherandthatifgivena chancehewilltalkaboutit8.Some peoplearguethatitisbecausetheBritishweatherseldom9 forecastandhencebecomesasourceofinterestand10 toeveryone.Thismaybeso.11a Britishcannothavemuch12intheweathermenwhoafter promisingfinesunnyweatherforthefollowingdayareoftenprovedwrong 13acloudovertheAtlanticbringsrainyweathertoall districts!Themaninthestreetseemstobeasaccurate—orasinaccurate—as theweathermeninhis14.Foreignersmay besurprisedatthenumberofreferences15weatherthat theBritish16toeachotherinthecourseofasingleday. Veryoftenconversationalgreetingsare17bycommentson theweather.Nicedayisn’titBeautiful!maywellbeheardinsteadof GoodmorninghowareyouAlthoughtheforeignermayconsiderthis exaggeratedandcomicitis18.pointingoutthatitcould beusedtohisadvantage.IfhewantstostartaconversationwithaBritishbut isatalosstoknow19tobeginhecoulddowellto mentionthestateoftheweather.Itisasafesubjectwhichwill20 ananswerfromeventhemostreservedofthe British.
InPlato’sUtopiaherearethreeclasses:thecommonpeople thesoldiersandtheguardianschosenbythelegislator.Themainproblemas Platoperceivesistoinsurethattheguardiansshallcarryouttheintention ofthelegislator.Forthispurposethefirstthingheproposesis education.Educationisdividedintotwopartsmusicand gymnastics.46Eachhasawidermeaningthanatpresent:musicmeans everythingthatisintheprovinceofthemusesandgymnasticsmeans everythingconcernedwithphysicaltrainingfitness.Musicisalmostas wideaswhatisnowcalledcultureandgymnasticsissomewhatwiderthan whatathleticsmeaninthemodernsense.Cultureistobe devotedtomakingmengentlemeninthesensewhichlargelyowingtoPlatois familiarinEngland.TheAthensofhisdaywasinonerespectanalogousto Englandinthenineteenthcentury:47therewasineachanaristocracy enjoyingwealthandsocialprestigebuthavingnomonopolyofpoliticalpower; andineachthearistocracyhadtosecureasmuchpowerasitcouldbymeansof impressivebehavior.InPlato’sUtopiahoweverthearistocracyrules unchecked.Gravitydecorumandcourageseemtobethequalities mainlytobecultivatedineducation.48Thereistobearigidcensorship fromveryearlyyearsovertheliteraturetowhichtheyounghaveaccessandthe musictheyareallowedtohear.Mothersandnursesaretotelltheir childrenonlyauthorizedstories.Alsothereisacensorshipofmusic.The LydianandIonianharmoniesaretobeforbiddenthefirstbecauseitexpresses sorrowthesecondbecauseitisrelaxed.49OnlytheDorianforcourage andthePhrygianfortemperancearetobeallowedandpermissiblerhythms mustbesimpleandsuchasareexpressiveofacourageousandharmonious life.Asforgymnasticsthetrainingofthebodyistobe veryaustere.Nooneistoeatfishormeatcookedotherwisethanroastedand theremustbenosaucesorcandies.Peoplebroughtuponhisregimenhesays willhavenoneedofdoctors.Gymnasticsappliestothetrainingofmindas well.Uptoacertainagetheyoungaretoseenouglinessorvice.50But atasuitablemomenttheymustbeexposedtoenchantmentsbothintheshape ofterrorsthatmustnotterrifyandofbadpleasuresthatmustnotseducethe will.Onlyaftertheyhavewithstoodthesetestswilltheybejudgedfitto beguardians.
GenerallyspeakingaBritishiswidely regardedasaquietshyandconservativepersonwhois1 onlyamongthosewithwhomheisacquainted.Whenastrangerisat presentheoftenseemsnervouseven2.Youhavetotake acommutertrainanymorningoreveningto3thetruthof this.Serious-lookingbusinessmenandwomensitreadingtheir newspapersordozinginacorner;hardlyanybodytalkssincetodosowouldbe consideredquite4.5 thereisanunwrittenbutclearlyunderstoodcodeofbehaviorwhich oncebrokenmakestheoffenderimmediatelytheobjectof6 .IthasbeenknownasafactthataBritishhasa 7forthediscussionoftheirweatherandthatifgivena chancehewilltalkaboutit8.Some peoplearguethatitisbecausetheBritishweatherseldom9 forecastandhencebecomesasourceofinterestand10 toeveryone.Thismaybeso.11a Britishcannothavemuch12intheweathermenwhoafter promisingfinesunnyweatherforthefollowingdayareoftenprovedwrong 13acloudovertheAtlanticbringsrainyweathertoall districts!Themaninthestreetseemstobeasaccurate—orasinaccurate—as theweathermeninhis14.Foreignersmay besurprisedatthenumberofreferences15weatherthat theBritish16toeachotherinthecourseofasingleday. Veryoftenconversationalgreetingsare17bycommentson theweather.Nicedayisn’titBeautiful!maywellbeheardinsteadof GoodmorninghowareyouAlthoughtheforeignermayconsiderthis exaggeratedandcomicitis18.pointingoutthatitcould beusedtohisadvantage.IfhewantstostartaconversationwithaBritishbut isatalosstoknow19tobeginhecoulddowellto mentionthestateoftheweather.Itisasafesubjectwhichwill20 ananswerfromeventhemostreservedofthe British.
Text4 TwocenturiesagoMeriwetherLewis andWilliamClarkleftSt.Loistoexplorethenewlandsacquiredinthe LouisianaPurchaseGeorgeW.Bushsaidannouncinghisdesireforaprogramto sendmenandwomentoMars.Theymadethatjourneyinthespiritof discovery...Americahasventuredforthintospaceforthesame reasons.YettherearevitaldifferencesbetweenLewisand Clark’sexpeditionandaMarsmission.FirstLewisandClarkwereheadedtoa placeamenabletolife;hundredsofthousandsofpeoplewerealreadyliving there.SecondLewisandClarkwerecertaintodiscoverplacesandthingsof immediatevaluetothenewnation.ThirdtheLewisandClarkventurecostnext tonothingbytoday’sstandards.In1989NASAestimatedthatapeople-to-Mars programwouldcost$400billionwhichinflatesto$600billiontoday.Butthe factthatadestinationistantalizingdoesnotmeanthejourneymakessense evenconsideringthehumancallingtoexplore.AndMarsasadestinationfor peoplemakesabsolutelynosensewithcurrenttechnology. PresentsystemsforgettingfromEarth’ssurfacetolow-Earthorbitareso fantasticallyexpensivethatmerelylaunchingthe1000tonsorsoofspacecraft andequipmentaMarsmissionwouldrequirecouldbeaccomplishedonlybycutting health-carebenefitseducationspendingorotherimportantprogramsorby raisingtaxes.Absentsomeremarkablediscoveryastronautsgeologistsand biologistsonceonMarscoulddolittlemorethananalyzerocksandfeel awestruckbeholdingtheskyofanotherworld.Itisinteresting tonotethatwhenPresidentBushunveiledhisproposalhelistedtheserecent majorachievementsofspaceexploration:picturesoftheringsofSaturnandthe outerplanetsevidenceofwateronMarsandthemoonofJupiterdiscoveryof morethan100planetsoutsideoursolarsystemandstudyofthesoilofMars. Alltheseaccomplishmentscamefromautomatedprobesorautomatedspace telescopes.Bush’sproposalwhichcallsforreprogrammingsomeofNASA’s presentbudgetintotheMarseffortmightactuallyleadtoareductioninsuch unmannedsciencetheoneaspectofspaceexplorationthat’sworkingreally well.Ratherthanspendhundredsofbillionsofdollarstohurl tonstowardMarsusingcurrenttechnologywhynottakeadecadeortwodecades orhowevermuchtimeisrequiredresearchingnewlaunchsystemsandadvanced propulsionIfnewlaunchsystemscouldputweightintoorbitaffordablyandif advancedpropulsioncouldspeedupthatlongslowtransittoMarsthenthe dreamsofsteppingontotheRedPlanetmightbecomereality.Marswillstillbe therewhenthetechnologyisready.Thedrivetoexploreispart ofwhatmakesushumanandexplorationofthepasthasledtounexpected glories.Dreamsmustbetemperedbyrealismhowever.Forthemomentgoingto Marsishopelesslyunrealistic.GeorgeBush’scomparisonofLewisandClark’sexpeditionandaMarsmissionismentioned
Text2 Inalmostallcasesthesoftpartsof fossilsaregoneforeverbuttheywerefittedaroundorwithinthehardparts. Manyofthemalsowereattachedtothehardpartsandusuallysuchattachments arevisibleasdepressedorelevatedareasridgesorgroovessmoothorrough patchesonthehardparts.Themusclesmostimportantfortheactivitiesofthe animalandmostevidentintheappearanceofthelivinganimalarethose attachedtothehardpartsandpossibletoreconstructfromtheirattachments. Muchcanbelearnedaboutavanishedbrainfromtheinsideoftheskullinwhich itwaslodged.Restorationoftheexternalappearanceofan extinctanimalhaslittleornoscientificvalue.Itdoesnotevenhelpin inferringwhattheactivitiesofthelivinganimalwerehowfastitcouldrun whatitsfoodwasorsuchotherconclusionsasareimportantforthehistoryof life.Howeverwhatmostpeoplewanttoknowaboutextinctanimalsiswhatthey lookedlikewhentheywerealive.Scientistsalsowouldliketoknow.Things likefossilshellspresentnogreatproblemasarulebecausethehardparts areexternalwhentheanimalisaliveandtheouterappearanceisactually preservedinthefossils.Animalsinwhichtheskeletonis internalpresentgreatproblemsofrestorationandhonestrestorersadmitthat theyoftenhavetouseconsiderableguessing.Thegeneralshapeandcontoursof thebodyarefixedbytheskeletonandbymusclesattachedtotheskeletonbut surfacefeatureswhichmaygivetheanimalitsreallycharacteristiclookare seldomrestorablewithanyrealprobabilityofaccuracy.Thepresentoftenhelps tointerpretthepast.Anextinctanimalpresumablylookedmoreorlesslikeits livingrelativesifithasany.Thishowevermaybequiteequivocal.For exampleextinctmembersofthehorsefamilyareusuallyrestoredtolook somewhatlikethemostfamiliarlivinghorses—domestichorsesandtheir closestwildrelatives.Itishoweverpossibleandevenprobablethatmany extincthorseswerestripedlikezebras.Iflionsandtigerswereextinctthey wouldberestoredtolookexactlyalike.Nolivingelephantshavemuchhairand mammothswhichareextinctelephantswoulddoubtlessberestoredashairless ifwedidnothappentoknowthattheyhadthickwoollycoats.Weknowthis onlybecausemammothsaresorecentlyextinctthatprehistoricmendrewpictures ofthemandthatthehideandhairhaveactuallybeenfoundinafewspecimens. Forolderextinctanimalswehavenosuchclues.Afossilizedanimal’sexternalappearanceisstillreconstructedto
GenerallyspeakingaBritishiswidely regardedasaquietshyandconservativepersonwhois1 onlyamongthosewithwhomheisacquainted.Whenastrangerisat presentheoftenseemsnervouseven2.Youhavetotake acommutertrainanymorningoreveningto3thetruthof this.Serious-lookingbusinessmenandwomensitreadingtheir newspapersordozinginacorner;hardlyanybodytalkssincetodosowouldbe consideredquite4.5 thereisanunwrittenbutclearlyunderstoodcodeofbehaviorwhich oncebrokenmakestheoffenderimmediatelytheobjectof6 .IthasbeenknownasafactthataBritishhasa 7forthediscussionoftheirweatherandthatifgivena chancehewilltalkaboutit8.Some peoplearguethatitisbecausetheBritishweatherseldom9 forecastandhencebecomesasourceofinterestand10 toeveryone.Thismaybeso.11a Britishcannothavemuch12intheweathermenwhoafter promisingfinesunnyweatherforthefollowingdayareoftenprovedwrong 13acloudovertheAtlanticbringsrainyweathertoall districts!Themaninthestreetseemstobeasaccurate—orasinaccurate—as theweathermeninhis14.Foreignersmay besurprisedatthenumberofreferences15weatherthat theBritish16toeachotherinthecourseofasingleday. Veryoftenconversationalgreetingsare17bycommentson theweather.Nicedayisn’titBeautiful!maywellbeheardinsteadof GoodmorninghowareyouAlthoughtheforeignermayconsiderthis exaggeratedandcomicitis18.pointingoutthatitcould beusedtohisadvantage.IfhewantstostartaconversationwithaBritishbut isatalosstoknow19tobeginhecoulddowellto mentionthestateoftheweather.Itisasafesubjectwhichwill20 ananswerfromeventhemostreservedofthe British.
Text2 Inalmostallcasesthesoftpartsof fossilsaregoneforeverbuttheywerefittedaroundorwithinthehardparts. Manyofthemalsowereattachedtothehardpartsandusuallysuchattachments arevisibleasdepressedorelevatedareasridgesorgroovessmoothorrough patchesonthehardparts.Themusclesmostimportantfortheactivitiesofthe animalandmostevidentintheappearanceofthelivinganimalarethose attachedtothehardpartsandpossibletoreconstructfromtheirattachments. Muchcanbelearnedaboutavanishedbrainfromtheinsideoftheskullinwhich itwaslodged.Restorationoftheexternalappearanceofan extinctanimalhaslittleornoscientificvalue.Itdoesnotevenhelpin inferringwhattheactivitiesofthelivinganimalwerehowfastitcouldrun whatitsfoodwasorsuchotherconclusionsasareimportantforthehistoryof life.Howeverwhatmostpeoplewanttoknowaboutextinctanimalsiswhatthey lookedlikewhentheywerealive.Scientistsalsowouldliketoknow.Things likefossilshellspresentnogreatproblemasarulebecausethehardparts areexternalwhentheanimalisaliveandtheouterappearanceisactually preservedinthefossils.Animalsinwhichtheskeletonis internalpresentgreatproblemsofrestorationandhonestrestorersadmitthat theyoftenhavetouseconsiderableguessing.Thegeneralshapeandcontoursof thebodyarefixedbytheskeletonandbymusclesattachedtotheskeletonbut surfacefeatureswhichmaygivetheanimalitsreallycharacteristiclookare seldomrestorablewithanyrealprobabilityofaccuracy.Thepresentoftenhelps tointerpretthepast.Anextinctanimalpresumablylookedmoreorlesslikeits livingrelativesifithasany.Thishowevermaybequiteequivocal.For exampleextinctmembersofthehorsefamilyareusuallyrestoredtolook somewhatlikethemostfamiliarlivinghorses—domestichorsesandtheir closestwildrelatives.Itishoweverpossibleandevenprobablethatmany extincthorseswerestripedlikezebras.Iflionsandtigerswereextinctthey wouldberestoredtolookexactlyalike.Nolivingelephantshavemuchhairand mammothswhichareextinctelephantswoulddoubtlessberestoredashairless ifwedidnothappentoknowthattheyhadthickwoollycoats.Weknowthis onlybecausemammothsaresorecentlyextinctthatprehistoricmendrewpictures ofthemandthatthehideandhairhaveactuallybeenfoundinafewspecimens. Forolderextinctanimalswehavenosuchclues.Accordingtothethirdparagraphwhichofthefollowingistrue
Text1 Everylivingthinghasaninner biologicalclockthatcontrolsbehavior.Theclockworksallthetime;evenwhen therearenooutsidesignstomarkthepassingoftime.Thebiologicalclock tellsplantswhentoformflowersandwhentheflowersshouldopen.Ittells insectswhentoleavetheprotectivecocoonandflyaway.Andittellsanimals whentoeatsleepandwake.Itcontrolsbodytemperaturethereleaseofsome hormonesandevendreams.Thesenaturaldailyeventsarecircadian rhythms.Manhasknownaboutthemforthousandsofyears.But thefirstscientificobservationofcircadianrhythmswasnotmadeuntil1729. InthatyearaFrenchastronomerJeanJacquesd’OrtousdeMairannotedthat oneofhisplantsopeneditsleavesatthesametimeeverymorningandclosed thematthesametimeeverynight.Theplantdidthisevenwhenhekeptitina darkplaceallthetime.Laterscientistswonderedabout circadianrhythmsinhumans.Theylearnedthatman’sbiologicalclockactually keepstimewithadayofalittlelessthan25hoursinsteadofthe24hourson aman-madeclock.AboutfouryearsagoanAmericandoctor EliotWeitzmanestablishedalaboratorytostudyhowourbiologicalclock works.Thepeopleinhisexperimentsareshutofffromtheoutsideworld.They arefreetolistentoandlivebytheircircadianrhythms.Dr.Weitzmanhopes hisresearchwillleadtoeffectivetreatmentsforcommonsleepproblemsand sleepdisorderscausedbyageingandmentalillness.The laboratoryisintheMontefioreHospitalinNewYorkCity.Ithastwoliving areaswiththreesmallroomsineach.Thewindowsarecoveredsonosunlightor moonlightcomesin.Therearenoradiosortelevisionreceivers.Thereisa controlroombetweenthelivingareas.Itcontainscomputersone-waycameras andotherelectronicdevicesforobservingthepersoninthelivingarea.A doctorormedicaltechnicianisondutyinthecontrolroom24hoursaday duringanexperiment.Theydonotworkthesametimeeachdayandarenot permittedtowearwatchessothepersonintheexperimenthasnoideawhattime itis.InthefirstfouryearsofresearchDr.Weitzmanandhis assistanthaveobserved16menbetweentheagesof21and80.Themenremained inthelaboratoryforaslongassixmonths.Lastmonthasciencereporterfor TheNewYorkTimesnewspaperDavaSobelbecamethefirstwomantotakepart intheexperiment.SheenteredthelaboratoryonJune13thandstayedfor25 days.MissSobelwrotereportsabouttheexperimentduringthattimewhichwere publishedinthenewspaper.IntheexperimentconductedbyDr.Weitzmanthedoctorondutydoesn’tworkthesametimeeachday
Text1 Everylivingthinghasaninner biologicalclockthatcontrolsbehavior.Theclockworksallthetime;evenwhen therearenooutsidesignstomarkthepassingoftime.Thebiologicalclock tellsplantswhentoformflowersandwhentheflowersshouldopen.Ittells insectswhentoleavetheprotectivecocoonandflyaway.Andittellsanimals whentoeatsleepandwake.Itcontrolsbodytemperaturethereleaseofsome hormonesandevendreams.Thesenaturaldailyeventsarecircadian rhythms.Manhasknownaboutthemforthousandsofyears.But thefirstscientificobservationofcircadianrhythmswasnotmadeuntil1729. InthatyearaFrenchastronomerJeanJacquesd’OrtousdeMairannotedthat oneofhisplantsopeneditsleavesatthesametimeeverymorningandclosed thematthesametimeeverynight.Theplantdidthisevenwhenhekeptitina darkplaceallthetime.Laterscientistswonderedabout circadianrhythmsinhumans.Theylearnedthatman’sbiologicalclockactually keepstimewithadayofalittlelessthan25hoursinsteadofthe24hourson aman-madeclock.AboutfouryearsagoanAmericandoctor EliotWeitzmanestablishedalaboratorytostudyhowourbiologicalclock works.Thepeopleinhisexperimentsareshutofffromtheoutsideworld.They arefreetolistentoandlivebytheircircadianrhythms.Dr.Weitzmanhopes hisresearchwillleadtoeffectivetreatmentsforcommonsleepproblemsand sleepdisorderscausedbyageingandmentalillness.The laboratoryisintheMontefioreHospitalinNewYorkCity.Ithastwoliving areaswiththreesmallroomsineach.Thewindowsarecoveredsonosunlightor moonlightcomesin.Therearenoradiosortelevisionreceivers.Thereisa controlroombetweenthelivingareas.Itcontainscomputersone-waycameras andotherelectronicdevicesforobservingthepersoninthelivingarea.A doctorormedicaltechnicianisondutyinthecontrolroom24hoursaday duringanexperiment.Theydonotworkthesametimeeachdayandarenot permittedtowearwatchessothepersonintheexperimenthasnoideawhattime itis.InthefirstfouryearsofresearchDr.Weitzmanandhis assistanthaveobserved16menbetweentheagesof21and80.Themenremained inthelaboratoryforaslongassixmonths.Lastmonthasciencereporterfor TheNewYorkTimesnewspaperDavaSobelbecamethefirstwomantotakepart intheexperiment.SheenteredthelaboratoryonJune13thandstayedfor25 days.MissSobelwrotereportsabouttheexperimentduringthattimewhichwere publishedinthenewspaper.InhisobservationtheFrenchastronomernoticedthattheleavesofacertainplantmaintaineditsopening-and-closingcycles
Musiccomesinmanyforms;most countrieshaveastyleoftheirown.1theturnofthe centurywhenjazzwasbornAmericahadnoprominent2of itsown.Nooneknowsexactlywhenjazzwas3orbywhom. Butitbegantobe4intheearly1900s.JazzisAmerica’s contributionto5music.Incontrasttoclassicalmusic which6formalEuropeantraditionsjazzisspontaneous andfree-form.Itbubbleswithenergy7themoods interestsandemotionsofthepeople.Inthe1920jazz8 likeAmerica.And9itdoestoday.The10 ofthismusicareasinterestingasthemusic11 .AmericanNegroesorblacksastheyarecalledtodaywerethejazz 12.TheywerebroughttotheSouthernstates13 slaves.Theyweresoldtoplantationownersandforcedtoworklong 14.WhenaNegrodiedhisfriendsandrelatives 15aprocessiontocarrythebodytothecemetery.InNew Orleansabandoftenaccompaniesthe16.Onthewayto thecemeterythebandplayedslowsolemnmusicsuitedtotheoccasion. 17onthewayhomethemoodchanged.Spiritslifted.Death hadremovedoneoftheir18butthelivingweregladto bealive.Thebandplayed19musicimprovisingonboth theharmonyandthemelodyofthetunes20atthefuneral. Thismusicmadeeveryonewanttodance.Itwasanearlyformof jazz.
GenerallyspeakingaBritishiswidely regardedasaquietshyandconservativepersonwhois1 onlyamongthosewithwhomheisacquainted.Whenastrangerisat presentheoftenseemsnervouseven2.Youhavetotake acommutertrainanymorningoreveningto3thetruthof this.Serious-lookingbusinessmenandwomensitreadingtheir newspapersordozinginacorner;hardlyanybodytalkssincetodosowouldbe consideredquite4.5 thereisanunwrittenbutclearlyunderstoodcodeofbehaviorwhich oncebrokenmakestheoffenderimmediatelytheobjectof6 .IthasbeenknownasafactthataBritishhasa 7forthediscussionoftheirweatherandthatifgivena chancehewilltalkaboutit8.Some peoplearguethatitisbecausetheBritishweatherseldom9 forecastandhencebecomesasourceofinterestand10 toeveryone.Thismaybeso.11a Britishcannothavemuch12intheweathermenwhoafter promisingfinesunnyweatherforthefollowingdayareoftenprovedwrong 13acloudovertheAtlanticbringsrainyweathertoall districts!Themaninthestreetseemstobeasaccurate—orasinaccurate—as theweathermeninhis14.Foreignersmay besurprisedatthenumberofreferences15weatherthat theBritish16toeachotherinthecourseofasingleday. Veryoftenconversationalgreetingsare17bycommentson theweather.Nicedayisn’titBeautiful!maywellbeheardinsteadof GoodmorninghowareyouAlthoughtheforeignermayconsiderthis exaggeratedandcomicitis18.pointingoutthatitcould beusedtohisadvantage.IfhewantstostartaconversationwithaBritishbut isatalosstoknow19tobeginhecoulddowellto mentionthestateoftheweather.Itisasafesubjectwhichwill20 ananswerfromeventhemostreservedofthe British.
[A]Mobilityofthiskindmeantalsomobilityofideastheir transferenceacrossfrontiersandtheirsimultaneousimpactuponmanygroupsof people.Thepointoflearningistoshareitwhetherwithstudentsorwith colleagues;onepresumesthatonlyeccentricshavenointerestinbeingcredited withastartlingdiscoveryoranewtechnique.Itmustalsohavebeen reassuringtoknowthatotherpeopleinotherpartsoftheworldwereaboutto makethesamediscoveryorwerethinkingalongthesamelinesandthatonewas notquitealoneconfrontedbyinquisitionridiculeorneglect. [B]Scholarsandstudentshavealwaysbeengreattravelers.Thecasefor academicmobilityisnowoftenstatedinimpressivetermsasafundamental necessityforeconomicandsocialprogressintheworldbutitiscertainly nothingnew.Seriousstudentswerealwaysreadytogoabroadinsearchofthe moststimulatingteachersandthemostfamousacademies;insearchofthepurest philosophythemosteffectivemedicinethelikeliestroadtogold. [C]Apartfromthevehicleitselfitisfairlyeasytoidentifythemain factorswhichhavebroughtabouttherecentexplosioninacademicmovement.Some ofthesearepurelyquantitativeandrequirenofurthermention:therearefar morecentersoflearningandafargreaternumberofscholarsand students.[D]Butasthespecializationshaveincreasedin numberandnarrowedinrangetherehadbeenanoppositemovementtowards interdisciplinaryStudies.Theseowemuchtothebeliefthatonecannotproperly investigatetheincrediblycomplexproblemsthrownupbythemodernworldand byrecentadvancesinourknowledgealongthenarrowfrontofasingle discipline.ThistrendhasledtoagreatdealOfacademiccontactbetween disciplinesandafargreateremphasisonthepoolingofspecialistknowledge reflectedinthebroadsubjectschoseninmanyinternational conferences.[E]Frequentlythesespecializationslieinareas whereveryrapiddevelopmentsaretakingplaceandalsowheretheresearch neededfordevelopmentsisextremelycostlyandtakesalongtime.Itis preciselyintheseareasthattheadvantagesofcollaborationandsharingof expertiseappearmostevident.Associatedwiththisisthegrowthofspecialist periodicalswhichenablescholarstobecomeawareofwhatishappeningin differentcentersofresearchandtomeeteachotherinconferencesand symposia.Fromthesemeetingscomethepersonalrelationshipswhichareatthe bottomofalmostallformalizedschemesofcooperationandprovidethemwith theirmostsatisfactorystimulus.[F]Inthetwentiethcentury andparticularlyinthelast20yearstheoldfootpathsofthewandering scholarshavebecomevasthighways.Thevehiclewhichhasmadethispossiblehas ofcoursebeentheaeroplanemakingcontactbetweenscholarseveninthemost distantplacesimmediatelyfeasibleandprovidingfortheveryrapid transmissionofknowledge.[G]Inadditiononemustrecognize theveryconsiderablemultiplicationofdisciplinesparticularlyinthe scienceswhichbywideningthetotalareaofadvancedstudieshasproducedan enormousnumberofspecialistswhoseparticularinterestsarepreciselydefined. Thesepeoplewouldworkinsomeisolationiftheywerenotabletokeepintouch withsimilarisolatedgroupsinothercountries.作图
InPlato’sUtopiaherearethreeclasses:thecommonpeople thesoldiersandtheguardianschosenbythelegislator.Themainproblemas Platoperceivesistoinsurethattheguardiansshallcarryouttheintention ofthelegislator.Forthispurposethefirstthingheproposesis education.Educationisdividedintotwopartsmusicand gymnastics.46Eachhasawidermeaningthanatpresent:musicmeans everythingthatisintheprovinceofthemusesandgymnasticsmeans everythingconcernedwithphysicaltrainingfitness.Musicisalmostas wideaswhatisnowcalledcultureandgymnasticsissomewhatwiderthan whatathleticsmeaninthemodernsense.Cultureistobe devotedtomakingmengentlemeninthesensewhichlargelyowingtoPlatois familiarinEngland.TheAthensofhisdaywasinonerespectanalogousto Englandinthenineteenthcentury:47therewasineachanaristocracy enjoyingwealthandsocialprestigebuthavingnomonopolyofpoliticalpower; andineachthearistocracyhadtosecureasmuchpowerasitcouldbymeansof impressivebehavior.InPlato’sUtopiahoweverthearistocracyrules unchecked.Gravitydecorumandcourageseemtobethequalities mainlytobecultivatedineducation.48Thereistobearigidcensorship fromveryearlyyearsovertheliteraturetowhichtheyounghaveaccessandthe musictheyareallowedtohear.Mothersandnursesaretotelltheir childrenonlyauthorizedstories.Alsothereisacensorshipofmusic.The LydianandIonianharmoniesaretobeforbiddenthefirstbecauseitexpresses sorrowthesecondbecauseitisrelaxed.49OnlytheDorianforcourage andthePhrygianfortemperancearetobeallowedandpermissiblerhythms mustbesimpleandsuchasareexpressiveofacourageousandharmonious life.Asforgymnasticsthetrainingofthebodyistobe veryaustere.Nooneistoeatfishormeatcookedotherwisethanroastedand theremustbenosaucesorcandies.Peoplebroughtuponhisregimenhesays willhavenoneedofdoctors.Gymnasticsappliestothetrainingofmindas well.Uptoacertainagetheyoungaretoseenouglinessorvice.50But atasuitablemomenttheymustbeexposedtoenchantmentsbothintheshape ofterrorsthatmustnotterrifyandofbadpleasuresthatmustnotseducethe will.Onlyaftertheyhavewithstoodthesetestswilltheybejudgedfitto beguardians.
Text3 Fatehasnotbeenkindtothewestern greywhale.Itsnumbershavedwindledto130orsoleavingitcritically endangeredintheeyesoftheInternationalUnionfortheConservationof Nature.Fishing-netsspeedingshipspollutionandcoastaldevelopmentthreaten thefewthatremain.Mostrecentlydrillingforoilandgasintheirmain summerfeedinggroundsnearSakhalinislandoffRussia’sPacificcoasthas broughtfreshrisksforthelucklesscreatures.Yettherushtodevelop Sakhalin’soffshorefieldsmayyetbethesaviourofthespecies. Whendrillingwasfirstdiscussedinthe1990sthereweremuted complaints.WhenaconsortiumcalledSakhalin.EnergyledbyRoyalDutchShell announcedplanstobuildanoilplatformandlaypipelinesintheonlybaywhere thewhaleswereknowntocongregatetheseprotestsproliferated. Inresponsetheconsortiumestablishedanindependentpaneltoadviseit onhowbesttoprotectthewhalesandpromisedtofunditswork.Itsubsequently agreedtochangetherouteofthepipelineatthepanel’ssuggestionalthough itrefusedtomovetheplatformasothercriticshaddemanded.Italsoagreed eithertofollowthepanel’srecommendationsinfutureortoexplainpublicly whyitwasrejectingthem.Theplatformsandpipelinesarenow complete.SakhalinEnergyexporteditsfirstcargoofliquefiednaturalgaslast week.TheprojectsaysShellisanengineeringtriumphandacommercial successdespiteallthecontroversy.Buthasitbeenasuccess forthewhalesSakhalinEnergysaystheirnumberseemstobegrowingby2.5%a yearalthoughIanCraigthefirm’sbossadmitsthatthecausemightbe greaterscrutinyratherthanpopulationgrowth.Thescientistsonthepanel stillseemworried.Theycomplainthatthefirmhasnotalwaysprovidedthe informationtheyneedtoassessthethreattothewhales.Italsohasnotalways followedadvicethescientists’adviceabouthownoisyconstructionmightscare theanimalsawayforexampleorthespeedthatboatsshouldtraveltominimize theriskofhittingthewhales.Thescientistswarnthatthelossofjustafew fertilefemaleswouldbeenoughtotipthepopulationintoirrevocabledecline. Lastsummerthereseemedtobefarfewerwhalesaroundthannormal. OntheotherhandthepanelknowsthisonlybecauseSakhalinEnergyfunds lotsofresearchonthewhales.Asaresultithasdiscoveredthattheyhavea widerrangethanoriginallythoughtwhichmightexplainwhysofewofthem showedupoffSakhalinislandlastyear.Thereforeitishard toescapetheconclusionthatforcreatureswithalotassorryasthewestern greywhaleanearbyoilprojectissomethingofa blessing.Scientistsaresurethat
[A]Mobilityofthiskindmeantalsomobilityofideastheir transferenceacrossfrontiersandtheirsimultaneousimpactuponmanygroupsof people.Thepointoflearningistoshareitwhetherwithstudentsorwith colleagues;onepresumesthatonlyeccentricshavenointerestinbeingcredited withastartlingdiscoveryoranewtechnique.Itmustalsohavebeen reassuringtoknowthatotherpeopleinotherpartsoftheworldwereaboutto makethesamediscoveryorwerethinkingalongthesamelinesandthatonewas notquitealoneconfrontedbyinquisitionridiculeorneglect. [B]Scholarsandstudentshavealwaysbeengreattravelers.Thecasefor academicmobilityisnowoftenstatedinimpressivetermsasafundamental necessityforeconomicandsocialprogressintheworldbutitiscertainly nothingnew.Seriousstudentswerealwaysreadytogoabroadinsearchofthe moststimulatingteachersandthemostfamousacademies;insearchofthepurest philosophythemosteffectivemedicinethelikeliestroadtogold. [C]Apartfromthevehicleitselfitisfairlyeasytoidentifythemain factorswhichhavebroughtabouttherecentexplosioninacademicmovement.Some ofthesearepurelyquantitativeandrequirenofurthermention:therearefar morecentersoflearningandafargreaternumberofscholarsand students.[D]Butasthespecializationshaveincreasedin numberandnarrowedinrangetherehadbeenanoppositemovementtowards interdisciplinaryStudies.Theseowemuchtothebeliefthatonecannotproperly investigatetheincrediblycomplexproblemsthrownupbythemodernworldand byrecentadvancesinourknowledgealongthenarrowfrontofasingle discipline.ThistrendhasledtoagreatdealOfacademiccontactbetween disciplinesandafargreateremphasisonthepoolingofspecialistknowledge reflectedinthebroadsubjectschoseninmanyinternational conferences.[E]Frequentlythesespecializationslieinareas whereveryrapiddevelopmentsaretakingplaceandalsowheretheresearch neededfordevelopmentsisextremelycostlyandtakesalongtime.Itis preciselyintheseareasthattheadvantagesofcollaborationandsharingof expertiseappearmostevident.Associatedwiththisisthegrowthofspecialist periodicalswhichenablescholarstobecomeawareofwhatishappeningin differentcentersofresearchandtomeeteachotherinconferencesand symposia.Fromthesemeetingscomethepersonalrelationshipswhichareatthe bottomofalmostallformalizedschemesofcooperationandprovidethemwith theirmostsatisfactorystimulus.[F]Inthetwentiethcentury andparticularlyinthelast20yearstheoldfootpathsofthewandering scholarshavebecomevasthighways.Thevehiclewhichhasmadethispossiblehas ofcoursebeentheaeroplanemakingcontactbetweenscholarseveninthemost distantplacesimmediatelyfeasibleandprovidingfortheveryrapid transmissionofknowledge.[G]Inadditiononemustrecognize theveryconsiderablemultiplicationofdisciplinesparticularlyinthe scienceswhichbywideningthetotalareaofadvancedstudieshasproducedan enormousnumberofspecialistswhoseparticularinterestsarepreciselydefined. Thesepeoplewouldworkinsomeisolationiftheywerenotabletokeepintouch withsimilarisolatedgroupsinothercountries.作图
Musiccomesinmanyforms;most countrieshaveastyleoftheirown.1theturnofthe centurywhenjazzwasbornAmericahadnoprominent2of itsown.Nooneknowsexactlywhenjazzwas3orbywhom. Butitbegantobe4intheearly1900s.JazzisAmerica’s contributionto5music.Incontrasttoclassicalmusic which6formalEuropeantraditionsjazzisspontaneous andfree-form.Itbubbleswithenergy7themoods interestsandemotionsofthepeople.Inthe1920jazz8 likeAmerica.And9itdoestoday.The10 ofthismusicareasinterestingasthemusic11 .AmericanNegroesorblacksastheyarecalledtodaywerethejazz 12.TheywerebroughttotheSouthernstates13 slaves.Theyweresoldtoplantationownersandforcedtoworklong 14.WhenaNegrodiedhisfriendsandrelatives 15aprocessiontocarrythebodytothecemetery.InNew Orleansabandoftenaccompaniesthe16.Onthewayto thecemeterythebandplayedslowsolemnmusicsuitedtotheoccasion. 17onthewayhomethemoodchanged.Spiritslifted.Death hadremovedoneoftheir18butthelivingweregladto bealive.Thebandplayed19musicimprovisingonboth theharmonyandthemelodyofthetunes20atthefuneral. Thismusicmadeeveryonewanttodance.Itwasanearlyformof jazz.
Text2 Inalmostallcasesthesoftpartsof fossilsaregoneforeverbuttheywerefittedaroundorwithinthehardparts. Manyofthemalsowereattachedtothehardpartsandusuallysuchattachments arevisibleasdepressedorelevatedareasridgesorgroovessmoothorrough patchesonthehardparts.Themusclesmostimportantfortheactivitiesofthe animalandmostevidentintheappearanceofthelivinganimalarethose attachedtothehardpartsandpossibletoreconstructfromtheirattachments. Muchcanbelearnedaboutavanishedbrainfromtheinsideoftheskullinwhich itwaslodged.Restorationoftheexternalappearanceofan extinctanimalhaslittleornoscientificvalue.Itdoesnotevenhelpin inferringwhattheactivitiesofthelivinganimalwerehowfastitcouldrun whatitsfoodwasorsuchotherconclusionsasareimportantforthehistoryof life.Howeverwhatmostpeoplewanttoknowaboutextinctanimalsiswhatthey lookedlikewhentheywerealive.Scientistsalsowouldliketoknow.Things likefossilshellspresentnogreatproblemasarulebecausethehardparts areexternalwhentheanimalisaliveandtheouterappearanceisactually preservedinthefossils.Animalsinwhichtheskeletonis internalpresentgreatproblemsofrestorationandhonestrestorersadmitthat theyoftenhavetouseconsiderableguessing.Thegeneralshapeandcontoursof thebodyarefixedbytheskeletonandbymusclesattachedtotheskeletonbut surfacefeatureswhichmaygivetheanimalitsreallycharacteristiclookare seldomrestorablewithanyrealprobabilityofaccuracy.Thepresentoftenhelps tointerpretthepast.Anextinctanimalpresumablylookedmoreorlesslikeits livingrelativesifithasany.Thishowevermaybequiteequivocal.For exampleextinctmembersofthehorsefamilyareusuallyrestoredtolook somewhatlikethemostfamiliarlivinghorses—domestichorsesandtheir closestwildrelatives.Itishoweverpossibleandevenprobablethatmany extincthorseswerestripedlikezebras.Iflionsandtigerswereextinctthey wouldberestoredtolookexactlyalike.Nolivingelephantshavemuchhairand mammothswhichareextinctelephantswoulddoubtlessberestoredashairless ifwedidnothappentoknowthattheyhadthickwoollycoats.Weknowthis onlybecausemammothsaresorecentlyextinctthatprehistoricmendrewpictures ofthemandthatthehideandhairhaveactuallybeenfoundinafewspecimens. Forolderextinctanimalswehavenosuchclues.Accordingtothepassagethesoftpartoffossilizedanimals
GenerallyspeakingaBritishiswidely regardedasaquietshyandconservativepersonwhois1 onlyamongthosewithwhomheisacquainted.Whenastrangerisat presentheoftenseemsnervouseven2.Youhavetotake acommutertrainanymorningoreveningto3thetruthof this.Serious-lookingbusinessmenandwomensitreadingtheir newspapersordozinginacorner;hardlyanybodytalkssincetodosowouldbe consideredquite4.5 thereisanunwrittenbutclearlyunderstoodcodeofbehaviorwhich oncebrokenmakestheoffenderimmediatelytheobjectof6 .IthasbeenknownasafactthataBritishhasa 7forthediscussionoftheirweatherandthatifgivena chancehewilltalkaboutit8.Some peoplearguethatitisbecausetheBritishweatherseldom9 forecastandhencebecomesasourceofinterestand10 toeveryone.Thismaybeso.11a Britishcannothavemuch12intheweathermenwhoafter promisingfinesunnyweatherforthefollowingdayareoftenprovedwrong 13acloudovertheAtlanticbringsrainyweathertoall districts!Themaninthestreetseemstobeasaccurate—orasinaccurate—as theweathermeninhis14.Foreignersmay besurprisedatthenumberofreferences15weatherthat theBritish16toeachotherinthecourseofasingleday. Veryoftenconversationalgreetingsare17bycommentson theweather.Nicedayisn’titBeautiful!maywellbeheardinsteadof GoodmorninghowareyouAlthoughtheforeignermayconsiderthis exaggeratedandcomicitis18.pointingoutthatitcould beusedtohisadvantage.IfhewantstostartaconversationwithaBritishbut isatalosstoknow19tobeginhecoulddowellto mentionthestateoftheweather.Itisasafesubjectwhichwill20 ananswerfromeventhemostreservedofthe British.
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